Index

abangan, Indonesia 444—6, 454

Abbasid dynasty 315-16,318,325,331,370, 390, 456, 477 and Iran 356-8

Abd al-Aziz ibn Saud 459-60

Abdul Aziz, Shah 279-80

Abdur Rahman 522-3

Abdurrauf of Singkel 442, 447

Abelard, Peter 208-9

Abhidharma 600-1, 629, 631, 635, 639-40

Abhinavagupta, Saivite scholar 686, 690, 695-6, 699, 700-1, 703

absolutism, confessional 221, 248

Abu Abd Allah 334-5

Abu Bakr, Caliph 315, 382, 520

Abu Maydan 338, 348

Abu Yazid 324

Abul Kalam Azad 381, 385

Aceh, Islam in 434,436-7,441-3,447-9,451

Achaemenid dynasty 559-60

Acton, John 234

Acts of the Apostles, as historical evidence 94, 100, 102, 142

adat, Indonesia 436, 447-50

Adi Granth, Sikh scriptures 720-1, 723 Adoptionists 148

Advaita Vedanta 276, 574, 643, 651, 656, 658, 709-10

affliction, cults of 829-31,868 Afghanistan, Islam in 363, 370-1 Africa

Christianity in, expansion 243-56, 489-93, 864-5, 870, 945

Islam in 307-8, 470-85, 488-97, 945 Dar Fur and Wadai 472-3 Nile Valley 471-2 revival and reform 477-80

new religions 252, 907, 945-52 causes of 947-8

traditional religions 823—4, 864-72 pre-colonial 250-1, 491-5, 867-70 see also Central Africa; East Africa;

North Africa; West Africa; South Africa

Africa, sub-Saharan, Christianity in 181, 244-52, 287-8, 289, 291-3

African Orthodox Church 949

Afro-Brazilian religion 823, 832 afterlife

in Hinduism 705

Vedic concept of 582 Aga Khan 322, 383 Aghabhd dynasty 331, 332, 333-5 agnosticism 59, 237 agriculture, and traditional religion 874,

876, 879, 894-5, 898-9, 902 ahilik (Ottoman brotherhood) 396-7 Ahmad, ruler of Yemen 465 Ahmad Sirhindi, Shaykh 378-9, 507, 513 Ahmadiya movement 505-6, 507, 513 Ahura Mazda, chef god of Mazdaism 552,

554-64, 812

Akali Dal, Sikh party 724-5

Akbar, Mogul Emperor 273, 372, 378,

383-4, 386-8

Akiva, Rabbi 109, 113 Al Bu Sa'id clan 462-3 aladura churches 253, 946 Alauddin Khalji 371, 383 Alawi (Nusayri) faction 466-7 Albania

Church in 239, 299

Islam in 514-15, 524 Alberuni, philosopher 370, 374 alchemy

in Indian religions 619, 651

in Tantrism 655

in Taoism 547-50 alcohol

Buddhist ban 596

Islamic ban 348, 350, 406 Alexander III, Pope 200 Alexander VI (Rodrigo Borgia), Pope 218 Alexandria

Patriarchate of 181 theology of 145, 149-50, 154-5, 162-5, 167, 168, 189, 194, 243

Alexis, Russian Patriarch 180 Algar, Hamid 364-5

Algeria, Islam in 335-6,342-3,344-50,488, 499-500

Ali, son-in-law of Muhammad 310, 315,

318, 321-2, 382

alim see ulema

All India Muslim League 373

Allal el-Fassi 346-7

Almohad dynasty 336, 338, 342

Almoravid dynasty 335-6, 342, 348, 475 Alvars 572, 624, 643-4

Amar Das, Sikh Guru 718-19, 721 Ambrose of Milan 156, 159-60, 161 American Muslim Mission 527-8 Amitäbha Buddha 630, 633, 758, 760, 764, 771, 772, 775-6, 797

Amoraim 113-14

Amritsar, Sikh centre 720, 725

Anabaptists 220, 223, 258

Anähitä, Mazdean deity 558, 560, 561, 563 Anandavardhana, Hindu poet 617, 624, 644 anätman (Sanskrit) =anatta (Pali), in

Buddhism 631, 736

see also ätman

ancestor cults

in African religion 251, 867-9 China 281, 411-12, 423

in Maori religion 854—5, 858

Melanesia 843-5, 847, 849

in new religions 838 in shamanism 825 Tibet 811

Andaya, B.

