INDEX

abolition of slavery:

condemnation of, 107 founding momentand, 105-7 Ackerman, Bruce, 2, 3, 12, 93

American Constitutions, 63-4

American Revolution, consolidation

of, and, 64

frames of government, as, 63

see also United States Constitution

American founding, 108

American Revolution:

consolidation of and American

Constitutions, 64

legitimacy and, 61

American revolutionaries:

founding governments and, 61-2 legitimacy and, 61

Arendt, Hannah, 53-71

action and fabrication, on, 69

American Revolution and, 51, 56-7, 59,

69-70

communication, on, 70-1 constitution-making, on, 67-8, 70 fabrication, on see fabrication (Arendt) labour, on, 55

legitimacy, on, 66, 68-9 poverty, on, 55-6 reality, on, 65 revolution, on, 56-7 revolutionary consolidation and, 54-8 spontaneous councils, on, 60

Article 58 (2) (b) (Pakistan Constitution (1973)), 213

August 1991 coup (USSR), 151-2 Australian Constitution, 88-9

Australian conventions, use of in, 88

Westminster Parliament's enactment of, 88 authenticity and interpretation, 22-3 authoritarian period and Taiwanese constitutional identity, 187 authoritarian regime (Chile), 172-3 ‘availability' of founding moments, 108-9

Basic Law (Hong Kong) (1997), 35, 36

Article 23, 41

Article 81, Article 82 and Article 85, 36

Article 158, 42-3, 44, 158

Article 185, 36-7

Central People's Government's interpretation of, 41, 44

Chapter II, 36

Hong Kong local courts' interpretation of,40-1,42-3

NPCSC's interpretation of, 40-1, 44 ‘basiclaw’ (Israel), 118

Knesset adopts, 118

basic structure (Singapore), 45-8

Singapore court's interpretation of, 47-50 (case law)

wording of, 45-7 (case law)

Before the Revolution (Friedmann), 121-2 Ben-Gurion and the Constitution (Kedar), 121 Bill of Rights (Israel), history of, 116-20 Bill of Rights (Pakistan), 208-9

Brazil:

constitutionalism and constitution, 166-7 democracy and constitutional change, 168 democratisation in, 160-2, 163-70

1988 Constitution amended, 168-70 pluralism in Constituent Assembly of, 164-5 signature in, 177-8

British Mandatory regime:

Israeli legal system and, 127-8 legacy of, 127-8

Brun, Nathan, 120-1, 123, 128, 130

Cabinet of Minsters (Russia):

control of in Soviet republics, 157-8

Council of Ministers becomes, 150 expansion ofpowers, 151-2

Canadian Constitution, 89-91

making of, 89-90

Westminster Parliament enacted by,

88-9

Central People’s Government, 41,44

Chile:

authoritarian regime, 172-3

citizenship and founding moment, 176-7 elections in, 178

informal institutions in political

systems, 175

past's importance in, 175, 176

plebiscites, 172-3

public participation in, 177

signature in, 177-8

Chilean Constitution (1980), 162, 170-2

amendments to, 173-4

provisions of, 171-2

reform of, 174

transition to democracy, role in, 173-4

Chilean Constitutional Court and democratisation, 175-6

Chilean democratisation, 160-2, 170-7

Chilean Constitutional Court and, 175-6

Chilean Constitution's role in, 173-4 citizenship involvement in, 174-5 protected, 172, 174, 176

China:

elections suspended in, 186, 189

Hong Kong's autonomy decided by, 36 Chinese Communist Party (CCP), 183, 184, 186

1992 Consensus and, 189

Chinese constitutional identity, 180, 184-5, 186-7

constitutional amendments of, 188-9 judicial decisions and, 186-7, 188-9 KMT and, 186

weakening of, 189-90

citizen's rights in Taiwan, 191-2 committees of correspondence, 60 Commonwealth of Australia Constitution

Act 1900 see Australian Constitution Communist Party of the Soviet Union

(CPSu), 138-9

Gorbachev's reform of, 140-1

influence of decreases, 142-3

compacts:

1830s (US), 105-7

Mayflower, 59, 62, 106

concepts of founding moments, 159-60 Congress of People's Deputies (Russia), 141-2 consolidation and legitimacy, 58-61 Constituent Assembly (1987) (Brazil), 163, 164-5

