CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION 1
Principles 2
Policies 6
PART I • ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION PRINCIPLES
1 THE SUSTAINABILITY PRINCIPLE 12
Limits to growth 13
Sustainability in the 1980s 17
Carrying capacity 20
Ecological footprint 25
Continuing debate 30
Further reading 31
2 THE POLLUTER PAYS PRINCIPLE 32
Functions of the polluter pays principle 37
Liability 39
Extended producer responsibility 44
Further reading 46
3 THE PRECAUTIONARY PRINCIPLE 47
Shifting the burden of proof 48
Nature of the precautionary principle 51
Threat to desired level of protection 53
Scientific uncertainty 56
Measures to be taken 62
Legislation 64
Further reading 67
PART II • SOCIAL PRINCIPLES
AND ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION
4 THE EQUITY PRINCIPLE 70
Intragenerational equity 71
Intergenerational equity 80
What should be sustained? 85
Further reading 89
5 HUMAN RIGHTS PRINCIPLES 91
Role of environmental protection 94
Environmental human rights 101
Further reading 104
6 THE PARTICIPATION PRINCIPLE 105
The right to know 106
Public participation 116
Further reading 121
PART III • ECONOMIC METHODS OF
ENVIRONMENTAL VALUATION
7 MEASURING ENVIRONMENTAL VALUE 124
National accounts 126
Cost-benefit analysis 129
Environmental valuation in practice 134
Further reading 137
8 IS MONETARY VALUATION PRINCIPLED? 138
The participation principle 138
The equity principle 143
Human rights principles 147
The sustainability principle 148
The precautionary principle 151
PART IV • ECONOMIC INSTRUMENTS FOR POLLUTION CONTROL
9 PRICES AND POLLUTION RIGHTS 156
Price-based measures 158
Tradeable pollution rights 161
Global warming measures 168
Further reading 173
10 THE SUSTAINABILITY PRINCIPLE AND ECONOMIC
INSTRUMENTS 174
Setting the baseline or cap 176
Phoney reductions 178
Monitoring and enforcement 182
Perpetuating bad practices 187
11 THE POLLUTER PAYS AND PRECAUTIONARY
PRINCIPLES APPLIED 192
The polluter pays principle 192
The precautionary principle 199
12 RIGHTS, EQUITY AND PARTICIPATION
PRINCIPLES APPLIED 204
Human rights principles 204
The equity principle 210
The participation principle 216
PART V • MARKETS
FOR CONSERVATION
13 QUOTAS, TRADES, OFFSETS AND BANKS 222
Tradeable fishing rights 223
Water trading 226
Salinity trading and offsets 230
Mitigation banking 231
Further reading 238
14 THE SUSTAINABILITY PRINCIPLE AND
CONSERVATION MARKETS 239
Fisheries trading 239
Water allowance trading 245
Mitigation banking 249
15 THE EQUITY, PARTICIPATION AND
PRECAUTIONARY PRINCIPLES APPLIED 257
The equity principle and tradeable fishing quotas 257
The equity principle and water trading 264
The participation principle 266
The precautionary principle 268
16 CONCLUSION 275
Bibliography 279
Index 297