Angad, Sikh Guru 718, 721

Anglicanism 66, 190, 223-4, 235, 260, 262; see also England, Church of

Anglo-Catholicism 240, 251 animism 8, 17-18, 275 and Buddhism 732 and Islam 337, 339, 444

Anselm of Canterbury 208 anti-clericalism 211, 234, 238, 239, 269 anti-popes 198, 202 anti-Semitism 65, 69, 136

in Middle Ages 125-6 antinomianism 231,478,574,626,648,654, 655-8

and Tantrism 650

Antioch

Patriarchate of 181 theology of 162-5, 168, 170, 183, 187, 189, 194

Antony, hermit 151, 157-8 apocalyptic writings, Judaism 96, 99, 106, 109

Apocrypha 70, 73

Apollinaris, Bishop of Laodicea 162-3

Apologists 145-6, 148 apostles, see tradition, apostolic

Aquinas, Thomas 4, 30, 59, 209-10, 222, 227, 235

Arab League 496

Arabic

in Africa 347, 349, 484

in Far East 427, 433, 440

and Judaism 117-18, 120

maintenance of 501

as official language 185, 188

in Ottoman Empire 398 Arabs

North Africa 329-31, 335

and origins oflslam314,316,356-7,390

and spread of Islam 369, 471, 473-4, _ 480-2

Aranyakas 575, 579 architecture

Christian 147, 212, 226, 236, 266

Islamic 387-8, 398, 414

Arian controversy 154-5, 156-7, 159, 162,

195

Arias, Mortimer 302 Aristotelianism

and Christianity 201, 209

and Judaism 119

Arjan, Sikh Guru 719, 720, 721 Arles, Council of 154

Armenian Church 188-9, 294 Arminianism 223, 260-1

art

Buddhist 773-4

Islamic 387-8, 398, 402, 494 arts, visual, Christian 147, 218-19, 229, 276 Aryas, in India 571-3, 575-7, 583, 603,

605-7, 618-19

Asanga, Buddhist scholar 634,760,762,794 Asante state, religion 870 asceticism

in Christianity 157-8, 159, 161, 170, 204 in Indian religions 582,589-90, 592,618, 657

in Islam 323, 333, 337-9

in Judaism 108

in Mazdaism 564

in Theraväda Buddhism 730, 737

see also Saivism

Asharites 323, 376 Ashkenasijews 115, 117, 120-1, 122, 125 Askari, Hassan 304

Asoka, Maurya emperor 601,603,727,729,

759

‘Assassins’ 359 assimilation, of Muslims 308, 375, 413-19,

515-16, 526

Assyrian Church 184, 294 astrology, in Tibet 810, 811 asura (Mazdean deities) 553-4, 614 Ataturk, Kemal 401-3, 404-7, 503 Athanasius 156-7, 186, 243

Atharva-Veda 575, 578, 580, 582, 584, 586 atheism 52-60, 230, 233, 236, 237-8

and Buddhism 6, 53, 610

and Hinduism 610

and Jainism 610

as religion 8

and theism 58

see also materialism

Atis'a, Buddhist scholar 784-5, 787, 793 dtman (self) 584-5, 597, 631, 640, 642-3,

695, 711;see also andtmanlanatta atomism, in Hinduism 639 Atonement, day of (Yom Kippur) 82, 140 al-Attas, S.M.Ng.

