Index

Aargau, 143

abortion ruling, 1973, 51

Accession Treaty, 267

Acts of Union of 1707, 197

ad hoc devolution, 206–12

administration of federal laws, 66–8

African Americans, voting rights, 50

age limits on voting, 50–1

aggregative federal systems, 11–12

aid for the needy, 54

Aktuelle Stunde (topical hour), 97

Alabama, 45, 46

Alberta, populist movements, 180–1

Albi, Anneli, 30–1

Amstad, Eduard, 143

Amsterdam Treaty, 258, 268

Andalusia, 228, 230

anti-government attitudes, 101, 180

Aosta Valley, 238, 245, 252n

Appenzell Ausser-Rhoden, 159

Appenzell Inner-Rhoden, 157

April Package of 2006, 125, 137n, 138n

Argentina, 13, 14, 16

asymmetry

between Entities, 112–13

federal systems, 5–6, 12–13

regionalism, Italy, 238

territorial power structure, Spain, 232–4

audit offices, 97–9

Australia

Commonwealth Constitution, 8

sovereignty, constitutional, 141

sub-national constitutions, 4

supervision of sub-national constitutions by federal systems, 9

Austria, 21–3

administrative efficiency, 14

Aktuelle Stunde (“topical hour”), 97

anti-federal attitudes, 101

audit offices, federal and Land, 97–9

Austrian Convention, 101–3

Basic Law of 1867, 94

Burgenland, 88 ; direct democracy, 96 ; elections, 100 ; investigations, requirements for, 99 ; state goals, 93

Burgstaller, Gabriele, 103

BZO, 103

Carinthia, 88, 103 ; elections, 100 ; investigations, requirements for, 99 ; state goals, 93–4

Christian-Social-Party, 88

citizen petitions, 91

competence clause (Kompetenztatbestand), 98

competencies, division of, 88, 101–4

Constitution, Federal (Bundes-Verfassungsgesetz, or B-VG) : Article 2 (federal state comprised of nine autonomous member states), 88 ; Article 10 (federal powers), 90 ; Article 10, paragraph 1, point 1 (competence of federal constitution), 95 ; Articles 10-15 (separation of legislative and executive powers between federation and members), 89 ; Article 15, paragraph 1 (competencies not explicitly transferred to federation), 90 ; Article 23 (European Union matters within competence of Länder), 93 ; Article 44, paragraph 3 (revision of constitution, requirement of approval by popular referendum), 89 ; Article 95 (election principles), 92–3 ; Article 96 (status of deputies), 92 ; Article 98 (legislative procedure in Länder), 92 ; Article 99 (fundamental rights), 95 ; Article 99 (relationship between federal and Länder constitutional law), 90–1 ; Article 101 (Land government elections and composition), 92 ; Article 117 (regulations for the capital, Vienna), 92 ; Article 118, paragraphs 2 (definition of local self-government) and 3 (local self-government, guaranteed matters), 92 ; Article 119a, paragraph 2 (financial management of municipalities), 98 ; Article 140, paragraphs 1 and 3 (judicial review of Land legislation before Constitutional Court), 93 ; Article 148a (office of Federal ombudsman), 100 ; principles, basic, 91–92 ; reference to European Union, 260 ; regulation of sub-national governments, 92 ; structural principles, 88–9

Constitutional Court, 10, 89–91, 93, 96, 100

constitutional space, 90, 95, 103

cooperation agreement, political parties, 102

direct democracy, 91, 92, 93, 95–7, 99

distribution of powers between federation and Länder, 89–91

education, 103

environmental protection, 94

European Convention on Human Rights, 94

European Union, 262, 280, 283, 289, 290, 292 ; membership, 101–2, 104n

“executive federalism,” 103

experimentation, constitutional, 103

experts, politicians and scholars, reform proposals by, 102–3

Faymann, Werner, 103

federal system : Federal Council, 89, 103 ; powers of, 88 ; reform of, 101–4

Fiedler, Franz, 103

finances : government relationships, 102 ; management, auditing of, 97–9

Freedom Party, 100, 103

fundamental rights, 94–5, 102

grand coalition, 102

Greens Party, 100, 103

Gusenbauer, Alfred, 102

homogeneity : clause, 9, 10, 14 ; of constitutions, 90–1

horizontal federalism, 103

human rights, 93–4

individual rights, 95

intergovernmental cooperation, 287

investigations by audit offices, requirements for, 99

Kohl, Andreas, 103

Kontrollamt office, 97–9

Kostelka, Peter, 103

Länder (member-states), 88 ; audit offices (Landesrechnungshofe), 97–9 ; autonomy, constitutional, 89–92 ; constitutions, structure and content, 92–3 ; distribution of powers between federation and Länder, 89–91 ; elections, 92–3 ; executive body, composition of, 100–1 ; majoritarian governments, 100–1 ; parliaments, 92–3, 96–7 ; political role of, 89 ; proportional representation, 100–1 ; public consultation, 96 ; referendum, 96 ; reforms of Länder constitutions, 90 ; “relative constitutional autonomy,” 91 ; social principles in state constitutions, 93–4 ; state goals, 93–4

Landeshauptleute (governors of the Länder), 89

legal positivism, 89, 94

Lienbacher, Georg, 103

Lower Austria, 88 ; direct democracy, 96 ; elections, 100 ; investigations, requirements for, 99 ; state goals, 93

municipalities, financial management of, 98

National Council, 89, 92, 102

Ohlinger, Theo, 103

ombudsman (Volksanwalt), 100

opposition parties, 103

OVP, 103

People’s Party, 100, 102

Political Agreement on the Reorganization of the Federation, 101

popular initiative, 96, 99

reforms, constitutional, federal, 101–4

Salzburg, 88, 90, 103 ; constitution, Article 10, paragraph 3 (right to property), 95 ; direct democracy, 96 ; elections, majority voting system, 100–1 : investigations, requirements for, 99 ; investigative committees, 97 ; state goals, 93–4

Sausgruber, Herbert, 103

separation of legislative and executive powers, 89

Social Democratic Party, 88, 100, 102–3

social justice, 93–5

SPO, 103

SPO/OVP grand coalition, 101

Structural Reform of Competencies of 1989 to 1994, 101–2

Structural Reform of the Federation, 101

Styria, 88, 90 ; direct democracy, 96 ; elections, 100 ; investigations, requirements for, 99

sub-national constitutions, 4

Tyrol, 88, 90 ; constitution.

Upper Austria, 88, 90, 93–4 ; direct democracy, 96 ; elections, 100 ; Law on the Land Audit Office, 99

veto-referendum, 96

Vienna, 88, 92, 93, 97–9 ; elections, majority voting system, 100–1

Vorarlberg, 10, 88, 90, 91, 99, 103 ; constitution, Article 11, paragraph 2 (right to property), 95 ; constitution, Article 12 (obligation to provide assistance in emergencies), 95 ; constitution, Article 33, paragraph 6 (citizen petitions), 91 ; direct democracy, 96 ; elections, majority voting system, 100–1 ; ombudsman office, 100 ; state goals, 93–4

voting age, 103

autonomy

Austria, Länder (member-states), 89–92

autonomy statutes, 5

Belgium, 25, 165, 166–71

Bosnia-Herzegovina, 115, 126

constituent units within federal systems, 7–8

Germany, Länder (states), 76–8

Italy, 238, 246

Spain, 218–30

United Kingdom, 195

avoidance, diffusion of innovations, 20

Baden-Württemberg, 76, 79–80

Baier, Gerald, 25–6, 174–92

balanced budgets, 77

Balearic Islands, 233

Balkans, Western, Stabilisation and Association Agreements, 261

Baltic States, constitutions, reference to European Union, 260

Banana case, 272

banks and corporations, political privileges of, 53–4

Basel-Landschaft, 153

constitution, Article 115, paragraph 2 (avoidance of nuclear plants), 155

Basel-Stadt, 140, 159, 160

Basque Country, 227–9, 232–3, 235n

Bavaria, 79–80

Belgium, 23–5, 164–73

Brussels-Captial Region : constitutive autonomy, lack of, 170–1 ; Flemish-speaking minority, 168–9

communities and regions, constitutional autonomy, lack of, 165, 166–9, 171–2

Constitution : Article 1 (federal state composed of communities and regions), 164 ; Article 35 (enumerated powers of federal government), 171–2 ; Article 39 (majority needed for community and regional institutions), 167 ; Article 115 (majority needed for community and regional institutions), 167 ; Article 116 (election of community and regional parliaments), 167 ; Article 117 (election of community and regional parliaments), 167 ; Article 120 (immunity of members of regional and community parliaments), 167 ; Article 121 (establishment of government for communities and regions), 167 ; Article 122 (parliamentary electoral process), 167 ; Article 123 (majority needed for community and regional institutions), 167 ; Article 124 (immunity of members of regional and community governments), 167 ; Article 125 (immunity of members of regional and community governments), 167 ; Article 137 (parliamentary exercise of competences), 167–8 ; Article 138 (French Community powers), 168 ; Article 118 (2) (election of community and regional parliaments), 170 ; Article 123 (2) (election of community and regional parliaments), 170 ; reference to European Union, 259 ; Title I (“Federal Belgium, Its Composition and Territory”), 164

constitutional autonomy, 165, 171

“constitutive autonomy,” communities and regions, 169–71

Council of State, 270

devolutionary federalism, 164, 167

distribution of power in government, 164

Dutch Community Commission, 169

Dutch-speaking Community, 167

enumerated powers, communities and regions, 164, 167

European Union, 262, 263, 280, 283, 290

exclusive powers, federal government, 164

federal special-majority legislation, 171–2

federal system, 3–4

Flemish Community : competences of Flemish Region, 167–8 ; constitutional autonomy, lack of, 165, 171

French Community : competencies of Walloon Region, 167–8 ; constitutional autonomy, lack of, 165, 171 ; “dismantling” of, financial aspects, 169 ; transfer of powers, 169

French Community Commission, 169

German-speaking Community : constitutive autonomy, lack of, 170–1 ; Walloon Region, 168–9

integrative federalism, 164

Joint Community Commission, 169

Kompetenz-Kompetenz, 166–7

legislation, hierarchy, lack of, 164

multi-ethnic population, 13

parliaments, communities and regions, 170

residual powers : federal government, 167 ; member states, 165–6 ; transfer to communities and regions, 171–2

sub-state nationalism, 200

transformation from unitary to federal state, 164

Walloon Region, constitutional autonomy, lack of, 165, 171

Benelux countries, 263

Berlin, Germany, 74–5, 78

Berlusconi, Silvio, 241, 243

Bern, 159

Besselink, Leonard, 265

bills of rights, 51–2, 184

Bismarck Reich, 62–3, 64

Blaine, James, 51

Blair, Tony, 211

blockade politics, 73–4

“Bonn Powers” of High Representative, 119, 124

Bosnia-Herzegovina, 23–4, 109–39

April Package of 2006, 125, 137n, 138n

asymmetry between Entities, 112–13

autonomy of “constituent peoples,” 115

“Bonn Powers” of High Representative, 119, 124

Bosniaks, 109, 111, 112, 120–2, 126, 128

Bosnian War, 109

Brcko-District, 112

Central and Eastern Europe, 109–10

citizen involvement in Constitution of the State, 111

Commission for Real Property Claims of Displaced Persons and Refugees (CRPC), 118

