Contents

12.1. Introduction 983

12.2. Individual and/or Household Income and Living Standards: From Measurement Issues to

Conceptual Issues and Back to Measurement Issues 985

12.2.1 Measuring Income: Components and Units 987

12.2.2 From the Household's Disposable Income to the Standard of Living at the Individual

Level: The Statistical Approach 988

12.2.3 Behind the Statistical Approach: The Household “As If’ an Individual 991

12.2.3.1 The Unitary Model of Household Behavior 991

12.2.3.2 Methodological and Empirical Issues 992

12.2.4 OtherRepresentationsoftheHousehold 993

12.2.4.1 NonunitaryModelsoftheHousehold 994

12.2.4.2 Intrahousehold Finances: A Socioeconomic Perspective on Income in the Household 996

12.2.5 Backto Measurementand the Pending Question of Intrahousehold Distribution of

Income: Where We Stand, the Consequences, and Gendering the Issue 999

12.2.5.1 “How Serious Is the Neglect of Intrahousehold Inequality?quot; 1000

12.2.5.2 The Standard Assumptions and the Assessment of Gender Economic Inequality 1004

12.3.

12.3.1 Main Trends and Cross-Country Differences in Gender Labor Market Outcomes 1006

12.3.1.1 Narrowing, But at Different Speeds Across Countries, and Not Closing Completely 1007

12.3.1.2 Gender Labor Market Outcomes: An Overview for OECD Countries 1009

12.3.2 Gender Segregation on the Labor Market 1013

12.3.2.1 How to Analyze the Gender Wage Differential 1013

12.3.2.2 Gender Differences in Occupations and Sectors 1016

12.3.2.3 Vertical Segregation and the Glass Ceiling 1021

12.3.3 Psychology, Social Norms, and the Gender Wage Gap 1025

12.3.3.1 Gender Differences in Risk Aversion and Competitiveness 1025

12.3.3.2 Occupational Segregation, Risk Aversion, and Gender Identity 1026

12.3.3.3 The Impact of Women's Lack of Competitiveness on Wages 1027

12.3.4 Family Constraints, Career Interruptions, and the Family Pay Gap 1028

12.3.4.1 On the Demand Side: Lower Wages as a Result of the Inelasticity of Female Labor

Supply 1029

12.3.4.2 The Supply Side: Part-Time Work and Career Interruptions 1029

12.3.4.3 The Family Pay Gap 1031

12.3.4.4 Opting Out: Do Highly Skilled Mothers Interrupt Their Careers? 1033

12.3.4.5 On the Men's Side: A Marriage Premium 1034

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12.3.5 InstitutionsandPoliciesMatter 1036

12.3.5.1 Firm-TargetedPolicies 1037

12.3.5.2 Public Policy and Women's Participation in the Labor Market 1040

12.4. TheCaseofSelf-Employment 1050

12.4.1 Stylized Facts 1052

12.4.1.1 The Fuzzy Scope of Self-Employment 1052

12.4.1.2 The Gender Gap in Self-Employment 1053

12.4.2 Why So Few Women in Self-Employment? 1053

12.4.3 Self-Employed Women: Family Constraints and Gaps in Working Hours and Earnings 1055

12.4.4 Are Women Discriminated Against in Their Access to Credit? 1057

12.5.

12.5.1 Sparse and Noncomparable Statistics 1060

12.5.2 The Gendered Effects of Pension Regulations 1062

12.5.2.1 Coverage and Contributions: The Gendered Impact of Current Reforms 1063

12.5.2.2 BenefitCalculationMethods 1064

12.5.2.3 Life Expectancy, Gender, and Pensions 1066

12.5.3 Family Matters for Pensions, Too 1066

12.6. Nonmarket Work, the Gender Division of Labor, and Gender Inequality 1068

12.6.1 Nonmarket Work/Household Production 1071

12.6.1.1 Two Conceptual Revolutions 1071

12.6.1.2 Measurement and Valuation Issues 1074

12.6.2 Taking Households' Production and Productive Time into Account: What Does

It Change? 1079

12.6.2.1 HouseholdProductionandtheMarkets 1079

12.6.2.2 Household Production and Inequality Between Households 1081

12.6.2.3 HouseworkandGenderInequality 1084

12.6.3 Within the Household: The Persistent Gender Division of Labor 1093

12.6.3.1 An Overview of the Theoretical Background: Approaches to the Division of Labor

Within the Household in Economics and Other Social Sciences 1093

12.6.3.2 An Overview of Empirical Results 1097

12.7. WealthandGender 1105

12.7.1 WhoOwnsWhatWithinHouseholds? 1107

12.7.2 Investigating the Gender Gap in Wealth 1109

12.7.2.1 Strategies and Limitations 1109

12.7.2.2 Evidence: Gender and Composition Effects 1111

12.7.3 MeasuringtheGenderGapinWealthandItsComponents 1114

12.7.4 Wealth and Gender Within the Household 1115

12.8. Conclusion 1117

References 1119