222, 243

Augustinian Order 205 Aurangzeb, Mogul emperor 372, 379, 385,

722

Austin, Allan D. 520-1, 522

Australia, Aboriginal religions 823-4 beliefs and cults 838-41

future for 841-2

Austria, Church in 228-9, 237, 239 authority

charismatic 908-9, 916

Church 198-203, 208, 214, 219, 227, 232, 233-4,235-6

ofJesus 97

of scripture 71, 112, 146, 198, 220

of Pope 194 Avalokitesvara 633, 635, 776, 781, 784,

796-7

avatdra, in Hinduism 613-14, 622, 625 Avesta (Mazdean scriptures) 553, 555, 560,

564, 566

Awakening, Great 259-60 Ayub Ibn Suleyman, Prince 520, 522 Ayyubid Sultanate 185

Aztec religion 889, 891, 892-9

Babism 364-5, 457 Babylonia, Judaism in 77-8, 113-15, 320 Bachtiar, Harsa W. 445

Badarayana 586, 642, 643 Baeck, Rabbi Leo 111, 120, 121, 136-9 Bahaism 364, 567, 945

Bana, Hindu poet 617 Bangladesh, creation of 374 baptism

in Christianity 94, 100, 148, 223, 259, 261, 278, 955

in Sikhism 722, 724

Baptist Church 239,252,258,260,262,299,

962

Bar Kochba, Simon 92, 109 barbarians, invasions 170, 173, 195 Barelvi school 380

Barrett, David 289 Barth, Karl 30, 238

Basavaniia, Indian poet 657

Basil of Caesarea 157-8

Basle, Council of 1431-49 203, 218

Ba‘th Party

Iraq 467

Syria 466-7

Baiils, India 657

Baur, F.C. 236

Bayle, Pierre 229

Beaufort, Captain 399

Becket, Thomas 199, 213 bedouin 314, 458-9 belief, religious, as universal 39

Ben Badis, Abd al-Hamid 347, 349, 350

Ben Dosa, Haninah 94, 106

Ben Eliezer, Israel 127

Benedict, Benedictine Order 204, 206, 226 Benedict XIV, Pope 230

Berbers 329-31, 334-5, 474

Berbovits, Eliser 139

Berg, Moses David 915

Berkeley, George 230

Bernadette, St see Soubirous, Bernadette Bernard of Clairvaux 206

Bez, Theodore 223

Bhagavadgltä 586, 607, 611—12, 623, 624

Bhagavan, in Hinduism 611-15, 618, 625, 643

Bhdgavata-Purdna 572, 608, 612, 623, 624

Bhairava Käpälika Saivism 668-9, 670, 672, 675, 684, 694

bhakti (devotion) 623, 624, 625, 629, 647-8 Bhakti movement 378

Bhäve, Vinobä 712

Bible

authority of 71

translations of 173, 194, 219, 274, 951 see also New Testament; Old Testament;

Scriptures

Blondel, Maurice 238

bodhi (enlightenment) 592-3, 596, 598, 632-3, 758; see also enlightenment

Bodhisattva (the Buddha Säkyamuni in a past life) 632-3

(heavenly) 635, 653, 742, 748, 753, 796 see also Avalokitesvara

bodhisattva (Mahayana ideal) 632-3, 653, 783, 796, 801, 809

Boehme, Jakob 231

Boff, Clodovis 303

Bohras 383

Boland, BJ.

Bon religion 805-6, 807-10 Bonhoeffer, Dietrich 58, 238

Boniface VIII, Pope 201-2, 213 book, peoples of the 330, 369, 393

Bora, Australian Aboriginal ceremony 837, 838

bori cult, Africa 483, 831, 834, 950

Boris of Bulgaria 174

Borneo (Kalimantan), Islam in 434

Borno, Islam in 473, 475, 476, 478 Borromeo, Charles 224

Bossuet, Jacques Benigne 226, 228 Boumedienne, Houari 348 Bourguiba, Habib 347-8, 352 Bourguignon, E. 827 Boyce, Mary 556, 567