Common Institutions, 113

“consociationalism,” 114

“constituent peoples,” 129 ; equality, 120–2 ; parity and equal participation on State level, 114–16 representation in both Entities, 122–4

Constitution : article I.7 (citizenships of the State and Entities), 113 ; article II.1 (European Convention of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms as highest source of law), 123 ; article II.2 (refugees, right of return), 118 ; article II.5 (refugees, rights of property), 118 ; article III (powers of the State), 121 ; article III.1 (powers of the State), 112–13 ; article III.4 (coordination of the Entities), 114 ; article III.5 (transfer of powers from Entity to State), 114 ; article III.3.a (powers of the Entities), 113 ; article III.3.b (supremacy clause), 113 ; article IV.3d (absolute veto), 115 ; article IV.3f (vital interest, determination by Constitutional Court), 116 ; article V.2 (tripartite presidency), 113 ; article V.4 (Council of Ministers), 113 ; article V.2c (Presidency, unanimous decisions), 116 ; article VI.3 (Constitutional Court rule on disputes between State and Entities), 114 ; article VI.1a (Constitutional Court, inclusion of international judges), 122 ; article XII.2 (Entity Constitutions, obligation to follow State Constitution), 114

constitutional change : external forces, influence on, 109–10 ; working group, 125

Constitutional Court, 116, 118 ; composition of, 122 ; “constituent peoples” case, 120–2

Copenhagen criteria, 124, 133n

Council of Ministers, 123, 124

Croatia, FBH, foreign relations with, 112

Croats, 109, 111, 112, 120–2, 126, 128

Dayton Peace Agreement (Accord) (DPA), 110–12, 115, 116 ; civilian implementation, 119 ; Constitutional Court judgments on, 120–2 ; constitutional reform, 125–6

decision-making process, role of Entities in, 113–14

defense, 124

democratization, 109–10

discrimination, 115, 117, 120–2

distribution of powers, State and Entities, 112–14

Electoral Commission, 118

“Entities,” Republic Srpska (Serb Republic, RS) and Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina (FBH) : blockage of change, 129 ; constitutional amendments imposed by High Representative, 122–4 ; discriminatory provisions in constitutions, 120–2 ; establishment of, 110 ; federal system, role in, 111–14 ; institutional structures, 112–14

“ethnic cleansing,” 109, 136n

ethnic divisions, 116–17, 126

“ethnic federalism,” 109, 114

ethnic groups, 109, 127–9

“ethnic homelands,” 114, 129

“ethnic sovereignty,” 116

European Commission for Democracy of Law (“Venice Commission”), 137n

European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms, 118, 123

European Court of Human Rights, 115, 123–4 ; international judges, nomination of, 122 ; Sejdić-Finci case (discrimination against “Others”), 128

European Stability Initiative, 138n

European Union, accession, 109, 124–7

federal system, structure of, 111–14

Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina (FBH) : administrative system, crisis in, 128 ; Constitution, 120 ; federal structure, 112

“forced-together federalism,” 114

foreign affairs, 112

“fourth constituent” element (International Community), 124

General Framework Agreement for Peace, Annex 7 (article II.1, minority-returns), 121

High Judicial and Prosecutorial Council, 124

High Representative, 119, 120, 125–7 constitutional amendments imposed by, 122–4 ; resignation of, 128

House of Peoples, 113, 114–16

House of Representatives, 114–16

human rights, 118–19, 121

Human Rights Chamber, 118

institutional system : complexity of, 117 ; reforms, proposed, 125

Inter-Entity Boundary Line (IEBL), 111

International Community : accountability of, 124 ; financial transfers from Entities, guarantee of, 113 ; state-building, role in, 109–11, 117–19

International Court of Justice (ICJ), Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide, 131n, 138n

International Criminal Tribunal for Yugoslavia, 118

International Peace Treaty, Constitution of the State (annex 4 of the DPA), 111

International Police Task Force, 118

Izetbegović, Alija, 111, 120

judiciary, reform of, 124

Kosovo, 138n

Lajcak, Miroslav, 128

languages, 131n, 135n

legislative competences, 121

“local ownership” of reform process, 124–5

Milošević, Slobodan, 111

minority groups, 115, 120–2, 123–4

“minority returns” of displaced refugees, 117

“multiethnic society,” 130n

multinational state, 123, 130n

Muslims, 109

nationalist political parties, 119

NATO military intervention, 109–10 ; Stabilisation Force (SFOR), 117–18

Office of the High Representative (OHR), 119 ; extension of mandate, 127

Parliamentary Assembly of the State, 114–16

peace agreement, 110–11

Peace Implementation Council (PIC), 119, 124, 126–7

police powers, 126

power sharing, 114–16

Presidency, 114–16

Prud Process (constitutional amendment creating a fourth territorial unit), 128

reform, constitutional, 124–7

refugees and displaced persons, rights of, 117–18, 121–2

Republic Srpska (Serb Republic, RS) : autonomy of, 126 ; Constitution, 120 ; political centralization, 112

Serbia (RS), foreign relations with, 112

Serbs, 109, 111, 120–2, 126, 128

Stabilisation and Association Agreement with European Union, 124, 126–7, 130n

State Court, 124

state-building process, 109–10, 129

transition to free-market system, 109–10

Treaty on European Union (TEU) : Article 6 (1) (principles for membership), 137n ; Article 49 (conditions for membership), 137n

Tudjman, F., 111

UN Covenant against racial discrimination, article 5 (right of equal access to governmental posts), 121

United Nations Covenant against racial discrimination, article 5 (right of equal access to governmental posts), 121

Venice Commission, 125

veto mechanisms, 115–16

vital interests, 115–16, 123

war, 109–11, 118

Washington Agreement of March 1994, 111

bottom-up pattern of influence, 4, 5, 27, 31

European Union, 281, 286–9, 293

Germany, 69–70, 74

Spain, 218–19, 222–3, 227–34

United Kingdom, 200–3

Brandeis, Louis, 18–19

Brazil, 16

Constitution, 9

constitutional space, 14

sovereignty, constitutional, 141

territory, governing of large, 13

Bremen, 78, 79

Brennan, William, 52

British Columbia

Constitution Act, 181, 183

deficit spending legislation, 185

referendum, 2005 and 2009, 184

referendum, sales tax, 186

Brown, Gordon, 211

Brussels-Captial Region constitutive autonomy, lack of, 170–1

Flemish-speaking minority, 168–9

regional offices in, 287

Brwcko-District, 112

budgets, 62

Bulgaria, 262

Constitution, amendment, 261

judiciary, 259

Bundesrat (chamber of state governments) (Germany), 77

legislative process, 66–75

reduction of veto powers, 62

Bundestag (parliament) (Germany), 68–70, 77

Burgenland, 88

direct democracy, 96

elections, 100

investigations, requirements for, 99

state goals, 93

Burger, Warren, 51

Burger Court (United States), 51–2

Burgess, Michael, 257

Burgstaller, Gabriele, 103

Bußjäger, Peter, 22–3

BZO, 103

Calabria, 251n

California

Constitution, amendments to, 55

Constitution of 1879, 54

Convention of 1878-79, 56

Supreme Court, 52–3

Canada, 23, 25–6, 174–92

admission of provinces, 178

Alberta, populist movements, 180–1

ambiguity, constitutional, 175, 189

antigovernment feeling, 180

bills of rights, 184

British Columbia : Constitution Act, 5, 181, 183 ; deficit spending legislation, 185 ; referendum, 2005 and 2009, 184 ; referendum, sales tax, 186

Canada Act (1867), 25

Charter of Rights and Freedoms : federal limits on provincial governments, 178 ; Section 5 (provincial legislatures, frequency of meetings), 5 ; Section 33 (notwithstanding clause), 7–8 ; Section 32 (1) b (legislatures and governments of provinces), 178–9 ; Sections 3-5 (right to vote and terms of legislatures), 178 ; Sections 16-20 (bilingual character of country and New Brunswick), 178

conservativism of subnational constitutional cultures, 174, 190

constitutions : British constitutional and parliamentary traditions, 187–8 ; Constitution Act of 1867, 176–8, 182 ; Constitution Act of 1867 ; Part V (provincial constitutions), 176 ; Constitution Act of 1867, section 133 (provincial constitutions), 5 ; Constitution Act of 1867 ; section 133 (use of French or English in parliament), 177–8 ; Constitution Act of 1982, 176–7, 186 ; constitutional crisis, 182 ; federal and provincial, 4–5

Crown, political power of the, 177, 180, 182, 183

direct democracy, 180, 186

diversity, 175, 187–8, 189–90

educational rights, 178

electoral reform, 186–7

executive power : lieutenant-governor as representative of the Crown, 177 ; provinces, 182–3

history, constitutional, 174–5

human rights, 184

Judicial Committee of the Privy Council (JCPC), 180

judicial system, federal and provincial control, 179

language rights, 178

Liberal party (federalist), 188

Manitoba : initiative and referendum legislation, 180 ; Manitoba Act, 1870, Section 23 (use of French or English in legislature), 178

minority rights, 178, 184

national-unity imperative, 189

New Brunswick Commission on Legislative Democracy, 191n

Newfoundland and Labrador, 182

Ontario, 183–4, 189

parliamentary government, 177 ; executive power in, 182–3 ; majority model, 184

Parti Quebecois (PQ) (separatist), 188

policy goals, unconventional, 181

populist movements, 179–80

Prince Edward Island Terms of Union, 1873, 178

provinces : electoral systems, 183–4 ; financial management, 185 ; provincial premiers, power of, 182–3 ; provincial statutes, structure of executive and legislative power, 181

provincial constitutions : defined, 187 ; entrenchment, lack of, 176, 186, 188 ; existence of, 175 ; federal sources of, 176–9 ; federalism, significance for, 186–9 ; low level of consciousness of, reasons for, 188–90 ; provincial sources of, 179–85

public policies, innovation in, 179

Quebec, 13, 26, 189 ; Charter of Human Rights and Freedoms, 26, 184–5 ; Charter of the French Language, 185 ; language laws, 179 ; parliament, languages used in, 178 ; proposals for provincial constitution, 188 ; Quebec National Assembly, 184

