NOTES

1 An issue is the whole problem area addressed in a process of conflict resolution. The stakes represent the contested elements of the issue.

2 Issue construction may mean that the actors concerned accept an issue established by others or by themselves in earlier confrontations.

3 Of course, there are important exceptions to this general proposition. For example, the upstream country may be poorer and less developed than downstream nations. It may not have the capability and the resources to deal with its own pollution and forthat reason has a great incentive to cooperate with downstream nations in order to attain more capacity and resources.

4 Recall that post-negotiation may lead to a new round of pre-negotiation which, in turn, initiates a whole new loop of conflict resolution, for example, a new COP meeting in the climate talks (Spector and Zartman, 2003).