Brahma, in Hinduism 610-11, 616 Brahma Kumaris 964

Brahma-siitra 586, 642—3, 644 brahman 573, 579-81, 592, 597, 605, 640-4,

655-6, 702, 705, 708, 715

in Upanisads 584-7

Brahmanas 575, 579-81 brahmin

in Indian religion 579-80, 587, 604-5, 609, 623, 656, 703-4, 715, 732

in Nepal 740, 743, 746, 748, 752 Brahma Samaj 705-6

Brazil, Catholicism in 268-71, 301 Brest-Litovsk, Union of 179, 229 Brhadaranyaka-Upanisad 584, 585 Britain

in Africa 345, 481, 487-8

in India 372-3, 379-80

Islam in 500, 502, 506-10 in Middle East 463-4 new religions 907, 929

Brown, Leon Carl 348, 349, 350-1

Buber, Martin 57, 128, 136-7, 139, 294 Bucer, Martin 221

Buddha (Prince Siddhartha) 592-3, 630; see also Sakyamuni

Buddhas, celestial 633, 653, 787, 801, 813; see Amitabha, Vairocana

Buddha-Bodies, see trikdya

Buddhaghosa, Indian monk 635-6, 727-8,

737

Buddhism 294

Amida 538, 771-2; see also Amitabha Buddha

and animism 18

definitions 52-3

early history 532-3, 583, 588-603, 648, 655

expansion 602-3

and gods 18, 732

and ideology 46

and Islam 381, 390

and new religions 909, 932, 938-41, 964

Pali Canon 600-1, 602, 628, 726-8, 732

popular 601-2, 732-3, 771

Tibetan Canon 794

see also atheism; Hinayana Buddhism; Mahayana Buddhism; monasticism;

Tantrism; Theravada Buddhism; and under individual countries Bukhari Djohori 442 Bulgaria

Church 174-5, 177, 180, 233, 239, 299 Islam in 513, 514, 515-16

Bultmann, Rudolf 236

Burma, Buddhism in 730-1, 732

Burrow, Thomas 554, 558

Butler, Joseph 230

Buyid dynasty 357-8

Byzantine era 156, 168-72, 174, 178, 203 and Islam 313, 329-30, 391, 393 see also Constantinople

Caecilian, Bishop of Carthage 153—4, 161 calendar

Christian 104, 241

Jewish 80, 108, 112, 140

caliphate 401-2

Caliphs, rightly guided 310, 318, 477 calligraphy 388, 398, 415

in Japanese Buddhism 773, 777

Calvin, John, Calvinism 221-3, 226, 229, 235-6, 258, 259-61

Cambodia, Theravada Buddhism in 730, 731

Canada

Christianity in 226, 257-9, 261-3 Islam in 524

United Church of 263

Candomble, African cult 832 cannibalism, Melanesia 849-50 capitulations system 397-8 Cappadocian Fathers 157-8, 162 Capuchin Order 224

Cargo-cults 457, 845, 846, 850-2

Carmelite Order 190, 218, 226

Caro, Joseph 117, 121

Carthusian Order 205

caste system

India 573,587,626,657-8,708,711,715, 718, 832

and Islam 357, 374, 377, 378, 430 Nepal 740-1, 743, 746, 750 catechist, Christian 495 Cathar heresy 201, 206-7 Catholic Apostolic Church 236 Catholic Patriotic Association, China 280, 283

Catholicism, Roman

in China 280-2, 284-5, 300

in India 190, 274-5 and Islam 511-12

Liberal 234, 235, 268-70, 283 modern 237-41, 291

Modernist movement 235 in North Africa 187

in North America 217-18, 261—3, 291, 880

reform 232, 234-5, 240

and Revolution 232—6

in South America 66, 216, 217, 265-71, 301-2

see also Counter-Reformation; missionaries; Papacy celibacy

in Buddhism 752, 785, 786, 793, 799

in Christianity 103, 209

in Jainism 589-90

Celsus 145

Central Africa, Islam in 486-7 Cerularius, Patriarch Michael 173 Chalcedon, Council of451 155, 164—5, 172,

189, 193, 274

effects of 167-70, 183 Chaldean Church 184 Ch’an (Zen) Buddhism 550, 758, 763-5,

766, 783, 802, 815; see also Japan,

Buddhism in; Zen Buddhism

Chändogya-Upanisad 584

Chang Tao-ling 547, 548 Chanukah 140

Charismatic Renewal 263, 296, 920, 961,

963

Charlemagne 195-6, 204

Charles V, Emperor 217, 220 Chen-yen Buddhism 654, 770; see also

Tantrism

Chichimec religion 985

Children of God (Family of Love) 914, 915,

920, 963-4

China

Buddhism in 627, 635, 756-66 early history 549, 654, 756-61 modern history 766 monasticism 757, 760, 763, 765 schools of 761-5