regions, 189

Senate, design of, 182

Social Credit party, 180

sovereignty, constitutional, 141

stability and peace, 176, 189

status of, 182

sub-state nationalism, 200

Supreme Court, decision on Quebec language laws, 179

unwritten constitutions, 176, 181

Westminster-style governments in provinces, 180–1 ; executive authority, 175

CAP (Common Agricultural Policy), 289

capital punishment, 51–3

Carinthia, 88, 103

elections, 100

investigations, requirements for, 99

state goals, 93–4

Castle Coalition, 55

Catalonia, Spain, 227–30, 232–3, 235n

Catalan nationalists, Basque fiscal competence, 207

Catalan Socialist Party (PSC), 220–1, 229

CDU (Christian Democratic Union), 61

Central and Eastern Europe, 109–10

constitutions, reference to European Union, 260

Central Competition (Anti-Trust) Authority (Tribunal de Defensa de la Competencia), 226

central government

institutional representation of regional interests, lack of, 239

proposals to reform powers of, 221

centralization, 195–6

Charter of Fundamental Rights, 272

Charter of Rights and Freedoms (Canada)

federal limits on provincial governments, 178

sections 3-5 (right to vote and terms of legislatures), 178

sections 16-20 (bilingual character of country and New Brunswick), 178

sections 32 (1) b (legislatures and governments of provinces), 178–9

Chaves, Manuel, 230

China, 5, 9

Christian Democratic Union (CDU), 61

Christian Social Union (CSU), 61, 69

Christian-Social-Party, 88

Church, Clive, 257

citizen petitions, 91

citizens’ rights, 143

civil liberties, 47, 52

civil service, 209

Claes, Monica, 259, 262, 264, 265

coalition agreements by political parties, 61–2, 73

Colantuono, Michael, 56

collective bargaining, 54

Colorado, 50, 58

Constitution, 49, 54

Taxpayer Bill of Rights Amendment (TABOR), 55

Commission for Real Property Claims of Displaced Persons and Refugees (CRPC), 118

Committee of the Regions (CoR), European Union, 281, 286–7, 290

Common Agricultural Policy (CAP), 289

common market interests, 272

competences

Austria, 93, 95, 98

Basque fiscal competence, 207

Bosnia-Herzegovina, 121

European Union, 267–8, 273, 283–4

exclusive or concurrent, 10

Germany, 62, 70–3, 79–80

Italy, 285

Competencia, Tribunal de Defensa de la, 226

competencies, division of, 88, 101–4

competitive federalism, 22, 79–80

concurrent powers, 10, 14, 158

legislative, 64–5, 70–2

Conference of Community and European Affairs Committees of the Parliament of the European Union (COSAC), 290

Connerly, Ward, 55

consensus

central government and regions in EU Member States, 287

difficulty in reaching, 220–1

consent legislation (Zustimmungsgesetzgebung), 62, 73–4

Conservative Ascendance era, 53–5

consociationalism, 114

consolidation of Länder, 79

constituent assembly, 147, 157

“constituent peoples” (Bosnia-Herzegovina), 129

equality, 120–2

parity and equal participation on State level, 114–16

representation in both Entities, 122–4

“constitutive autonomy,” 25, 169–71

Convention on the Future of Europe, 274

cooperation agreement, political parties, 102

cooperative federalism, 14, 64

cooperative regionalism, 239

coordination of legislation, Westminster and Scottish Parliament, 212

Copenhagen criteria, 124

Coppel, Jason, 272

CoR (Committee of the Regions), European Union, 281, 286–7, 290

Corsica, 253n

Cortina d’Ampezzo, 245

COSAC (Conference of Community and European Affairs Committees of the Parliament of the European Union), 290

Council of Ministers, 123, 124

criminal defendants, rights of, 51–3, 57

Croatia, 112, 261

Croats, 109, 111–12, 120–2, 126, 128

Crown, political power of, 177, 180, 182, 183

CRPC (Commission for Real Property Claims of Displaced Persons and Refugees), 118

CSU (Christian Social Union), 61, 69

cultural artifacts, 71, 72

cultural differences, 12–13, 245–7

Cyprus, 260–2

Czech Republic, 262, 270–1

Dardanelli, Paolo, 257

Davies, Ron, 206

Dayton Peace Agreement (Accord) (DPA), 110–12, 115, 116

civilian implementation, 119

Constitutional Court judgments on, 120–2

constitutional reform, 125–6

De Witte, Bruno, 265

death penalty, 51–3

debt, public, 76–8, 80–1, 82

decentralization, 57, 220, 223–4, 282

defense, 124

deficit spending, 76–8, 81

Delaware, 46

democratic principle, 151–2

democratization, 109–10

Denmark, 262, 263, 265

Constitution, amendment process, 264

constitution, reference to European Union, 259

Danish Supreme Court, 267

descending phase (European Union law), 283–4

devolutionary federal systems, 11–12, 24–7, 164, 167, 195–6

Dicey, Albert V., 203–5

die Linken (Left party), 61

Dieterich, Peter, 81

Dinan, John J., 15, 21

direct democracy, 17

Austria, 91, 92, 93, 95–7, 99

Canada, 180, 186

Switzerland, 146, 151–3, 160

directive 79/409/CEE (wild-bird conservation), 285

discrimination, 117, 120–2

disenfranchised groups, 50

“dispositive principle,” 223, 227, 229–30

distribution of power

Austria, 89–91

Belgium, 164

Bosnia-Herzegovina, 112–14

Germany, 71

Italy, 240

Spain, 231

Switzerland, 158

diversity, 23–6, 58, 175, 187–90

dual federalism, 21–2, 63–4, 66, 68, 70–5

Dutch Community Commission (Belgium), 169

Dutch-speaking Community (Belgium), 167

early warning system, 289–90, 293

ECHR (European Convention on Human Rights), 94, 270, 272–3

ECJ.

economic intergovernmental relations, 242–4

education, 69, 72, 73, 75, 103

educational rights, 178

EEA countries, 261, 262

Elazar, Daniel, 4, 17

elections, federal, 61

Electoral Commission, 118

electoral reform, 186–7

England

parliament, 211

regional government, 212

English Court of Appeal, 204

ENP (European Neighbourhood Policy), 262

enumerated powers, communities and regions, 164, 167

environmental protection, 94, 224

equal access to governmental posts, right of (United Nations Covenant against racial discrimination, article 5), 121

Equality and Human Rights Commission, 208

equivalent living conditions, 65, 71

Erk, Jan, 104

essential legislation, 65, 71

Estonia, 262, 263

Constitutional Act on the EU, 261

expert committee, 265

Working Group, 270

Ethiopia, language, official, 17 Oromo Liberation Front, 12

ethnic cleansing, 109, 136n

ethnic divisions, 126

negative impact on integration, 116–17

ethnic federalism, 109, 114

ethnic groups, 109, 127–9

ethnic homelands, 114, 129

ethnic sovereignty, 116

EU. See European Union

European Arrest Warrant Framework Decision, 261, 272

European Commission, 259, 273

European Commission for Democracy of Law (Venice Commission), 125, 137n

European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms, 118, 123

European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR), 94, 270, 272–3

European Court of Human Rights, 115, 123–4, 270

Bosphorus case, 272

international judges, nomination of, 122

Sejdić-Finci case (discrimination against “Others”), 128

European Court of Justice (ECJ), 258, 266, 272–3, 284–7, 290–1

Germany v Council (annulment of Tobacco Advertising Directive), 273

principle of unity, ruling on, 282

European Declaration of Human Rights, 158

European Grouping of Territorial Co-operation, 291

European Neighbourhood Policy (ENP), 262

European Parliament, 268

European Stability Initiative, 138n

European Union (EU), 30–2

accession, 109, 124–7

Accession Treaty, 267

Amsterdam Treaty, 258, 268

Banana case, 272

bottom-up pattern of influence, 281, 286–9, 293

Brussels, regional offices in, 287

Charter of Fundamental Rights, 272

Committee of the Regions (CoR), 5, 281, 286–7, 290

Common Agricultural Policy (CAP), 289

common market interests, 272

competences, 273 ; allocation of, 283–4 ; delegation of, 267–8

Conference of Community and European Affairs Committees of the Parliament of the European Union (COSAC), 290

consensus building between central government and regions, 287

“Constitutional Charter,” 258

constitutional courts, adjudication of conflicts between national law and EU law, 266

“constitutional pluralism,” 269

constitutions of Member States : amendment procedures, 263–4 ; amendments to, 259–62 ; EU membership, problems in addressing, 262–6 ; “historic,” 265 ; lawyers, constitutional, 264 ; “revolutionary,” 265 ; transfer of powers, 258

Convention on the Future of Europe, 274

“co-operative constitutionalism,” 266

Council of Ministers, 287, 290

decentralization, 282

descending phase, 283–4

devaluation of constitutions, 265

directive 79/409/CEE (wild-bird conservation), 285

early warning system, 289–90, 293

European and National Constitutional Law Project, 274

European Arrest Warrant Framework Decision, 261, 272

European Commission, 259, 273

European Constitution, ratification, 257

European Constitutional Treaty, 264, 269–71 ; Article 308, 273

European Convention of Human Rights (ECHR), 270, 272–3

European Court of Human Rights, 270 ; Bosphorus case, 272

European Court of Justice (ECJ), 258, 266, 272–3, 284–7, 290–1 ; principle of unity, ruling on, 282

European Grouping of Territorial Co-operation, 291

European Neighbourhood Policy (ENP), 262

European Parliament, 268

“Europeanization,” 281, 283, 286

“external governance,” 262

federalism, 257

fundamental rights, protection of, 272

General Court, 291–2

globalization, 271

Goteborg Strategy, 291

Hallstein, Walter, 257

horizontal cooperation, 287, 292

“horizontal federalism,” 288

human rights, 272

“integrative federalism,” 257

intergovernmental coordination within States, 292

international treaties, 270–1

“intertwined constitutionalism,” 269

“judicial dialogues,” 266

Kompetenz-Kompetenz, 267

law : competences, allocation of, impact on, 283–4 ; Law Num.