Constituent Assembly (Pakistan), 206

constituent power, 28, 29

constituted power, distinguished from, 28 constitutional order, distinguished from, 28

founding moment and, 97-8 narratives-mediated conceptualised founding moment and, 29-30 constituted power distinguished from constituent power, 28 Constitution Act 1867 (Canada), 89 Constitution Act 1982 (Canada), 89-90 constitution-makers, 75-82

Canada, in, 90 characteristics of, 77-9 functions of, 74, 77 group's intention to be, 80 Imperial Parliament as, 89 information used by, 83-4 legal arguments and, 74 legal authority of, 76, 243 legal identity of, 75-7 legal relevance of, 243 necessity of, 80-2 constitution-making: agency of, 73-92 constitutional identity and, 181 ex-ante and ex-post, 221 historical (Canada), 90 Pakistan, in, 201-2 ratification and, 104 revolution and, 58-9

Russia, in, 133-58 uncertainty period (Russia) in, 134 waves (stages), 133-4

constitutional:

change and Brazilian democracy, 168 endurance, 196-7

interpretation, 23 law (Israeli), 118-19 politics and founding moments, 94-5 revision and judicial interpretation, 182 stickiness, 134-5

constitutional authorship, 20-1 historicist's and normativist's view and approach of, 20-1 constitutional identity, 11-12, 181-3 Chinese see Chinese constitutional identity concept of, 183 constitution-making and, 181 definition, 193

EU and, 183

parallel, 196-8

Taiwanese see Taiwanese constitutional identity

constitutional moment, 12

Brazil, of, 165-6

founding moments (India), of, 3 constitutional norms, 15-16, 25-6

historical facts and interpretation

of, 17-18

constitutional order:

constituent power, distinguished from, 28 ending of, 109

founding moment and, 18-19, 22, 26, 108-10, 245

narratives' roles in, 29

nomos and, 25-6

constitutional texts:

historical material can be evidence

of, 84

pragmatism and (Hong Kong and Singapore), 33-5 constitutional theory:

fact and norm and, 14-21

founding moments and, 16-17

constitutionalism:

Brazil Constitution and, 166-7 gray zone (Pakistan), 213-14, 215-16 Islam and, 210-11

resurgent see resurgent constitutionalism types of in Latin America, 160 constitutionalism and founding moments,

11-31,240-1,247 constitutions:

gender perspective in (Iraq), 223-4 historical material used in, 82-3

Hong Kong, in see Hong Kong Constitution ‘interim' (Pakistan), 214-15

printed, 54

Singapore, in see Singapore Constitution

US, ratified by conventions, 85-7 constitutions' authors, 73-92 conventions:

Australian and Australian Constitution, 88

US Constitution, ratified for, 85-7 debate concerning meaning of, 101-4

Council of Ministers (Russia), 138 appointment of, 142

Cabinet of Ministers, becomes, 150

Gorbachev's attempts to control, 156-7 councils, spontaneous, 60

Court of Final Appeal (Hong Kong), autonomy limited, 37

courts:

foundational texts, role in clarifying (Singapore), 50-1 high courts (Pakistan), 208-9 Hong Kong, in see Hong Kong courts Israeli, treatment of basic law by, 117 Singapore, of see Singapore courts

Cover, Robert, 12-13

interpretation, on, 23-5 cultural identity and judicial review, 197-8

Declaration of the Establishment of the State of Israel (1948), 78

founding moment of, 113-31 democracy:

Brazilian and constitutional change, 168 transition to (Brazil and Chile), 161-2 democratic constitutionalism (Brazil), 166-8

Democratic Progressive Party (DPP), 187, 188

democratisation:

instability in (Latin America), 160-1 resistance to (Pakistan), 206

detention orders (Singapore), review of, 49 dictatorship to democracy transitions (Latin America), 160 drug-trafficking, 45-7 (case law) 1830s Compact (US):

founding moments and, 105-7

US Constitution and, 106

Eighteenth Constitutional Amendment (Pakistan), 219-20

developments after, 220

elections:

Chile, in, 178

China, in, 196, 189

Iraq, in, 225-6, 232

Israel, in, 116, 121

LEGCO (Hong Kong), of, 41-2 Pakistan, in, 212, 216-19, 222 parliamentary elections (Soviet republics), 153-6

presidential (US) (1800-1), 98

Soviet Union, in, 137, 142, 147, 153-5

Supreme Soviet, for, 150-1

Taiwan, in, 190, 192

European Union (EU) and constitutional identity, 183

executive presidency (Russia), creation

of, 143

fabrication (Arendt), 55, 66-7, 68-9 action and, 69

American revolutions and, 69-70 legitimacy and, 61-71 speech acts and, 70

fact and norm, 11-31

constitutional theory and, 14-21 federal and state government's relative authority, 102-3

Federal Constitution (US) and the people, 98 federalism: 63, 83, 100

constitution-making and, 86

1800 presidential election (US) and, 98-9 1830s Compact and, 106-7 federal government considered, 104 Indian territories and, 208, 209-10 McCulloch v Maryland (1819) and, 100-1 Pakistan, in, 209, 219

Federalists and US Constitution, 100 Founding Acts: Constitutional (Origins in a Democratic Age (Tekin), 4 ‘foundingfathers’, 73-92, 110, 130, 156, 198 Friedmann, Daniel, 121-2, 123, 126 ‘Friend of the Constitution, A’ essays, 102-3 ‘Fundamental Rights’ (Pakistan), 208-9 courts' right to enforce, 209

General Federation of Iraqi Women, 234 Gorbachev:

coup against (1991), 151-2 election as President (March 1990),

147-8

proposal for Soviet Presidency accepted,

147

reform plans (1985-8), 140-1

Soviet Presidency, resistance to, 144-5 Government of India Act 1935, 205-6 governments:

federal government, defence of, 100-1 (case law)

formation of by American revolutionaries, 61-2

frames of and American Constitutions, 63 Governor General (Pakistan), 206 Great Bank Case see McCulloch v Maryland group agency, 79-80

project goal supported, 80

groups, ephemeral and institutional, 79-80

Hagopian, Frances on Brazilian democratisation, 163-4

Harari Resolution, 116-17

Hartian legal positivism, 77 historical fact:

founding moments and, 14-15 interpretation of constitutional norms and, 17-18

historical materials:

constitutional text, evidence as, 84 constitutions, used in, 82 legal significance of, 85

historicists:

constitutional authorship, views on, 21 founding moments and, 21

Hong Kong, autonomy of decided

by China, 36

Hong Kong Constitution, 33-51

Hong Kong courts, 40-4

Basic Law interpreted, 40-1

local courts interpretation of Basic Law,

42-3

NPCSC interpretations and, 42-3,43-4 Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, founding of, 35-7 honour killings, 230-1 ‘Horatius’ essay series (US), 99-100 human rights:

1950s Israeli jurisprudence, and, 124-5 1980s Israeli Courts' consideration of, 126-7 ‘hybrid regimes’ (Pakistan), 213-14

Imperial Parliament (UK):

Australian Constitution, enactment of, 88 constitution-maker, as, 89

implied powers, 101-2 (case law) India, constitutional moments and founding moments, 3

informal institutions in Chile’s political system, 175

instability in democratisation (Latin America), 160-1 interpretation, 22-7

authenticity and, 22-3 constitutional, 23

Cover on, 23-5

legal, 23

Interpretation No.

elections in, 225-6, 232

founding moments and, 4, 223-38 gender perspective of constitutions, 223-4

post-Saddam, 235-7

Iraqi children:

fathers' custody of, 230

mothers' custody of, 230

Iraqi Constitution 1925:

amendment of(1958),227-8 consequences of, 225 historical setting, 224-5 men and women's political rights under, 225-6

Iraqi Constitution 1958, 232

Iraqi Constitution 1964, 232

Iraqi courts, structure of, 229

Iraqi state, ‘pillars of', 225

Iraqi women:

custody rights for children, 230 enfranchisement in 1950s, 226-7 equality in inheritance, 234 legal system pre-1958 and, 228-31 legislative process, participation in, 233 personal status of, 229-30

political rights constitutional amendment (1958), 228

political rights post-1958, 231-2

politics, exclusion from, 226

rights of, 225-8, 235-6

suffrage of, 227, 232

Iraqi Women's Union (1945), 226

Islam and constitutionalism, 210-11 Islamic principles and socio-economic restructuring, 211