Christianity in 182-4, 279-86, 300, 766

Confucianism 281,542-3,548,759,760, 762, 765, 777

Islam in 300, 408-24, 760 and acculturation 410-19 history 409-10 modern era 419-24

Nestorian Church in 183-4, 281 Orthodox Church in 182

Tantrism 549-50, 762

Taoism 542-51, 757, 760, 763, 764, 766, 771

see also Buddhism; Confucianism;

Hinayäna Buddhism; Taoism China Christian Council 284, 285 China Inland Mission 282 Ch’ing dynasty 410-11, 413, 424 Chishti order 374, 375-6, 378, 381-2, 385 Cho (gCod) practices, Tibet 802, 807 Christadelphians 962

Christian Democratic parties 239, 270 Christian Science 913, 915, 916, 964 Christianity

early, historical evidence for 93-4, 100-5, 142—4; see also Church, early expansion and contraction 289-91, 297-304

future prospects for 297-304

and ideology 45-9

Jewish 102, 108

and Maoris 854, 855-6

and new religions 908, 909, 914, 932, 946-7, 949, 951-2

and secularisation 956-66

and theology of world religions 13-14, 19-20

and traditional religions 823, 846, 851—2 universality and parochialism 66, 289 urban 207, 231, 236, 238, 241,270 views of Old Testament 64, 68-70, 71, 104, 126, 150, 161, 205

see also heresies; Judaism; mysticism; and under individual countries

Christology

early Church 101-2, 105, 109, 155, 156-7, 162-5, 183

Eastern 167-9, 191

and Hinduism 707, 708

Chu-she school of Buddhism 763 Chuang-tzu (Chuang Chou) 543,545-6,547 Chukshee, and shamanism 834

Church, institutions 103-4, 145, 147, 156, 236, 241

Church, early

doctrines of 101—3, 146, 150-1, 154—5, 156, 182

Eastern 148-9, 154-5, 156, 162-5 fourth-century triumph 155-61 and state 152-4, 156, 157-62, 169, 171-2 third century expansion 146-52

Church, medieval

attitude to Jews 117, 120-1, 122, 124, 126, 214, 217

and state 174, 178-81, 193-4, 197-203, 211, 214

Church Missionary Society 247, 248, 249, 251

Church, modern, and state 187, 232-3, 261-2, 265-6, 268, 273, 280, 283-4, 299

Church, post-Reformation, and state 229, 235

churches

indigenous African 866

spiritual 946 churches, independent, Africa 247, 251-4,

287-8, 457

churches, separatist, Africa 253-4

Chusco, American shaman 884—5, 886-8, 892

Circumcellions 158 circumcision and early Church 100, 102, 143 in Islam 396

Cistercian Order 206

Clapham Sect 235, 245 clergy, indigenous 244, 247, 250, 251, 252, 254, 267, 276 see also priesthood

cleric, Muslim, see marabout

Clovis 195

clown, sacred 877-8

Cohen, Gerson 116

Cohen, Hermann 136-8

Coleridge, S.T.

Colhua religion 985 colonialism

and African religion 865, 871, 947 and Buddhism 731

and Christianity 243-4, 246, 249, 250, 253-4

and Islam 344-6, 427-8, 431, 445-6, 486-9, 493, 495

Comenius, J.A. 229

Common Life, Brethren of the 214, 219

Communism 238-40, 242, 279-80, 282-3

and Islam 404, 408, 410, 419-22, 448-9, 514-18

communities, base 270, 301-3 Complutensian Polyglot translation 216 Comte, Auguste 237

Conciliar Movement 202-3, 218-19 Concordat of Worms 199

Conferences, Islamic 420-1, 461, 496 Confessing Church 238

confirmation, Christian 131, 955 Confucianism 281, 542

and Buddhism 760, 762, 765, 777 and Islam 410, 411-13, 415, 419, 424 and new religions 932