Lisbon Treaty, 258, 264, 269, 271, 282, 289, 291, 293 ; competences for the EU, 273–4 ; Protocol on the Application of the Principle of Subsidiarity, 289 ; Protocol on the Role of National Parliaments, 289

“Masters of the Treaties,” 267–9, 274

Member States, national constitutions, 30–2

membership, 198, 258

Monetary Union, 258, 268

“multi-level constitutionalism,” 269

multi-level governance, 283

National Community Act, 284

national constitutional doctrine, 270–1

National Strategic Framework, 291

network dimension, 281, 283, 290–2

“Neutralizing the Sovereignty Question” (Jakab), 264

New Cohesion Policy, 291

Nice Treaty, 258

parliaments, involvement in policy-making, 289–90

Protocol on the Application of the Principle of Subsidiarity and Proportionality, 290

ratification of treaties, 273–4

Reform Treaty, 213, 286

regions : constitutional space, European integration process, 281 ; decision-making process, role in, 293 ; legislative powers (RegLegs), 281, 283, 286–7 ; participation in policy-making (European and national), 286–9, 290 ; self-government, 280

Schengen borderless area, 258

sovereignty of Member States, 260 ; delegation of, 264 ; transfer of powers, 258, 266–8

Spinelli, Altiero, 257

structure of, 24

sub-national units : constitutional space, 283 ; relationship to, 5, 290–2

“supranational federation,” 257

“supranational organization sui generis,” 257

territorial organization of Member States, “blindness” to, 281–2

territorial reform, 280

top-down pattern of influence, 281, 282–6

Treaty Establishing a Constitution for Europe, 269–71

Treaty of Maastricht (TEU), 258, 267–8, 280–1 ; Article 4 (principle of co-operation), 282 ; Article 4, paragraph 2 (respect for internal structures of Member States), 281

Treaty on the European Union (TEU), 269 ; Article 48 (ratification of treaties), 274

Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union (TFEU), 269 ; Article 258 (obligation to EU law), 282, 285 ; Article 263, paragraph 2 (regions acting as privileged subjects), 291 ; Articles 2-6 (competences for the EU), 273

tripartite contracts, 291

Europeanization, 31, 281, 283, 286

exclusive powers, 10, 14, 158, 224–5

federal government, 164

legislative, 64–5, 70–2

executive federalism, 22, 103

executive power, 177, 182–3

experts, politicians and scholars, reform proposals by, 102–3

external governance, 262

fast-track autonomous communities, Spain, 228–9

Faymann, Werner, 103

FBH.

FDP (Free Democratic Party), 61

federal faithfulness, principle of, 155

Federal Republic of Austria. See Austria

Federal Republic of Germany. See Germany

federal system of government, 234n

competences, exclusive or concurrent, 10

criticism of, 57

powers of, 88

reform of, 101–4

special-majority legislation, 171–2

state constitutions, effect on, 55–8

structure of, 111–14

supreme courts, 10–11

Federal Tribunal (Switzerland), 159, 161

federalism, 251n, 257

definitions of, 196

institutional dimension, 237

political climate, 249

political dimension, 237

reform of, 61–87

Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina (FBH)

administrative system, crisis in, 128

Constitution, 120

federal structure, 112

Feeley, Malcolm, 57–8

Feuille federale, 154

Fiedler, Franz, 103

finances

arrangements between national government and regions, 237, 241–4

Basque Country and Navarre, 233

equalization between rich and poor regions, 238

fiscal federalism, 241, 244–5

government relationships, 102

management, auditing of, 97–9

reform of systems, 74–81

territories, 209

Finland, 262, 263

constitution, reference to European Union, 259

Parliamentary Committee, 265, 270

Flemish Community, constitutional autonomy, lack of, 165, 171

Flemish Community (Belgium), competences of Flemish Region, 167–8

Florida, 46

“forced-together federalism,” 114

foreign affairs, 112, 231

fourth constituent element (International Community), 124

fox hunting in England, ban on (Jackson), 204–6

framework legislation, 64, 70, 72, 224, 230–1

France, 262, 265

Conseil Constitutionnel, 264–5, 270

Constitution : Article 88 (European integration clause), 268 ; Article 88 (1) (participation in European Union), 260

constitution, reference to European Union, 260

Constitutional Council, 268

Free Democratic Party (FDP), 61

free speech, 51

Freedom Party, 100, 103

French Community (Belgium)

competencies of Walloon Region, 167–8

constitutional autonomy, lack of, 165, 171

dismantling of, financial aspects, 169

French Community Commission, 169

transfer of powers, 169

Fribourg, 140

Friuli-Venezia Giulia, 238, 246–7, 250n

fundamental rights, 94–5, 102, 272

Furgler, Kurt, 144–5

Galicia, 228, 233, 235n

Gardner, James, 14

General Court, 291–2

General Framework Agreement for Peace, Annex 7 (article II.1, minority-returns), 121

Geneva, 140, 153, 156–7, 159, 160, 161n

constitution of 1958, 142

foreign relations, 159

Georgia

Constitution, 51

Constitution of 1777, 48

German-speaking Community (Belgium) constitutive autonomy, lack of, 170–1

Walloon Region, 168–9

Germany

administration of federal laws, 66–8

Baden-Württemberg, 76, 79–80

Basic Law (Grundgesetz), 63 ; Article 21 (regulation of political parties and finance), 65 ; Article 30 (state powers and implementation), 64, 66 ; Article 70, paragraph 1 (rights of Länder to pass legislation), 64, 73 ; Article 70, paragraph 2 (exclusive and concurrent legislative powers), 64 ; Article 70 (legislative powers of Länder), 66 ; Article 71 (exclusive legislative powers), 70 ; Article 72 (concurrent legislative powers), 65, 70–1 ; Article 73 (exclusive legislative powers of federation), 64–5 ; Article 73 (federal exclusive legislative powers), 71–2 ; Article 74 (concurrent legislative powers), 65, 71–2 ; Article 75 (framework legislative powers), 64–6, 70, 72, 75 ; Article 83 (Länder implementation of federal legislation), 66 ; Article 84, paragraph 1 (Länder administration of federal legislation and establishment of agencies), 74 ; article 84, paragraph 2 (majority approval requirements), 74 ; Article 84 (Länder administration of federal legislation), 67 ; Article 90 (Land administration of federal highways), 67 ; Article 109, paragraph 1 (financial autonomy of federation and Länder), 76 ; Article 109, paragraph 2 (balanced budget requirements), 76–7 ; Article 109, paragraph 3 (balanced budgets without borrowing), 77 ; Article 109, paragraph 4 (federal limits on budget autonomy of Länder), 77 ; Article 109, paragraph 5 (deficit limits and sanctions), 77 ; Article 109 (financial relationship of federation and Länder), 76–8 ; Article 109 (limits on deficit and debt), 81 ; Article 115 (borrowing and deficit spending), 76–8, 81 ; Article 91a (joint planning in construction of university buildings), 67, 74–6 ; Article 104a (federation financing of programs administered by Länder), 67, 75–6 ; Article 109a (creation of Stability Council for budget emergencies), 76–7 ; Article 91b (joint planning in education), 67–8, 74–5 ; Article 104b, 75 ; Article 104b (federation financing of programs administered by Länder), 78 ; Article 143d (timing of finance reforms), 76–8 ; Section VII, 64 ; Section VIII, 66

Bavaria, 79–80

Berlin, 74–5, 78

Bismarck Reich, 62–3, 64

blockade politics, 73–4

bottom-up reform, 69–70, 74

Bremen, 78, 79

budgets, 62, 77

Bundesrat (chamber of state governments), 77 ; legislative process, 66– 75 ; reduction of veto powers, 62

Bundestag (parliament), 68–70, 77

Christian Democratic Union (CDU), 61

Christian Social Union (CSU), 61, 69

coalition agreements by political parties, 61–2, 73

competitive federalism, 79–80

concurrent legislative powers, 64–5, 70–2

consent legislation (Zustimmungsgesetzgebung), 62, 73–4

consolidation of Länder, 79

constitution, 63 ; Article 23 (1) (participation in European Union), 260 ; Article 28 (1) (constitutional order of Länder), 166 ; Article 79 (3) (sovereignty), 268.

Constitutional Court : Maastricht decision, 267–9, 273 ; Solange I decision, 272

cooperative federalism, 64

cultural artifacts, 71, 72

debt, public, 76–8, 80–1

deficit spending, 76–8, 81

division of legislative powers, 71

dual federalism, 63–4, 66, 68, 70–5

education, 69, 72, 73, 75

elections, federal, 61

equivalent living conditions, 65, 71

“essential legislation,” 65, 71

European Union, 265, 280, 283, 289, 290 ; Growth and Stability Pact, 75–7, 81 ; laws affecting federal and Land levels, 64

exclusive legislative powers, 64–5, 70–2

federal assembly (Bundestag), 61

Federal Constitutional Court, 67, 71, 72

federal government : division of legislative powers, 70–3 ; legislative authority, 64–6

Federalism Commission, 61–2, 69–70, 74, 81

Federalism Commission II, 76

Federalism Reform I, 62, 70–5 ; controversy over, 78–80

Federalism Reform II, 62, 75–8 ; criticism of, 80–1

Finance Reform of 1969, 64, 67, 68

finance system, reform of, 74–81

framework legislative powers, 64, 70, 72

Free Democratic Party (FDP), 61

German Confederation, 62

Grand Coalition, 61, 70, 74, 82

Green party, 61

history, 62–3, 79–80

Hitler, Adolph, 63

Holy Roman Empire, 62

homogeneity clause, 9

integrated federalism, 25

intergovernmental cooperation, 287

Junior Professor Decision, 72

Länder (states) : administration of federal laws, 66–8 ; budgetary autonomy, 76–8 ; constitutional space, 68, 70–1 ; constitutions, 63 ; deviation (abweichen) from federal regulations, 74 ; executives, 68 ; funds, distribution to poorer states, 78–9 ; legislative powers, 64–6, 70–3 ; parliaments, 68 ; rights of, 62

Left party (die Linken), 61

legal issues, 71

legislative competences, federal and state (Land), 62, 70–3, 79–80

legislative powers, division of, 64–6, 70–3

Münterfering, Franz, 69

North German Federation, 62, 64

nuclear energy, 71

Oettinger, Günther, 76

opposition in government, 68–9

Politikverflechtung (political/policy interconnection and coordination), 64, 67, 68, 70

“precedence” legislation, 65

public employees, 72, 73

reference to European Union, 260, 262

reform of federal system, proposals, 69–70

Saarland, 78, 79

salaries and benefits of public employees, 72

Saxony-Anhalt, 78

Schleswig-Holstein, 78 ; constitution, 63

Social Democratic Party (SPD), 61, 69, 76

Solidarity Pact II, 74, 78, 80

sovereignty, constitutional, 141

Stability Council, 77, 81

state governments.

