Individual and Cultural Characteristics

Although group-based cultural patterns (e.g., individualism—collectivism) are important to understanding low- and high-context communication, individu­als within cultures develop personality tendencies toward conflict.

The independent construal of self emphasizes that each individual is unique, with specific feelings, motivations, and thoughts. Independents believe s/he can con­trol more outcomes in various situations (Markus & Kitayama, 1991). On the other hand, the interdependent construal of self emphasizes in-group connections, which includes recognizing where one belongs with respect to other people (Markus & Kitayama, 1991). Although people can adopt both dimensions of self­construal, one’s culture tends to place an emphasis on adopting an independent or an interdependent self. As one might anticipate, individualistic cultures promote its members to adopt an independent self-construal, whereas collectivistic cultures cultivate an interdependent self-construal. In this vein, Gudykunst, Matsumoto, Ting-Toomey et al. (1996) found that independent self-construals coincide with elements of individualistic cultures, whereas interdependent self-construals com­plement collectivistic cultures.

When one’s culture matches one’s self-construal, predictable conflict behav­iors emerge. Individualists with independent self-construals differ from collectiv­ists with interdependent self-construals (Oetzel & Ting-Toomey, 2006; Oetzel et al., 2001; Ting-Toomey, 2000; Ting-Toomey & Takia, 2006).

• Individualists tend to adopt an outcome-oriented model of conflict, where they emphasize solutions to problems. Collectivists adopt a more process-oriented view of conflict, where parties remain sensitive to each others’ need for a positive public image (or “positive face”) and need for autonomy (or “nega­tive face”).

• Individualists see conflict as a challenge to their personal goals. Collectivists tend to view conflict as a potential threat to face and to in-group versus out­group membership.

• Individualists focus on individual pride and self-esteem, individual emotions, and a sense of autonomy and power. Collectivists emphasize saving face, group harmony, and reciprocity of emotions, favors, and obligations.

• Individualists tend to manage the problem openly and directly, such that the issue under discussion takes precedence over the other person’s face needs. Collectivists try to manage problems in subtle and indirect ways so that both parties’ needs for integrity and autonomy are preserved.

• Individualists can become frustrated if conflicts are not managed openly and directly. Collectivists see conflict as a threat if substantive issues are discussed before face needs are properly managed.

• Individualists tend to use more competitive conflict strategies and tactics that reflect their desires to solve problems in a clear, direct, and open manner. Col­lectivists prefer indirect means of confrontation (e.g., hinting, avoidance).

• Individualists tend to view conflict as productive if they reach their goals using communication behavior that meets the other person’s expectations. Collectivists tend to view conflict as productive if both parties can claim they have won.

At the same time, however, not all self-construals match the underlying char­acteristics of one’s culture (Markus & Kitayama, 1991). People from an individu­alistic culture can adopt an interdependent self-construal, and people from collec- tivistic cultures might adopt an independent self-construal.

Why such culture/individual mismatches occur can be traced to several reasons, including the following two: (1) people adopt identities primarily based on their close social networks and relationships (friends, family, etc.), whose values can dif­fer from a majority of other cultural members; and (2) developmental changes lead people to modify their identities, including self-construals (e.g., a Chinese exchange student becomes more self-reliant during years of study in the US).