Congregationalist Church 258, 262-3 consciousness

in Buddhism 762, 795, 801, 804 in Hinduism 585-6

in Tantrism 675-7, 683, 693-5, 697 conservatism, as ideology 43, 45, 48 Constance, Council of 1415 203, 218 Constans, Emperor 156-7

Constantine, Emperor 152-5, 156, 171, 195 Constantinople

fall of 173, 178

Fifth Council 553 168-9, 183 Patriarchate 182, 193 sack of 1204 201,214

Second Council of 157, 162-3, 194 as senior bishopric 164-5,167-8,170; see also Byzantine era

Sixth Ecumenical Council 169, 190

Constantius II, Emperor 156, 157 context, and belief 12, 34 converts, Muslim, see Islam, twentieth-century expansion

Coptic Churches 168, 185-7, 243, 294, 949 Corbin, Henry 354, 359

Cordovero, Moses 123 core, common, see essence cosmology

Buddhism 761-2

Christian 237

Hinduism 639, 640-1, 666 Jainism 591 traditional religions 490-2, 874, 876

Counter-Reformation 216, 224-9, 273 covenant 85,107

Cranmer, Thomas 221 creation in Christianity 237, 536 in Hinduism 708 in Islam 325, 378, 483 in Judaism 71, 72, 87, 121 myths 580, 606, 614, 837, 854, 857-8, 861, 868, 874, 898

creeds, Christian, development of 147, 155, 156-7; see also Nicea, Council of criticism, biblical 230, 236-7

Crowther, Samuel Ajayi 247, 249, 252 crucifixion of Jesus 94, 98-9, 102

Crusades 391, 511 and East-West schism 173, 214 effects of 185, 213 and Jews 117, 120, 214 cults

African 868-9, 871 masked, and Islam 494 see also ancestors, cults of; Cargo-cults culture

Chinese 408, 410-13, 423, 757 Christian 281, 288-91, 297 indigenous, and Christianity 281-3, 285-6, 291-3

Indo-Muslim 374-6, 386-7, 410 Islamic347-8,355,368,414-15,419-20, 488

Cyprian, Bishop of Carthage 147, 148, 149-50, 153-4, 243

Cyprus, Church of 181

Cyril of Alexandria 156, 163, 164, 167-8, 183

Cyril (Constantine), apostle to the Slavs 173-4, 177

Cyril Lukaris, Confession of 176 Czechoslovakia, Orthodoxy in 180, 239, 299

daeva, in Mazdaism 553-4, 557-8; see also deva

Dalai Lama 793-4, 796-7, 805, 814

Damascius 543, 561

Darqawiyya brotherhood 344 darsana 637-8, 640-2, 644 darul Islam movement 448, 451, 453

Darwin, Charles 237

David, Jewish king 74, 77, 89, 196

Dead Sea Scrolls 78, 93

Deism 129, 229-30, 231, 233, 260

Delhi Sultanate 371-2, 374, 383, 386

Democritus 55-6 demythologising 237 dervishes 359, 361, 364, 391, 392-3 Descartes, Rene 230

Deuteronomistic History 79, 85

Deuteronomy 76, 84—5, 86, 89

deva

definitions 537-8, 553-4

in epic-puränic literature 602, 610-11, 613-15, 616, 618

folk and regional beliefs 584, 613, 614, 620

in |ainism 589

in Vedas 576-8, 579-80, 584-5

Devlmahdtmya 616, 618, 623

Devipaiicas'ataka 683—4, 696 devotionalism, in Hinduism 574, 618-26, 634-5, 715-16

dharma (cosmic law) 581, 587, 591, 624, 640

Dharma (Dhamma) (teaching of Buddha) 598-600, 601, 603, 630, 632, 727-8, 735, 795, 807

dharma (Buddhist: smallest component of reality) 601, 631-3, 635, 763

Dianetics 916

Diderot, Denis 230

Digambara Jainism 588, 646

Dijk, C.