See Bundesrat, above, under this heading

Stoiber, Edmund, 69–70, 82

Struck, Peter, 76

Student Fees Decision, 72

supervision of sub-national constitutions by federal systems, 9

taxes, 68, 76

Third Reich, 63

top-down reform, 69–70

uniform living conditions, 65

weapons, control over, 71

Weimar Republic, 63

globalization, 271

Goteborg Strategy, 291

governing institutions, design of, 48–9

government units, equality of, 240

governmental posts, right of equal access to (United Nations Covenant against racial discrimination, article 5), 121

grand coalition, 102

Grand Coalition (Germany), 61, 70, 74, 82

Graubünden, 140, 160

Great Britain, 199

Greece, 260, 262, 263

Green Party (Austria), 100, 103

Green Party (Germany), 61

groups, achievement of political goals by, 44, 48, 55–8

Growth and Stability Pact, 75–7, 81

Gunlicks, Arthur B., 16, 21–2

Gusenbauer, Alfred, 102

Hall, Kermit, 56

Hallstein, Walter, 257

High Judicial and Prosecutorial Council, 124

High Representative, 119, 120, 125–7

constitutional amendments imposed by, 122–4

resignation of, 128

history

Canada, 174–5

Germany, 62–3, 79–80

Italy, 237–9

Switzerland, 142–3

United Kingdom, 195–200

Hitler, Adolph, 63

Holms, Stephen, 264

Holy Roman Empire, 62

homogeneity clause, 9

Hong Kong, 5

Hope, Lord, 204–5

horizontal cooperation, 287, 292

horizontal federalism, 4, 103, 288

House of Commons, 210

House of Lords, 211, 213

House of Peoples, 113, 114–16

House of Representatives, 114–16

human rights, 93–4, 118–19, 121, 146–7, 158, 184, 272

Human Rights Act, 1998 (United Kingdom), 198, 206, 213

Human Rights Chamber, 118

Hungary, 262

hunting in England, ban on (Jackson), 204–6

Hurst, Willard, 19

Ibarretxe Plan (Basque Country), 227

Iceland, EU law, 261

ICJ (International Court of Justice), Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide, 131n, 138n

Idaho, 50

IEBL (Inter-Entity Boundary Line), 111

India

federal system, 3

Kashmir, 5

multi-ethnic populations, 13

individual rights

Austria, 95

extension of, 51–3

protection for, 44

initiative process, 152–3, 160

integrated federalism, 25

integrative federalism, 164, 257

Inter-Entity Boundary Line (IEBL), 111

intergovernmental relationships, 207– 10, 292

International Community

accountability of, 124

financial transfers from Entities, guarantee of, 113

state-building, role in, 109–11, 117–19

International Court of Justice (ICJ), Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide, 131n, 138n

International Criminal Tribunal for Yugoslavia, 118

International Peace Treaty, Constitution of the State (annex 4 of the DPA), 111

International Police Task Force, 118

international treaties, 270–1

inter-parliamentary relations, 208, 210–12

investigations by audit offices, requirements for, 99

Iowa, Supreme Court, 52

Ireland, 262, 265

Act of Union, 1800, 199

constitution, reference to European Union, 260

Government of Ireland Act, 1920, 199

Sinn Fein, 199

union with, 1800, 197

United Irishmen society, 199

war with, 199

Italy, 26, 237–54

Abruzzo, 287

Aosta Valley, 238, 245, 252n

asymmetrical regionalism, 238

autonomy statutes, 238, 246

Berlusconi, Silvio, 241, 243

Budget Act for 2007, 285

Calabria, 251n

central government, institutional representation of regional interests, lack of, 239

Community Act, 2007, 285

compensation mechanism, 285

Constitution : article 114 (composition of the Republic), 250n ; article 116 (autonomy statutes of special regions), 246 ; article 116.3 (ordinary and autonomous regions), 240–1 ; article 117 (legislative powers of national government), 240, 254n ; article 117.

constitutional adjudication, 238–9, 248

Constitutional Court, 29–30, 242 ; competencies, re-defining of, 241 ; decisions on constitutional reform, 248 ; federal disputes, settling of, 237, 239 ; Sardinian law, rejection of, 247

constitutional litigation, 239

constitutional reforms : 2001, 248 ; implementation of, 240–1 ; “ordinary” regions, 239–40

“cooperative regionalism,” 239

Corsica, 253n

Cortina d’Ampezzo, 245

Council of Ministers, 285

cultural differences, 245–7, 246–7

economic intergovernmental relations, 242–4

Emilia Romagna, 284

European Union, 262, 263, 265, 280, 281, 283–6, 292

federalism, 251n : institutional dimension, 237 ; political climate, 249 ; political dimension, 237

finances : arrangements between national government and regions, 237, 241–4 ; equalization between rich and poor regions, 238 ; “fiscal federalism,” 241, 244–5

French Constitutional Council, 253n

Friuli-Venezia Giulia, 238, 246–7, 250n, 284

government units, equality of, 240

history, 237–9

institutional structures, federal, 237

intergovernmental cooperation, 288

Italian Constitutional Court, 283, 292

Italian State-Regions Conference, 288–90, 292

languages, linguistic minorities, 246

Law of 2005, CIACE (Comitato interministeriale per gli affari comunitari europei), 288

Lazio, 284, 287

legal/litigation model for dispute resolution, 11

Liguria Region Law Num. 36/2006, 285

Lombardy, 250n, 251n

Marche, 287

municipalities, attempts to join special regions, 237, 242, 244–5

North, regions of, 238–9, 243, 249

Northern League, 239, 241

“ordinary” regions, 239–40

Parliament, 244

Peace Treaty, 1946, 249n

Piemonte, 284

political culture, federal, 237, 248

Prodi, Romano, 241, 243, 245

provinces, role of, 252n

quasi-federal system, 28–30

reference to European Union, 259

referendum, 244

reform of 2001, 242

regions, 29 ; “ordinary” regions, 239–40 ; regional borders, shifting, 244–5 ; Regional Community Act, 284 ; regional identities, 237, 242, 245–7 ; regionalism, 237, 248 ; relations with national government, 240 ; self-government, 239

Sardinia, 238, 246–7, 250n, 252n

Senate, representation of regional interests, 239

Sicily, 238, 251n

Slovene minority group, 246

South, regions of, 238–9, 243, 249

South Tyrol, 5, 245, 251n

sovereignty, debates over, 247

“special” or “autonomous” regions, 238–9, 243

financial arrangements of, 244–5

sub-national constitutions, 5

sub-national units, financial autonomy, 242

substitution, power of, 284–5

Sudtirol/Alto Adige, 287

supervision of sub-national constitutions by federal systems, 9

taxes, 242

Tirol, 287

Title V (distribution of competences), 285

Toscana, 287

Trentino, 251n, 287

Trentino-South Tyrol, 238

Trento, 245

Trieste, 246

Umbria, 287

Veneto, 245, 250n, 252n

Venezia-Giulia, 246

Izetbegovic, Alija, 111, 120

Jackson (ban on fox hunting in England), 204–6

Jacksonian Era, 53–4

Jakab, Andras, 264

Jefferson, Thomas, 45–6, 55

JMC (Joint Ministerial Committee), Scotland and London, 208–9

Joint Community Commission (Belgium), 169

Joint Ministerial Committee (JMC), Scotland and London, 208–9

judges, appointment of, 225

judicial system federal and provincial control, 179

dialogues, 266

Judicial Committee of the Privy Council (JCPC), 180

reform of, 124

Junior Professor Decision, 72

Jura

constitution, 144 ; Article 138 (welcoming seceded territory), 154–5 ; preamble, 158

creation of, 142–3

foreign affairs, 159

guarantee, refusal of, 154–5

Kelsen, Hans, 88

Kentucky, Constitution, 51

Kincaid, John, 151

Kohl, Andreas, 103

Koja, Friedrich, 94

Kompetenz-Kompetenz, 166–7, 267

Kontrollamt office, 97–9

Kosovo, 138n

Kostelka, Peter, 103

Krasner, Steven, 264

labor unions, 54

Labour Party, 201–2, 209–10

Lajcak, Miroslav, 128

languages

Bosnia-Herzegovina, 131n

linguistic minorities, 246

multilingual federations, 23–6

official use, 135n

rights, 178

Latvia, 261–3

Constitution : Article 98 (extradition of citizens), 261 ; Article 101 (voting rights), 261

Laws, Lord Justice, 204, 206

Left party (die Linken), 61

legal issues, 71

legal positivism, 89, 94

legislation 6270–379–80

concurrent, 65

hierarchy, lack of, 164

legislative competences, 121

legislative competences (Germany),

legislative powers, division of, 64–6, 70–3

precedence, 65

reform, use in, 221

Lehmbruch, Gerhard, 64, 69, 79–80

Liberal Democrats, 209

Liberal Party (Canada), 188

Lichtenstein, EU law, 261

Lienbacher, Georg, 103

limits on governmental power, 54–5

Linken (Left party), 61

Lisbon Treaty, 258, 264, 269, 271, 282, 289, 291, 293

competences for the EU, 273–4

Protocol on the Application of the Principle of Subsidiarity, 289

Protocol on the Role of National Parliaments, 289

Lithuania, 262, 263

Constitution, Article 125 (2) (conformity with Monetary Union), 261

Constitutional Act on Membership in the European Union, 261

local ownership of reform process, 124–5

Lombardy, 250n, 251n

London, mayor, 212

Louisiana, 46

Lower Austria, 88 state goals, 93

direct democracy, 96

elections, 100

investigations, requirements for, 99

Lutz, Donald, 264

Luxembourg, 262, 263

constitution, reference to European Union, 259

Luzern, 140, 159, 160

Maastricht decision, Germany, 267–9, 273

Maastricht Treaty. See Treaty of Maastricht (TEU)

Macau, 5

MacCormick (supremacy of Westminster Parliament), 204

Macedonia, EU law, 261

Macpherson, C.B., 180

Madison, James, 45

Maine, 50

Malaysia, multi-ethnic population, 13

Malta, 262

Manitoba

initiative and referendum legislation, 180

Manitoba Act, 1870, Section 23 (use of French or English in legislature), 178

Maryland, Constitution of 1776, 48

Massachusetts, 46, 50

Constitution of 1780, 48

Supreme Court, 52–3

Masters of the Treaties, 267–9, 274

membership, 101–2, 104n, 258

Memoranda of Understanding and Supplementary Agreements (concordats) (United Kingdom), 209