Israeli Constituent Assembly, 116-17 Israeli constitution, lack of, 118

Israeli constitutional law (1950s), assessment of, 122

Israeli ‘Constitutional Revolution', 114

assessmentof, 128-9

literature on, 114, 120-4

US Constitution, lack of support for, 119 Israeli Constitutionalism (1950s), criticism of, 123-4

Israeli Courts (1950s), 125

Israeli Courts (1980s), 125-7

human rights issues considered, 126-7 political issues considered, 125-6 public policy issues considered, 126

Israeli-Diceyan constitutional model, assessment of, 122

Israeli judiciary (1950s), assessment of, 122-3

Israeli jurisprudence (1950s), 124-5

characteristics of, 124

human rights and, 124-5

Israeli law, assessment of, 129

Israeli legal history, assessment of, 130

Israeli legal system and British Mandatory regime, 127-8

Israeli politics and law, assessment of, 129-31

Jewish People's Council, legal powers of, 78 Jinnah, Muhammad Ali, 202 judicial engagement in Taiwan, 198 judicial interpretation and constitutional revision, 182

judicial review:

culturalidentityand, 197-8

Singapore courts and, 48-50 (case law) jurispathic relationships, 22

Jurisprudence of Original Intention, 108

Kedar, Nir, 121

Khan, Ayub, General, 207

Knesset (Israeli Parliament), 117

‘basic laws' adopted, 118 constitution checks on, 119-20 (case law) parliamentary supremacy (Diceyan), challenges to, 118

Kuomintang (KMT), 183, 184, 185, 187, 190, 199

Chinese constitutional identity and, 186 1992 Consensus and, 189

ROC Constitution and, 196-8

Latin America founding moments, 159-78 law:

Israeli, courts' treatment of, 117 nomos, as, 24

Law, Passions and Politics, (Brun),

120-1

Lawyers' Movement (Pakistan), 219

League for the Defence of Women's

Rights (Iraq) (1952), 226

legal arguments and constitution-makers, 74 legal authority:

constitution-makers, of, 76 recognition of, 77-8

legal pluralism, 23-4

Legislative Council (LEGCO) (Hong Kong), election of chief executive and members, 41-2

legitimacy, 60-1

American Revolution and, 61 consolidation and, 58-61 constitution-making, of (Arendt), 70 constitutional (US), 94

fabrication and, 61-71

legal, 76-7

moral, 76-7

revolutionaries and, 61

sociological, 76

Locke, John, 95-6

marriage (Iraq), reform of (1959 and 1978), 233, 234

Marshall, John, 99, 101, 102-3, 104

Marx, Karl on revolution, 57-8

Mayflower Compact, 59, 62, 106 McCulloch v Maryland (1819), 100-4 case details, 100

military dominance (Pakistan), 216-17 minority groups and founding moments, 245-6

modern age separated from past, 64 Movement for the Restoration of Democracy (MRD), 218

Musharraf, General Pervez, 213

military coup (1999), 218-19

narrative legitimacy:

constitutional theories’, views of, 241-2 constitutionalism and founding moments (Hong Kong and Singapore), 242-3

founding moments, in, 241-4

narratives:

constitutional nomos and, 24-5

constitutional order, role in, 25-6, 29 founding moments and, 22-7, 31 persuasion and, 25

National Assembly (Iraq), 232 national identity, 181

National Intelligencer (US paper), 98 National Security legislation (Hong Kong), enactment of, 41

natural science, basis of thought, 64-5 1992 Consensus (China), 189

CCP support for, 189

KMT support for, 189

nomos, 12-13, 97, 109-10

constitutional, 25-6

constitutional and narratives, 24-5

constitutional order and, 25-6

definition, 24

founding moments imagined in constitutional, 21-30

law as, 24

‘Nomos and Narrative' (Cover), 13

normativism:

constitutional order and founding movement, 18-19

founding moment and, 19 normativists and constitutional authorship, 20

norms:

constitutional, 15-16, 25-6

fact and see fact and norm

founding moments as, 19

one-China paradigm, 190, 194 one-China policy, 189, 190

‘one country two systems' principle (Hong Kong), 35-6, 37

One Unit (Pakistan), disbandment

of, 209

originalism (Aus), 89, 198 OrtuzarCommittee, 170-1

Pakistan:

centre-region relations, 209-10 constitution-making in, 201-2 elections, in, 212, 216-19

ethnic and geographical divisions, effect of, 206-7

founding moment, 201-22

judiciary, political rise of, 218 military regimes, 212-13 pre-constitution developments, 205-7 President, 208

