Deliberative Assemblies
Many political conflicts are resolved in what Robert’s Rules of Order (1876 and many subsequent editions) calls “deliberative assemblies.” Each body follows its own procedures, intended to provide an orderly way to present views and make decisions.
Rules for seating, disciplining, and removing members and for conducting meetings in a fair and orderly fashion develop from four principles. First, the body must be a free agent limited only by its constitution, by-laws, and the laws of any state under which it operates. Second, the will of the majority is decisive. Third, all members must have equal rights to present their views. Fourth, the body itself must be protected against precipitous or repeated action. These principles have guided the evolution of meeting procedures as people devise ways to subvert their intent. For example, the requirement for super-majorities to change the constitution or to repeal a previous action derives from the last principle.Rules of order— Robert’s or some other—keep disputes reasonably civil most of the time and thus resolvable. They help people to control their emotions—or provide a basis for controlling those who cannot. They keep the focus on the issues and interests. This in turn makes it possible for people to oppose one another on some issues but to work together on others.
In developed political systems, the principal institutions that organize public opinion are political parties and interest groups. Political parties are primarily concerned with gaining control of government. They do so by building regional and national consensus, by direct political action, and by selecting viable candidates for office. In the US, they compete to gain power and the right to govern. When a party loses, it functions by challenging and criticizing the policies of the government and holds those in authority accountable for their actions.
Political parties are an important means of building consensus and domestic unity. In democratic systems, they do so by reconciling competing interests and demands. They process the multitude of diverse and conflicting interests and build them into a cohesive set of demands. This involves internal struggles for power that result in victories, defeats, and compromises among factions within the party (Amstutz 1982).Interest groups of every stripe on every issue consist of people with common views on issues of varying scope who try to influence government. They do not try to get people elected, but try to influence actions and policies of government without bearing the responsibility for the consequences. According to one typology, there are three main types:
· Anomic groups are spontaneous and unorganized, and may resort to demonstrations for lack of more effective methods or organizations. They are primarily associated with Third World countries with poorly developed political institutions but sometimes occur in fully developed democracies where they may signal breakdown or need for change (Chapter 10).
· Institutional groups represent the interests of establishments such as churches, corporations, farmers, labor unions, the military, and universities with recognized economic or social roles within the society.
· Associational groups are voluntary organizations that individuals join to promote shared interests, in part through political action. They do so through a formal organization with a well-organized professional staff. Each such group often spawns opposition groups, such as those supporting and opposing strong gun control laws, or those supporting and opposing abortion.
Interest groups exert influence in three main ways. The first is to lobby elected officials directly. The second is to shape the positions and platforms of political parties through contributions, participation in the development of party platforms, and support of candidates. The third is to shape and mobilize public opinion, and thus to affect the outcomes of elections and the positions the politicians take (Amstutz 1982).