Merkel, Angela, 61

Mexico

Constitution, 9

native peoples, rights of, 17

political parties, 17

sovereignty, constitutional, 141

Milošević, S., 111

minority groups, 12–13, 17, 120–2, 123–4

discrimination against, 115

minority returns of displaced refugees, 117

rights of, 178, 184

Slovene, 246

minority-returns, General Framework Agreement for Peace, Annex 7, 121

Mississippi, Constitution of 1832, 49

Monetary Union, 258, 268

multi-ethnic populations, 13, 17, 130n

multi-level governance, 283

multilingual federations, 23–6

multinational states, 23–6, 123, 130n

municipalities

financial management of, 98

municipal referendum, 160

special regions, attempts to join, 237, 242, 244–5

structuring of, 143

Münterfering, Franz, 69

Muslims, 109

National Community Act, 284

National Council, 89, 92, 102

National Strategic Framework, 291

nationalism

national identity, 13

national-unity imperative, 189

political communities, characteristics of, 232–3

political parties, nationalist, 119

sub-state, 200–3

NATO military intervention, 109–10

Stabilisation Force (SFOR), 117–18

Navarre, 233, 235n

Netherlands, 262, 263

constitution, reference to European Union, 259

network dimension, 283, 290–2

cooperative approach, 281

Neutralizing the Sovereignty Question (Jakab), 264

New Brunswick Commission on Legislative Democracy, 191n

New Cohesion Policy, 291

New Deal Era, 53–4, 64

New Hampshire, 45, 50

New Jersey, Supreme Court, 52

new judicial federalism, 52

New State Ice Co. v. Liebmann, 18

New York, 50, 54, 56–7

Newfoundland and Labrador, 182

Nice Treaty, 258

Nidwalden, 142–4, 158

Nigeria, 16

federal system, 3, 4

multi-ethnic population, 13

North German Federation, 62, 64

Northern Ireland

autonomy, 195

Belfast Agreement, 1998 (Good Friday Agreement), 200, 202–3

British unionists, 197

conflict between Irish republicans and British state, 202–3

devolution, bottom-up pressure for, 200–3

home rule movement, 199

Irish nationalists, 197

Northern Ireland Act, 1998, 200, 207, 213

Northern Ireland Human Rights Commission, 208

parliament at Stormont, 199

Provisional Irish Republican Army, 199

referendum for devolution, 202–3, 213

separatist nationalism, 207

Northern Italy, regions of, 238–9, 243, 249

Northern League, 239, 241

Norway, EU law, 261

nuclear energy, 71, 153, 155

Obwalden, constitution, 142–4, 158

Oettinger, Günther, 76

Office of the High Representative (OHR), 119 ; extension of mandate, 127

Ohio, Constitution, 49

Ohlinger, Theo, 103

OHR. See Office of the High Representative

Oklahoma, Constitution, 49

ombudsman, 100

O’Neill, Aidan, 272

Ontario, 183–4, 189

opposition in government, 68–9

opposition parties, 103

ordinary regions (Italy), 239–40

Oregon, 46, 56

OVP, 103

Palermo, Francesco, 28–30

Parliamentary Assembly of the State, 114–16

parliaments, 177

communities and regions, 170

decision-making process, 154

European Union policy-making, involvement in, 289–90

executive power in, 182–3

Italy, 244

majority model, 184

sovereignty : devolution settlements, effects on, 203–6 ; doctrine of, 204–5 ; principle of legal supremacy, 197 ; repeal of acts, 203–6 ; United Kingdom, 213

Spanish Parliament, 230

reforms, approval of, 226–8

Parti Quebecois (PQ) (Canada), 188

Partido Popular, 220, 221, 229–30

Partido Socialista Obrero Español, 220–1, 224, 228–30

Paterson, Lindsay, 198

Peace Implementation Council (PIC), 119, 124, 126–7

Peeters, Patrick, 24–5, 164–73

Pennsylvania, Constitution of 1776, 48

People’s Party, 100, 102

Pernice, Ingolf, 269

Petritsch, Wolfgang, 135n

PIC (Peace Implementation Council), 119, 124, 126–7

Poland, 260, 262, 263, 280

Constitution, Article 55 (extradition of citizens), 261

police powers, 126

policy

Canada, innovation in, 179, 181

parliaments, involvement in European Union policy-making, 289–90

regions, participation in policy-making (European and national), 286–9

United Kingdom, devolved territories, influence on, 208

United States, reforms, 53–5

Political Agreement on the Reorganization of the Federation, 101

political culture, 220, 237, 248

political factors, influence on subnational constitutions, 15–18

political parties, 220–1

autonomous community branches of, 228–30

distribution of, 17–18

See also individual political parties by name

political rights, 146–7

Politikverflechtung (political/policy interconnection and coordination) (Germany), 64, 67, 68, 70

popular initiative, 49, 58, 96, 99. See also direct democracy

Popular Party (Partido Popular, or PP), 220, 221, 229–30

Populist Era, 53–4

populist movements, 179–80

Porchia, Ornella, 30–2, 280–97

Portugal, 262

Constitution, reference to European Union, 260

power sharing, 114–16. See also distribution of power

PP (Partido Popular), 220, 221, 229–30

precedence legislation, 65

Presidency, 114–16

Prince Edward Island Terms of Union, 1873, 178

Prodi, Romano, 241, 243, 245

Progressive Era, 53–4

prohibition of intoxicating liquor, 47

Protocol on the Application of the Principle of Subsidiarity and Proportionality, 290

provinces, role of, 252n

PSOE (Partido Socialista Obrero Español), 220–1, 224, 228–30

public employees, 72–3

public policy. See policy

Putin, Vladimir, 6, 11

quasi-federal systems, 13, 26

Italy, 28–30

United Kingdom, 196, 207

Quebec

Charter of Human Rights and Freedoms, 184–5

Charter of the French Language, 185

cultural differences, 189

language laws, 179

National Assembly, 34n, 184

parliament, languages used in, 178

proposals for provincial constitution, 188

Quint, Peter, 19

railroads, regulation of, 54

Rasmussen, Hjalte, 265

ratification of European Union treaties, 273–4

Reagan, Ronald, 55

referendum, 49, 58

constitutional change, 213–14

devolution, 201–3

municipal, 160

shifting regional borders, 244

Reform Treaty, 286

reforms, experimental, 4

refugees and displaced persons, rights of, 118, 121–2

regions

constitutional space, European integration process, 281

cultural differences, 189

decision-making process, role in, 293

with legislative powers (RegLegs), 281, 283, 286–7

national government, relations with, 240

participation in policy-making (European and national), 286–9, 290

regional borders, shifting, 244–5

regional identities, 237, 242, 245–7

regionalism, 237, 248

self-government, 280

RegLegs (regions with legislative powers), 281, 283, 286–7

Reineck, Karl-Michael, 72

religion, 51

Republic Srpska (Serb Republic, RS)

autonomy of, 126

Constitution, 120

political centralization, 112

residual powers

federal government, 167

member states, 165–6

transfer to communities and regions, 171–2

Richard Commission, 206

Romania, 262, 263

Constitution, amendment, 261

judiciary, 259

Roosevelt, Franklin, 54

Rubin, Edward, 57–8

Russian Federation, 16

Constitution, 10–11

Constitutional Court, 10–11

Federation Constitution, complexity of, 6

Justice Ministry, 10–11

sovereignty within federations, 141

supervision of sub-national constitutions by federal systems, 9

Saarland, 78, 79

Sajo, Andras, 264, 265

Salzburg, 88, 90, 103

constitution, Article 10, paragraph 3 (right to property), 95

direct democracy, 96

elections, majority voting system, 100–1

investigations, requirements for, 99

investigative committees, 97

state goals, 93–4

same-sex marriage, 20, 52–3, 57, 161, 219

Sardinia, 238, 246–7, 250n, 252n

Sausgruber, Herbert, 103

Saxony-Anhalt, 78

Scharpf, Fritz, 64

Schengen borderless area, 258

Schleswig-Holstein, 78 constitution, 63

Schmitt, Nicolas, 24

Schoepflin, George, 127

Schuetze, Robert, 257

Schwyz, 140, 156, 159, 160

Scotland, 286

autonomy, 195

Campaign for a Scottish Assembly (CSA), 201

civic and legal autonomy, nineteenth century, 198

A Claim of Right for Scotland, 1988, 201

devolution, bottom-up pressure for, 200–3

House of Commons, influence in (“West Lothian” question), 210–11

legal system, independent, 197–8

legislative consent memorandums or “Sewel” resolutions, 212

referendum for devolution, 201–2

Scotland Act 1998, 202, 208, 210

Scottish Constitutional Convention (SCC), 201–2, 204

Scottish Executive, 209

Scottish National Party (SNP), 207, 217n

Scottish Office, 1928, 198

Scottish Parliament, 204–5, 210

Secretary of State for Scotland, 1885, 198

separatist nationalism, 207

union with England, 1707, 197

Westminster, representation at, 210 ; “West Lothian” question, 210–11

Scotland’s Claim, Scotland’s Right, 202

self-government, regional, 239

self-rule, 4, 12–13, 160

Senate

Canada, design of, 182

Italy, representation of regional interests, 239

Serb Republic. See Republic Srpska

Serbs, 109, 111, 120–2, 126, 128

Sicily, 238, 251n

Slovakia, 259, 262

Slovenia, 246, 262, 263

slow-track autonomous communities, Spain, 229

Smith, David, 177

Smith, Eivind, 264

Social Credit Party, 180

Social Democratic Party (SPD), 61, 69, 76, 88, 100, 102–3

social justice, 93–5

Socialist Worker’s Party (Partido Socialista Obrero Español, or PSOE), 220–1, 224, 228–30

Solidarity Pact II (Germany), 74, 78, 80

South Africa

African National Congress, 18

constitution, 3

Constitutional Court, 10, 141

constitutional space, 7

devolutionary federal systems, 12

federation, recent origin of, 16

Kwazulu-Natal, 10

multi-ethnic populations, 13

sovereignty, constitutional, 141

Western Cape Province, 10, 18, 141

South Dakota, Constitution, 49

South Tyrol, 245, 251n

Southern Italy, regions of, 238–9, 243, 249

sovereignty

debates over, 247

European Union Member States, 260 ; delegation of, 264 ; transfer of powers, 258, 266–8

within federation, 141

Spain, 26, 218–36

1981 Agreement, 228–9

1992 Agreement, 229

Andalusia, 228, 230

asymmetry of territorial power structure, 232–4

autonomous communities, 5, 27–8 ; acquisition of powers, 206 ; constitution, proposal to include names in, 220 ; creation of, 223–4, 228–9 ; dividing of powers between autonomous communities and central government, 224–6 ; statutes of autonomy, 218–30

Balearic Islands, 233

Basque Country, 228–9, 232–3, 235n

bottom-up pattern of influence, 218–19, 222–3, 227–8, 228–34

Catalan Socialist Party (PSC), 220–1, 229

Catalonia, 227–30, 228, 229, 232–3, 235n

Central Bank (Banco de España), 225–6

Central Competition (Anti-Trust) Authority (Tribunal de Defensa de la Competencia), 226

central government : proposals to reform powers of, 221 ; statutes of autonomy, effects on, 225–6

