Conclusion

The indigenous practices such as Merriah sacrifice among Khonds, witchcraft, Sati, self­immolation under the wheels of the Car of Lord Jagannath, etc., as publicised in colo­nial narratives, had enjoyed the royal patronage during the pre-colonial period.

used to provide patronage to these practices to gain legitimacy among tribal communi­ties. These practices came under the colonial lenses in the 19th century and the British developed a legal structure with a specialised police force along with specific treatment in court and specific techniques of investigation. This resulted in the development of a series of legal strategies and structure to penetrate deep into Oriya society to strengthen the colonial authority and strengthen the state-subject relationship. Initially though the British adopted a cautious attitude towards these practices, but later on adopted the rule of punishment to prevent these barbaric and inhuman practices. The colonial narrative of weeding out the wild, uncivilised, and terror elements from the society promoted such interference and brought indigenous communities under the radar of colonial governmen- tality. The native chiefs who were earlier part and parcel of these practices played a dou­ble game. They became collaborators of the British in their civilising mission and on the other hand secretly endorsed such practices in order to secure their legitimacy over the indigenous communities. However, the British enjoyed the support of the upper and mid­dle class under the cloak of good and law abiding subjects in its civilising mission. The complexity and the technicality of the colonial legality and governmentality was beyond the comprehension of the common people which enabled the colonial government and the native chiefs to play their own game to gain the political and legal subordination of these communities.

Notes

1 It is the English spelling of the present day state of Odisha, the eighth largest state of India. The name was changed from Orissa to Odisha by the passage of the Orissa (alteration of name) Bill, 2010 and the Constitution (113th Amendment) Bill, 2010 in the Parliament. Since topic of the research engagement deals with historical period the spelling Orissa is used.

2 A king of Kalinga, the present day Odisha who ruled some time in second BCE or first BCE.

3 In Hinduism, the worshippers and followers of Vishnu in his personal incarnation as Krishna are called Bhagavatas. It represented the beginning of devotional worship called Bhakti in Hinduism.

4 This refers to people who remained outside the ambit of the initial state formation in Orissa, such as the hill tribes and other indigenous population of far and distant regions.

5 A form of Shiva, Hindu deity worshipped by the Sauras (a tribal group residing in Southern Odisha appropriated by the Gangas (the imperial rulers of Orissa ruling from early fifth century to early 15^th century).

6 She is one of the manifestations of Shakti.

7 The Gangas belonging to the Eastern Ganga dynasty ruled Orissa from fifth to early 15^th century (Singha 2005: 213-214).

8 The Gajapati dynasty established by Kapilendradeva ruled Orissa from 1434 to 1541 after the fall of the Ganga dynasty (Singha 2005:213-214).

9 The Hindu society during the early Vedic period was divided into 4 varnas viz; Brahmin, Kshatriya, Vaisya, and Sudra. Brahmins were the priestly class and specialised in the performance of religious rituals, Kshatriyas performed warfare and administration, Vaisyas specialised in agriculture and trade and commerce, and Sudras belonged to the menial working class.

10 Founder of the Gajapati dynasty of Orissa.

11 The second ruler of Gajapati dynasty from 1467-1497.

12 The ceremonial sweeping of the car of the three deities during the Car festival.

13 27,000 villages, a vast area of landed property was donated by Raghuji Bhonsle of Nagpur to meet the day-to-day expenditure of Lord Jagannath (Ghose 1848:32).

14 A tribal group, also known as Sabara, Saora, and Saura found in the states of Odisha, Madhya Pradesh, and Andhra Pradesh.

15 In Odia ‘Gaja’ means elephant and ‘Pati’ means master. It means master of the elephant army. The Gajapati kings possessed a huge army of elephants that supplemented their military strength.

16 Charles Grome's report on the temple of Jagannath 10 June 1805. Orissa State Archives, Dept. of Culture, Govt. of Orissa, Bhubaneswar

17 It is the practice of human sacrifice prevalent among the Khond Community of Orissa (Gangte 2017:114).

18 A tribal group of Orissa, also spelt as Kandha, Kond, etc.

19 An ancient branch of Solar dynasty which ruled the districts of present day Koraput and Rayagada from the 15th century onwards. They were earlier the vassals of Gajapati kings. Later on they founded their independent kingdom and ruled from their capital of modern day Rayagada. Later on, they shifted their capital to Jeypore (Koraput district of Odisha) (Misra 2005:234-235).

20 CTA amended in 1897, section 23.1 and 23.2.

21 CTA amended in 1897, Sections 16 and 17.

22 The victims of human sacrifices were called Meriah in Oriya although the Khonds called them Toki or Keddi (John Cambell 1864). The Meriah Agency was established in 1845.

23 Sarala Das's Odia Mahabharata (Judhistira as Dharmik Raja) and Vilanka Ramayana (Rama as Dharmik Raja); Jayadev's Gita Govinda; Upendra Bhanja's Baidehisa Bilasa, etc. throw light on the concept of Dharma and Dharmik Raja for their patronisation of religion and rituals of sub­jects.

24 Twenty Five questions addressed to the Rajas and Chiefs of the Regulation and Tributary Mahals by the Superintendent in 1814 and the answers given there to, Calcutta, 1861, p-17.

25 Papers relating to the East India Affairs viz. copies of all communications received from India since 10 July 1821 related to the burning of females on the funeral pyres of their husband (printed, June 19 1823):78, Gregory’s Report 11August 1819.

26 Board Proceedings, Judicial, vol-542, 1829, p-422-23, Sati Regulation XVII, 4 December 1829, Indian Historical Records Commission, vol-XVII, p-39, West Bengal State Archives.

27 Board Proceedings, Revenue, A. J. M. Mills, Commissioner to the Secretary to the Government of Bengal, 11January 1840, Accession No-87, Orissa State Archives.

28 Board Proceedings, Revenue, Secretary to Government to A.J.M. Mills, 25 Novembe 1840, Accession No- 87, Orissa State Archives.

29 Board Proceedings, Revenue, Mill’s Minute, 23 January 1847, Accession No-134, Orissa State Archives.

30 Selections from the Records of the Bengal Government, No-III. A.J.M. Mills papers on the Settlement of Cuttack and on the Settlement of Tributary Mahals, 1847, p. 62.

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