Pakistan Constitution 1956, 205, 207

Pakistan Constitution 1962, 205, 207 Pakistan Constitution 1973, 203

Article 58 (2) (b), 213

background to, 202-3

Eighteenth Constitutional Amendment,

219-20

evaluation of, 203-4

features of, 208-9

General Zia-ul-Haq and, 217-18 political change and, 211-12 political parties' identification with, 218 significance of, 203

state under, 210-12

‘paradigm case interpretation' (Rubenfeld), 19

Pashtun Tahafuz Movement (PTM), 222 past, the:

breaking with, 58

confronting of in Brazil, 168

founding moment and, 134

importance of in Chile, 175, 176 modern age separated from, 64 present and, 94, 95-8, 109 path-dependency (Russia), 135-7 sequencing path-dependency, 135-6 people, the, 96

Federal Constitution (US) and, 98 participation in ratification, 101

People's Republic of China (PRC), 180, 186,

189, 192, 196 legislative body (NPCSC), 36-7,40-4 Taiwanand, 196, 243, 245, 246 personal status (Iraq), 2003 changes,

236-7

Personal Status Law (1959) (Iraq), 233 abolition of, 236 amendment of (1963), 233-4

persuasion and narratives, 25 Philadelphia Convention (1787), 85-7 Pinckney, Henry Laurens, 106 Pinochet, General Augusto, 172-3 plebiscites (Chile), 172-3 pluralism (Brazil):

Constituent Assembly, in, 164-5 stability and, 167-8 strength of, 170 polis, 54-5 political elite interests (Brazil), 163-4 political liberation (China and Taiwan), 187-93

popular constitutionalism (Taiwan), 192 post-liberal constitutionalism (Latin

America), 160

power of recognition, 96-7 pragmatism and constitutional texts

(Hong Kong and Singapore),

33-5

present and past, 94, 95-8, 109 presidentialism:

American model, 145-6

French style, 146 models of, 145-6

Prime Minister (Pakistan), 208

Prime Minister (Russia):

creation of post, 151 expansion ofpowers, 151-2 protected democracy (Chile), 172, 174, 176 ‘public interest litigation'(PIL) (Pakistan),

203

public opinion and US Constitution,

98-9

public participation (Chile), 177

public policy (Israeli), Israeli courts

consider, 126

Purse and the Sword, The: The Trials of the Israeli Legal Revolution (Friedmann), 121-2

ratification, people's participation in, 101 reality, 65

external, 64

material, 24 political, 44, 182, 212

referendums on Australian Constitution,

88-9

relational view of founding moment, 30-1

Report Upon the Subject of Slavery in the

District of Columbia (Pickney), 106

Republic of China Constitution (ROC

Constitution), 180-1, 183-4 authoritarian period of, 186-7 constitutional identities, in, 183-95 founding moment of, 184-5 Taiwanese constitutional identity

and, 195, 196

Resolution 137, 236-7

resurgent constitutionalism:

constitutional reversal and, 221-2 ex ante and ex post elements, 216-17 Pakistan, in, 215, 220

revolution:

foundation and, 53-71 founding moment and, 1-2

Marx on, 57-8

revolutions and constitution-making, 58-9

Rhode Island's Royal Charter (1663), 63 Roane, Spencer (Hampden essays), 103-4 rule of recognition, 77, 78-9

Russian constitution-making, 133-58

science:

certainty and, 65 modern and natural, 64

secessionist movements and founding moments, 245-6 semi-presidentialism:

French-style, 146 separation of powers, 157

Soviet, 95, 136, 143, 151, 156

Senate (Pakistan) established, 210 separation of powers:

Russia, in, 149-50

semi-presidential of, 157

Singapore courts' ruling on, 47-8 (case law) sequencing path-dependency, 135-6 sigfurture:

Brazil, in, 177-8

Chile, in, 177-8

Singapore Constitution, 33-51

amendment of, 39,44-5

‘basic structure' see basic structure (Singapore)

development of, 37-8

Singapore courts and, 44-50 supremacy of tested (1989), 39-40

(case law)

Singapore constitutional identity, 38-9 Singapore courts:

judicial review and, 48-50 (case law) separation of powers ruling, 47-8

(case law)

Singapore Constitution and, 44-50 slavery:

abolition of see abolition of slavery defence of (US), 105

social contract tradition and founding moment, 95-6

socio-economic re-structuring and Islamic principles, 211

Soviet legislature, democratisation

of, 141-2

Soviet presidency:

creation of, 144-8

Gorbachevelected (March 1990), 147-8

Gorbachev's proposal for accepted, 147

Gorbachev's resistance to, 144-5 negotiations, 146-7

Republics, in, 152-6

Soviet Presidents' powers:

additional powers sought, 149 limitation of, 148

March to September 1990, 148-9

Soviet Presidents’ roles in Republics, 156

Soviet Republics:

constitutional development of, 152-8 control of Cabinet of Ministers, 157-8 Parliamentary elections in, 153-6 presidency in, 152-6

Presidents' roles in, 156

Soviet semi-presidentialism, 143

Soviet Union:

constitution, draft of, 145 constitution-making, overview, 136-7 constitutional structure, 137-40 elections in, 127

government of, 139-40

speech acts, 71

fabrication and, 70 stability in democratisation, Latin America, 160-1

Standing Committee of the National People’s

Congress (NPCSC), 36

Basic Law, interpretation of, 40-1,44 Hong Kong courts, referral to, 42-3 interpretations, Hong Kong courts' response

to, 43-4

state and federal governments, relative authority of, 102-3

State of Israel, foundation of, 116 state under Pakistan Constitution (1973),

210-12

Supreme Court (Brazil), constitutionalism

of, 169

Supreme Court (Pakistan), 208-9

Supreme Soviet, 137-8 composition of, 142 elections for, 150 re-structuring of, 141

Taiwan:

citizens' rights in, 191-2 constitutional amendments, 189 constitutional and national identities, interaction between, 193-5 elections in, 190, 192 judicial engagement in, 198 popular constitutionalism in, 192 PRC and, 196, 243, 245, 246

Taiwan Province, repeal of, 190

Taiwanese constitutional identity,

182-3,185, 194-5 authoritarian period, in, 187 constitutional amendments, 190-1 development of, 189-93 reasons for formation of, 193-4 ROC Constitution and, 195, 196 Taiwanese cultural identity, 179-99 judicial decisions, effect of, 191

Temporary Provisions (Taiwan),

186, 189-90

timing in founding moments, 244-5 transformational authoritarian

constitutions, 162

Tribal Criminal and Civil Disputes

Regulation (TCCDR)

(Iraq), 229

abolition of, 233

tribal law (Iraq), reinstatement of, 235-6

uncertainty periods, 134

United States (US):

constitutional history, 93-111

1830s Compact, 105-7

Federal Constitution and the people, 98 founding moments in, 2-3 slavery, defence of, 105

United States Constitution, 81, 85-7 debate concerning meaning of, 101-4 drafting of, 85-6 1830s Compact and, 106 federalists and, 100

interpretation of and construction of written materials, 87

public opinion and, 98-9

published essays about, 103

ratified by conventions, 85-7

written materials, significance of, 87

United States electoral crisis (1800-1),

98-100

newspaper debates on, 98-9

Vice Presidency (Russia), creation of,

150-1

‘We, the People', 96, 179, 187, 190

Westminster Parliament (UK), 91

Australian Constitution enacted

by, 88

Canadian Constitution enacted

by, 88-9

women’s freedom and founding moments (Iraq), 4

Women’s League (Iraq), 232, 234

written materials

interpretation and construction of, 87 United States Constitution, significance of in, 87

Yishuv (Jewish population), 116

Zia-ul-Haq, General, 212-13

1973 Pakistan Constitution and, 217-18

MEL A TOPF

This chapter investigates the relations of revolutionary consolidation to the American constitutional founding. The concepts of consolidation and augmenta­tion have received little attention in relation to the central question of constitutional legitimacy.