Chaves, Manuel, 230

conflict over powers, 232

consensus, difficulty in reaching, 220–1

Constitution : Article 30 (abolition of compulsory military service), 235n ; Article 63.3 (sending troops abroad), 235n ; Article 93 (international organizations), 234n ; Article 143.1 (regional entities), 235n ; Article 149.1 (powers of central government), 224–5 ; Article 149.1.1 (constitutional rights), 231 ; Articles 166-9 (mechanisms for Constitutional reform), 234n ; reference to European Union, 219–20, 259 ; reform of constitution, failure of, 219–22 ; reform of constitution, majority votes required for, 226 ; reform of constitution, obstacles to, 221–2 ; territorial power structure, 218, 220, 222

Constitutional Court, 223, 225, 230, 233–4, 265, 270 ; Catalonia’s Statute of Autonomy, 230, 235n ; role in decentralization, 232

consultation/negotiation model for dispute resolution, 11

decentralization, 220, 223–4

“dispositive principle,” 223, 227, 229–30

distribution of power between central government and autonomous communities, 231

environment, legislation on, 224

European Union, 231, 262, 263, 283

exclusive powers, 224–5

fast-track autonomous communities, 228–9

federal government, 234n

financial systems, Basque Country and Navarre, 233

foreign affairs, 231

framework legislation, 224, 230–1

Galicia, 228, 233, 235n

Ibarretxe Plan, 227

intergovernmental cooperation, 288

judges, appointment of, 225

legislative approaches to reform, 221

legislature, Spanish, 233–4

multi-ethnic population, 13

national characteristics of political communities, 232–3

Navarre, 233, 235n

Parliament, 28, 226–8, 230

political culture, 220

political parties, 220–1, 228–30

Popular Party (Partido Popular, or PP), 220, 221, 229–30

same-sex marriage, 219

Senate, representation of autonomous communities, 219–20

slow-track autonomous communities, 229

Socialist Worker’s Party (Partido Socialista Obrero Español, or PSOE), 220–1, 224, 228–30

sub-state nationalism, 200

succession to the throne, 220

supervision of sub-national constitutions by federal systems, 9

top-down pattern of influence, 218, 222, 228–9

Union of Democratic Centre (Union de Centro Democratico, UCD), 224, 228, 236n

Valencian Community, 233

SPD (Social Democratic Party), 61, 69, 76, 88, 100, 102–3

special or autonomous regions, Italy, 238–9, 243–5

Spinelli, Altiero, 257

SPO, 103

SPO/OVP grand coalition, 101

St Gallen, 147

Stabilisation and Association Agreement with European Union, 124, 126–7, 130n

stability and peace (Canada), 176, 189

Stability Council (Germany), 77, 81

state-building process, 23–4, 109–10, 129

statutes of autonomy. See autonomy

Steyn, Lord, 204–5

Stoiber, Edmund, 69–70, 82

Struck, Peter, 76

Student Fees Decision, 72

Styria, 88, 90

direct democracy, 96

elections, 100

investigations, requirements for, 99

sub-national units

constitutional change, effect on, 196

financial autonomy, 242

relationship to European Union, 290–2

Sudan, constitutional space, 7

suffrage, 44, 49–51, 57–8

supra-national entities, 5, 257

supremacy clause, 10

Bosnia-Herzegovina, 113

European Union (EU), 266

Switzerland, 158

United Kingdom, 197, 204

United States of America, 47

Supreme Court (Canada), decision on Quebec language laws, 179

Supreme Court (United States), 43, 47, 51–3

Sweden, 260, 262

Swiss federation. See Switzerland

Switzerland, 16, 23, 140–63 sity of, 24

Aargau, 143

Amstad, Eduard, 143

Appenzell Ausser-Rhoden, 159

Appenzell Inner-Rhoden, 157

Basel-Landschaft, 153 ; constitution, Article 115, paragraph 2 (avoidance of nuclear plants), 155

Basel-Stadt, 140, 159, 160

Bern, 159

Cantons : distribution of powers, 158 ; foreign relations, 159 ; parliaments, 151–2 ; sovereignty of, 166

citizens’ rights, 143

compared to the EU, 257

concurrent powers, 158

Confederation, distribution of powers, 158

constituent assembly, 147, 157

constitutional competency, 147

constitutional space, 7

constitutions, cantonal ; age of, 145 ; amendments, number of, 145 ; approval by Federal Assembly, 143 ; compulsory referendum, 152–3 ; contemporary problems, need to address, 145 ; co-operation, 159 ; guarantees of, 153–5 ; human rights, 159 ; incompleteness, 145 ; limits on changes, 147 ; list of, 156 ; preamble, topics included, 158 preservation of current constitutions, 157 ; provisions of, 158–60 ; publication of (Systematic Collection of Federal Law), 154 ; revision of, 145–6 ; social and political aspects, 145 ; social rights, 159–60 ; “state” elements, 148–50 ; state tasks, 160

constitutions defined, 140–1

constitutions, federal : Federal Constitution, Article 6 (obligation for cantonal constitutions), 141 ; Federal Constitution of 1848, Article 5 (obligation for cantonal constitutions), 151 ; Federal Constitution of 1874, Article 5 (guarantee of territory), 155 ; Federal Constitution of 1874, Article 6 (obligation for cantonal constitutions and guarantee of democratic political rights), 151–2 ; Federal Constitution of 1874, Article 24 (power of Confederation over nuclear energy), 153 ; Federal Constitution of 1999, 144 ; Federal Constitution of 1999, Article 3 (allocation of powers between two levels of government), 158 ; Federal Constitution of 1999, Article 3 (sovereignty of cantons), 144 ; Federal Constitution of 1999, Article 51 (obligation for cantonal constitutions), 151–2, 153–4 ; Federal Constitution of 1999, Article 90 (power of Confederation over nuclear energy), 153 ; Federal Constitution of 1999, Article 49 CF (supremacy of federal law), 158 ; Federal Constitution of 1999, Bill of Rights, 159

creation of, 11

democratic principle, 151–2

direct democracy, 19, 146, 151–3, 160

European Declaration of Human Rights, 158

European Union law, 261

exclusive powers, 158

Federal Assembly, guarantee of cantonal constitutions, 153–5

Federal Council, “message” to Federal Assembly, 153–4

federal faithfulness, principle of, 155

Federal Tribunal (Supreme Court), 159, 161

Feuille federale, 154

Fribourg, 140

functions, 141

Furgler, Kurt, 144–5

Geneva, 140, 153, 156–7, 159, 160, 161n ; constitution of 1958, 142 ; foreign relations, 159

Graubünden, 140, 160

history, 142–3

human rights, 146–7, 158

initiative process, 152–3, 160

integrated federalism, 25

International Asociation of Constitutional Law (IACL), subnational constitutions, 142

Jura : constitution, 144 ; constitution, Article 138 (welcoming seceded territory), 154–5 : constitution, preamble, 158 ; constitution, creation of, 11, 142–3 ; constitution, foreign affairs, 159 ; constitution, guarantee, refusal of, 154–5

Luzern, 140, 159, 160

multicultural federation, social diver

multi-ethnic population, 13

municipalities : referendum, 160 ; structuring of, 143

Nidwalden, 158 ; constitution, new, 142–4

nuclear energy, 153, 155

Obwalden, 142–4, 158

ombudsman office, 100

Parliament, decision-making process, 154

political rights, 146–7

referendum, 160

same-sex marriage, 161

Schwyz, 140, 156, 159, 160

“self-rule,” 160

sovereignty, constitutional, 141

St Gallen, 147

sub-national constitutions, scholarly research about, 142

supervision of sub-national constitutions by federal systems, 9

Uri, 143

Valais/Wallis, 157, 161n

Vaud, 147

Zug, 157

Zürich, 140, 147

symmetrical federal systems, 12–13, 19

Tarr, G. Alan, 166

taxes, 55, 68, 76, 242

territoriality

territorial reform, 280

territorially based federations, 21

territorially decentralized states, 26–30

United Kingdom parliament, 211

TEU. See Treaty on the European Union

TFEU. See Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union

Third Reich, 63

Tierney, Stephen, 26–7

top-down pattern of influence, 4, 5, 31

European Union, 281, 282–6

Germany, 69–70

Spain, 218, 222, 228–9

topical hour (Aktuelle Stunde), 97

transition to free-market system, 109–10

Treaty of Maastricht (TEU), 258, 267–8, 280–1

Article 4 (principle of co-operation), 282

Article 4, paragraph 2 (respect for internal structures of Member States), 281

Treaty on the European Union (TEU), 269

Article 6 (1) (principles for membership), 137n

Article 48 (ratification of treaties), 274

Article 49 (conditions for membership), 137n

Treaty on the Functioning of the

European Union (TFEU), 269

Article 258 (obligation to EU law), 282, 285

Article 263, paragraph 2 (regions acting as privileged subjects), 291

Articles 2-6 (competences for the EU), 273

Trentino, 251n

Trentino-South Tyrol, 238

Trento, 245

Trieste, 246

tripartite contracts, 291

Tudjman, F., 111

Turkey, EU law, 261

Tyrol, 88, 90

Constitution : Article 11, paragraph 2 (right to property), 95 ; Article 14 (obligation to provide assistance in emergencies), 95

direct democracy, 96

elections, majority voting system, 100–1

investigations, requirements for, 99

investigative committees, 97

ombudsman office, 100

state goals, 93–4

UCD (Union de Centro Democratico), 224, 228, 236n

unification of East and West Germany, 63

uniform living conditions, 65

Union of Democratic Centre (Union de Centro Democratico, UCD), 224, 228, 236n

union state, 195, 197

United Kingdom, 26–7, 283, 292

Acts of Union of 1707, authority of United Kingdom Parliament derived from, 197

ad hoc devolution, 206–12

Blair, Tony, 211

bottom-up pressure for devolution, 200

Brown, Gordon, 211

centralization, 195–6

civil service, 209

Concordat on International Relations, 288

“constitutional amendment,” 213

constitutional space, territories, 195

“constitutional statutes,” 204, 206

constitutionalism, study of, 200

coordination of legislation, Westminster and Scottish Parliament, 212

Davies, Ron, 206

devolution of central government powers to sub-states, 195–6

Dicey, Albert V., 203–5

England : parliament, 211 ; regional government, 212

English Court of Appeal, 204

Equality and Human Rights Commission, 208

European Union, 204, 206 ; membership in, 198 ; Reform Treaty, 213

federalism, definitions of, 196

finances, territories, 209

Great Britain, Ireland, relationship with, 199

history of territorial governance, 195–200

Hope, Lord, 204–5

House of Commons, 210

House of Lords, 211, 213

Human Rights Act, 1998, 198, 206, 213

inter-governmental co-operation, 207–10, 288

inter-parliamentary relations, 208, 210–12

Ireland, 197, 199

Jackson (ban on fox hunting in England), 204–6

Joint Ministerial Committee (JMC), Scotland and London, 208–9

Labour Party, 201–2, 209–10

Laws, Lord Justice, 204, 206

Liberal Democrats, 209

London, mayor, 212

MacCormick (supremacy of Westminster Parliament), 204

Memoranda of Understanding and Supplementary Agreements (“concordats”), 209

name of state (United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland), 197