Diocletian, Emperor 152, 155

Dionysian cults 831, 832

Dioscorus 163-4

divination, in Tibet 805, 806

Divine Light Mission 914, 963

Dobbin, Christine 566

Dogen, Buddhist monk 773

Dohm, C.W. von 129

Dollinger, Ignaaz von 234

Dominican Order 207, 273

Donation of Constantine 197-8

Donatism 153-4, 156-7, 158, 160-1

Dostoevsky, F. 239, 298

Douglas, Μ. 827, 833

Drogmi, Tibetan scholar 786, 787

Dromten, Tibetan Buddhist 784-5 drugs, and shamanism 828-9, 833, 834 Druze Muslims 191,466

dualism

in Hinduism 644

and Mazdaism 557, 564-5 Duchesne-Guillemin, Jacques 563 Dumezil, Georges 553, 554-6, 558, 560, 563 Duperron, Anquetil 566

Durkheim, E. 8-9, 40, 135, 883, 907, 910, 930

Dutch Reformed Church 245, 247-8, 254, 259, 430-1

Dzogchen teachings, Tibet 791-2, 801-2, 809, 810

East Africa

Christianity in 245, 247

Islam in 480-2, 486-7, 494-5, 506 East African Revival 293

East India Company, British 372-3 Easter, date of 148, 155

Ebreo, Leone 124

Ecclesiastes, Book of 71, 74, 87 ecumenical movement 66-7, 182, 191, 239-40, 263, 277-8, 284, 962 education

in Hinduism 706-7, 711-12

in Islam 340-1,347, 350, 373, 382, 383-4, 398-9, 403, 405 modern 461, 495-6, 501, 503-5, 507-9, 516

see also madrasah; medrese

in Judaism 117, 126, 135, 137-8 education, Christian 186, 238

early 156, 158 missionary 250, 251, 262, 267-8, 270, 275, 282

monastic 204, 207-8

in Orthodoxy 176, 180, 237 post-Reformation 226, 957 egalitarianism, in Islam 374, 377 Egypt, Church in 185-6, 243, 167;seeu/so

Alexandria, theology; Coptic Churches Islam in 330, 335, 345, 349, 446, 466, 471, 478

Einhorn, David 133 Eliade, Mircea 826, 883

Elizabeth I of England 222 Empire, western, and Papacy 193-203 empiricism, and atheism 54-5

England, Church of 224, 231, 235, 240 overseas 190, 250-1, 257, 258, 261, 275, 278

see also Anglicanism Enlightenment, the 228, 229-32, 259-60, 268, 297, 327 and Jews 128-9, 135

enlightenment

in Buddhism 764, 795-6; see also hodhi in new religions 921, 926, 928-9, 938

in Tantrism 698-9

in Tibetan Buddhism 785-6,795-6,799, 809

Entities, in Mazdaism 555-6, 558 Ephesus, Third Ecumenical Council 431

163, 181, 183, 189

Epics, Hindu 604, 605-10, 642-3 epiphenomenalism 56-7

Episcopal Church, United States 261 Erasmus, Desiderius 219-20

Erhard Seminars Training (est) 916-17,923, 925, 928-30

eschatology

in Christianity 99, 101-3, 104, 143, 148 in Judaism 99, 106, 109

and traditional religions 880 Eskimo, shamanism 827-8, 833, 876 essence of religion 12-20, 23, 30, 710 Essene movement 93, 94, 111 est see Erhard Seminars Training Estonia, Orthodoxy in 180 ethics

Buddhism 596, 599, 601, 728, 734-5, 776, 784

Christian, early Church 103-4, 143

Hinduism 607, 641, 707, 711

Jainism 589-90

Judaism 121, 122-3, 136, 138

Mazdaism 557

Ethiopia

Church in 186-7, 243, 249

Islam in 470, 480, 487 eucharist 146, 184, 211, 221 Europe, Eastern

Catholicism in 515

Islam in 498, 513-18

Judaism in 125-6, 130, 131, 135 Europe, Western

Islam in 498-53

new religions 907

Eusebius, bishop and historian 149 Eutyches 164, 168, 183

Evangelicals 235-6, 245, 249, 251, 259-63,

270

and Islam 505, 511, 513 evangelisation, Christian 226, 243-4, 247,

250-1, 254, 265; see also missionaries evil, problem of 58, 59

in Christianity 149, 292, 537

in Judaism 122-3, 125, 139

in Mazdaism 354, 537, 552, 564, 568

in new religions 936, 940, 949 evolution, theory of 16-17, 237, 262 Exegesis movement 927, 928, 929 Exilarch 114