I believe that within her political thought on what for her was the uniquely success­ful consolidation of the American Revolution lies an explanation for that success that she herself does not expressly offer. Further, Arendt's thinking may be a useful launchpad in considering the dynamics of founding moments.

The historical barriers to the successful consolidation of revolutionary acts are a function of negotiating the extraordinarily difficult relation of revolution to legitimacy. Arendt's theory of foundation reflects the vexed relation of founding to legitimacy and to the order of stability. Arendt is not considered as a thinker of order but as a thinker of... revolutionary beginnings.'^{* 1} I will look at the crea­tion of the early US state constitutions (those developed 1776 to 1780) in order to argue that their purported legitimacy as foundational revolutionary acts was grounded in what Arendt calls the modern identification of fabrication with action, with the consequent reliance on what she calls the ‘central position of

¹ Christian Volk, ‘The Decline of Order: Hannah Arendt and the Paradoxes of the Nation-State' in Seyla Benhabib (ed), Politics in Dark Times: Encounters with Hannah Arendt (Cambridge University Press, 2010) 173.

SIMON GILHOOLEY

[A]nd then they begin to look after the history of their founders, and search into their original, when they have outlived the memory of it.^{* 1}

Constitutional theories predicated on a return to the founding are an American motif.

¹ John Locke, Second Treatise of Government and A Letter Concerning Toleration, Mark Goldie (ed) (Oxford University Press, 2016) 51.

² Edwin Meese, ‘The Attorney General’s View of the Supreme Court: Toward a Jurisprudence of Original Intention’ (1985) 45 Public Administration Review 701; Keith Whittington, ‘The New Origi- nalism’ (2004) 22 Georgetown Journal of Law & Public Policy 599; Bruce Ackerman, We The People: Foundations (Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1991).

³ Jack M Balkin, Living Originalism (Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2011).

MARYAM S KHAN^{* 1}

[W]hen we devoted ourselves to the task of making the Constitution, we resolved that we shall give a Constitution...

For Pakistan, as for India, decolonisation and the accompanying partition of the Subcontinent in 1947 were cataclysmic transformations. For both states, independence was a ‘constitutive’ or ‘founding moment’.³ But while India was successful in making a constitution in 1950, Pakistan descended into a constitu­tional impasse. And while India’s founding, despite the heavily elite-driven process of constitution-making, has been commemorated as a ‘people’s constitution’ because of its historical premise in the freedom movement against British colonial rule,⁴ Pakistan has attracted epithets like a ‘vice-regal system’,⁵ ‘constitu­tional autocracy’,⁶ ‘military-bureaucratic oligarchy’⁷ and ‘praetorian democracy’⁸

¹I would like to express my gratitude for the continuous and generous support of my colleagues at the Institute of Development and Economic Alternatives (IDEAS) in Pakistan, especially Osama Siddique, Faisal Bari and Rabea Malik, who engaged in impromptu discussions on this work on several occasions. Thank you also to the South Asia Legal Studies Working Group at the University of Wisconsin Law School for their critical input on an earlier draft.

² Abdul Hafeez Pirzada, Chairman of the Constitution Committee, Official Report of the Second Session of the National Assembly of Pakistan (Constitution-Making) Debates (1972) 11(1), 4.

³ Ted Svensson, Production of Post-colonial India and Pakistan: Meanings of Partition (Routledge, 2013)28-29.

⁴ Granville Austin, The Indian Constitution: Cornerstone of a Nation, 2nd edn (Oxford University Press, 1999); Arvind Elangovan, ‘The Making of the Indian Constitution: A Case for a Non-nationalist Approach’ (2014) 12(1) History Compass 1, 1.

⁵ GW Choudhury, ‘Democracy on Trial in Pakistan’ (1963) 17(1) Middle East Journal 1.

⁶Khalid Bin Sayeed, ‘Pakistan’s Constitutional Autocracy’ (1963-64) 36(4) Pacific Affairs 365.

⁷Hamza Alavi, ‘The State in Post-colonial Societies: Pakistan and Bangladesh’ (1972) 74 New Left Review 59.

⁸Hassan Nawaz Gardezi and Jamal Rashid (eds), Pakistan, The Roots of Dictatorship: The Political Economy of a Praetorian State (Zed Press, 1983).