nationalism, sub-state, 200–3

Northern Ireland, 26–7 ; autonomy, 195 ; Belfast Agreement, 1998 (Good Friday Agreement), 200, 202–3 ; British unionists, 197 ; conflict between Irish republicans and British state, 202–3 ; devolution, bottom-up pressure for, 200–3 ; home rule movement, 199 ; Irish nationalists, 197 ; Northern Ireland Act, 1998, 200, 207, 213 ; Northern Ireland Human Rights Commission, 208 ; parliament at Stormont, 199 ; Provisional Irish Republican Army, 199 ; referendum for devolution, 202–3, 213 ; separatist nationalism, 207

parliamentary authority, 197

parliamentary sovereignty, 213 ; devolution settlements, effects on, 203–6 ; doctrine of, 204–5 ; principle of legal supremacy, 197 ; repeal of acts, 203–6

policy-making, influence of devolved territories, 208

quasi-federal system, 196, 207

quasi-federal systems, 207

referendum : constitutional change, 213–14 ; devolution, 201–3

Richard Commission, 206

Scotland, 26–7 ; autonomy, 195 ; Campaign for a Scottish Assembly (CSA), 201 ; civic and legal autonomy, nineteenth century, 198 ; A Claim of Right for Scotland, 1988, 201

devolution, bottom-up pressure for, 200–3 ; legal system, independent, 197–8 ; referendum for devolution, 201–2 ; Scotland Act 1998, 202, 208, 210 ; Scottish Constitutional Convention (SCC), 201–2, 204 ; Scottish Executive, 209 ; Scottish National Party (SNP), 207, 217n ; Scottish Office, 1928, 198 ; Scottish Parliament, 204–5, 210 ; Scottish Parliament and “legislative consent memorandums” or “Sewel resolutions,” 212 ; Secretary of State for Scotland, 1885, 198 ; separatist nationalism, 207 ; union with England, 1707, 197 ; Westminster, representation at, 210

Scotland’s Claim, Scotland’s Right, 202

Steyn, Lord, 204–5

sub-state territories, constitutional change, effect on, 196

territoriality, 211

“union state,” 195, 197

unwritten constitutional system, 196–7, 212

Wales, 26–7 ; autonomy, 195 ; devolution, 200–3, 206–7 ; Government of Wales Act, 1998, 201 ; Government of Wales Act, 2006, 206–7 ; National Assembly, 207 ; secretary of state, 1964, 199 ; union with England, 1536, 197–9

Welsh Assembly, 207 ; Welsh Office, 1964, 199

“West Lothian” question (Scottish influence in House of Commons), 210–11

Westminster, 210–12

White Paper, Scotland’s Parliament, 202, 204

United Nations, 121, 263

United Nations Covenant against racial discrimination, article 5 (right of equal access to governmental posts), 121

United States of America, 21

abortion ruling, 1973, 51

African Americans, voting rights, 50

age limits on voting, 50–1

aid for the needy, 54

Alabama, 46 ; Constitution, 15, 45

banks and corporations, political privileges of, 53–4

Bill of Rights, 20

bills of rights, 51–2

Blaine, James, 51

blockade politics, 73

Brennan, William, 52

Burger, Warren, 51

Burger Court, 51–2

California, 18 : Constitution, amendments to, 55 ; Constitution of 1879, 54 ; Convention of 1878-79, 56 ; Proposition 13 (limits on property taxes), 185 ; same-sex marriage, 20 ; Supreme Court, 52–3

capital punishment, 51–3

Castle Coalition, 55

civil liberties, 47, 52

collective bargaining, 54

Colorado, 50, 58 ; Constitution, 49, 54 ; Taxpayer Bill of Rights Amendment (TABOR), 55

concurrent legislation, 65

Congress, 6, 8

Connecticut : same-sex marriage, 20 ; Supreme Court, 52

Connerly, Ward, 55

Conservative Ascendance era, 53–5

Constitution : amendment process, 264 ; Article IV (admission of new states), 35n ; limits on states, 147, 151 ; Tenth Amendment (powers reserved to States), 165–6

Constitutions : constitutional space, 7, 14 ; constitutional-initiative procedure, 56 ; federal, amendment of, 45–7, 49 ; federal, design of, 48–9 ; federal, enumerated powers, 44–5 ; federal, length of, 43, 44–5 ; frequency of constitutional change, 16–17 ; sovereignty, 141 ; state, amendment of, 43, 45–7, 55–8 ; state, democratizing reforms, 49 ; state, influence on federal constitution, 20 ; state, issues covered by, 45 ; state, length of, 45 ; state, limits on powers of state governments, 166 ; state, policy provisions, 46–7 ; state, political changes achieved through, 47–55 ; state, prominence, consequences of, 44, 55–8 ; state, public policy reforms, 53–5 ; state politics, effects on, 55–8 ; state, suffrage, extension of, 49–51 ; sub-national constitutions, 4

criminal defendants, rights of, 51–3, 57

death penalty, 51–3

debt, public, 82

decentralization, 57

Delaware, 46

disenfranchised groups, 50

diversity in state political cultures, 58

dual federalism, 63–4, 66

federal government : convention of 1787, 48 ; sovereignty of, 151 ; state constitutions, effect on, 55–8 ; system, criticism of, 57

Florida, 46

free speech, 51

Georgia : Constitution, 51 ; Constitution of 1777, 48

governing institutions, design of, 48–9

groups, achievement of political goals by, 44, 48, 55–8

Guam, 5–6

Idaho, 50

individual rights : extension of, 51–3 ; protection for, 44

integrated federalism, 25

Iowa : same-sex marriage, 20 ; Supreme Court, 52

Jacksonian Era, 53–4

Jefferson, Thomas, 45–6, 55

judicial system, 179

Kansas Supreme Court, Schneider v. Kennedy, 166

Kentucky, Constitution, 51

labor unions, 54

limits on governmental power, 54–5

Louisiana, 15, 46

Madison, James, 45

Maine, 50

Maryland, Constitution of 1776, 48

Massachusetts, 46, 50 ; Constitution of 1780, 48 ; same-sex marriage, 20 ; Supreme Court, 52–3

Mississippi, Constitution of 1832, 49

Native Americans, 6

New Deal Era, 53–4, 64

New Hampshire, 15, 45, 50

New Jersey, Supreme Court, 52

“new judicial federalism,” 52

New York, 20, 50, 54, 56–7

Ohio, Constitution, 49

Oklahoma, Constitution, 49

opposition in government, 69

Oregon, 46, 56 ; Constitution, 19

Pennsylvania, Constitution of 1776, 48

political eras, 15–16

popular initiative and referendum, 49, 58

Populist Era, 53–4

Progressive Era, 53–4, 181

Progressive Party, 18

prohibition of intoxicating liquor, 47

public policy reforms, 53–5

railroads, regulation of, 54

Reagan, Ronald, 55

religion, 51

republican form of government, 177

Republican Party, 18

Roosevelt, Franklin, 54

same-sex marriage, 52–3, 57

South Dakota, Constitution, 49

sovereignty, constitutional, 141

states : admission of, 8, 11–12 ; courts, interpretation of constitutions, 43, 47 ; government, 44–5

judges, 47, 49

state legislatures, 49

suffrage, 44, 49–51, 57–8

supervision of sub-national constitutions, 8

supremacy clause of federal constitution, 47

Supreme Court, 10, 18, 43, 47, 51–3

taxes and spending, 55

territories, 5–6

US Constitution, Tenth Amendment, 25

Utah, 50

variation in state constitutions, 15

Vermont, 15, 50 ; Constitution of 1777, 48 ; Supreme Court, 52

Virgin Islands, 5–6

Virginia, Constitution of 1776, 48

Warren, Earl, 51

Warren Court, 52

women’s suffrage, 50–1, 57

workers : compensation program, 57 ; protection of, 54

Wyoming, 50

Upper Austria, 88, 90, 93–4

direct democracy, 96

elections, 100

Law on the Land Audit Office, 99

Uri, 143

Utah, 50

Valais/Wallis, 157, 161n

Valencian Community, 233

Vaud, 147

Veneto, 245, 250n, 252n

Venezia-Giulia, 246

Venice Commission (European Commission for Democracy of Law), 125, 137n

Vermont, 50

Constitution of 1777, 48

Supreme Court, 52

vertical federalism, 4

veto mechanisms, 115–16

veto-referendum, 96

Vienna, 88, 92, 93, 97–9

elections, majority voting system, 100–1

Virginia, Constitution of 1776, 48

vital interests, 115–16, 123

Viver, Carles, 27–8, 218–36

Vorarlberg, 88, 90, 91, 99, 103

Constitution : Article 11, paragraph 2 (right to property), 95 ; Article 12 (obligation to provide assistance in emergencies), 95 ; Article 33, paragraph 6 (citizen petitions), 91

direct democracy, 96

elections, majority voting system, 100–1

ombudsman office, 100

state goals, 93–4

voting age, 103

Waldhoff, Christian, 81

Wales

autonomy, 195

devolution, 200–3, 206–7

Government of Wales Act, 1998, 201

Government of Wales Act, 2006, 206–7

National Assembly, 207

referendum for devolution, 201

secretary of state, 1964, 199

union with England, 1536, 197–9

Welsh Assembly, 207

Welsh Office, 1964, 199

Walker, Neil, 269

Walloon Region (Belgium), constitutional autonomy, lack of, 165, 171

war, Bosnian, 109–11, 118

Warren, Earl, 51

Warren Court (United States), 52

Washington Agreement of March 1994, 111

weapons, control over, 71

Weimar Republic, 63

“West Lothian” question (Scottish influence in House of Commons), 210–11

Westminster, 210–12

Westminster-style governments in Canadian provinces, 175, 180–1

White Paper, Scotland’s Parliament, 202, 204

Wieland, Joachim, 82

wild-bird conservation (directive 79/409/CEE), 285

Williams, R.F., 166

Wimmer, Norbert, 98

Wiseman, Nelson, 189–90

Woelk, Jens, 23

women’s suffrage, 50–1, 57

workers

compensation program, 57

protection of, 54

Wyoming, 50

Yeltsin, Boris, 6

Yugoslavia, 109, 129n

Ziller, Jacques, 269

Zug, 157

Zürich, 140, 147

Zustimmungsgesetzgebung (consent legislation), 62, 73–4