Exile, Jewish 73-4, 77-8, 82, 105, 108 existentialism

as ideology 43, 48, 238

and Islam 363

and Judaism 137

Exodus, Jewish 74, 75-6, 89 exorcism 827, 828

by Jesus 94, 95

in new religions 933 experience, and belief 536, 909, 920 experience, religious 18-20, 23-6, 36, 58

in Islam 309

in Judaism 118

see also enlightenment (bodhi); liberation (moksa, mukti); meditation; bhakti experientialism 240

Fa-hsiang school of Buddhism 762, 763 Fadiliyya brotherhood 345

Faisal, King 461

Faisal, Shaykh Daoud 525 faith, and reason

early Church 150

Judaism 118-20, 122, 129, 138

Middle Ages 208-10

and new religious movements 909-10 post-Reformation 229-31, 259 family, status of, in Islam 351-2, 374, 411,

493, 502, 517, 508; see also patriarchy fanaticism, in Islam 310, 459-60, 483, 488 Jaqih, see jurist

al-Fasi, Ahamd ibn Idris 457 fasting

in Indian religions 590

in Islam 309, 323, 326, 336, 348, 350, 406, 517

in Nepali religion 748-9, 750, 751

in traditional religions 887-8 fatalism 537

Fatimid dynasty 335, 336, 342 Fenelon, Franfois 228

Ferdinand V of Spain 216-17 festivals

Buddhist 760

Christian 212

Hindu 621, 622-3, 625, 651

Islamic 350

Nepali 742, 743, 745, 746-8, 751 Feuerbach, Ludwig 236, 909, 930 Fichte, J.G.

in Mazdaism 558, 559, 561

in Vedic religion 576, 577, 578, 584, 619 Firuz Shah 377, 385

Fischer, Michael 567 Fisher, HJ. 493

Florence, Council of 1438-9 173, 178, 185, 187, 189

Flower Garland Sutra 761

Fox, George 224, 258

France

in Africa 344-7, 487-8

Islam in 499-502, 504

and modem Catholicism 234, 239, 956 post-Reformation 230, 231-2 Reformation and Counter-Reformation

202, 203, 218, 222, 225, 226-8 Revolution 65, 232-6, 260 Francis of Assisi 200

Francis of Sales 226

Francis Xavier 217, 273

Franciscan Order 207, 209, 265, 273, 281, 892, 895

Franco, Francisco 238

Frank, Jacob (Jacob Leibovitz) 125 Frankel, Zachariah 132, 134

Frederick the Great 129, 230, 232 Frederick II of Hohenstaufen 200-1 free will

in Christianity 162, 220, 222, 226-7 in Islam 322

Freud, Sigmund 38-40, 240, 915 friars 206-8, 212, 265, 267

Friedrich, C.J. 42

Friends, Society of 8, 47, 224, 258, 962 Frumentius, Bishop of Tarragona 147-8 Frye, R.N. 357, 556, 559, 561 Fuju-fuse, Buddhist sect 775 fundamentalism

biblical 66, 236, 241, 262-2, 270, 915, 960

Islamic 310, 349-50, 406-7, 410, 449, 453, 855

in Middle East 459-63, 465, 466-9 in modern Europe 501, 505 funerals, and secularisation 955 Funj state 471-2

Gadaffi (Qadhdhafi), Colonel 349-50, 915

Gallican Church 227, 232, 233

Gamaliel I 100, 106, 112

Gampopa, Buddhist scholar 787-9, 801 Gandhi, Mahatma 275, 295, 710-11 Ganges 619

Gaon 114—15

GätKas (Mazdean hymns) 555-8, 564 Gaudapäda, Hindu writer 643

Geertz, C. 6, 416, 436, 444

Geiger, Abraham 131, 135

Gellner, E. 310

Gelugpa (dGe-lugs-pa) school of Buddhism 787-9, 792-3, 796, 800-1, 813-15

genealogy, in Maori religion 857-8 al-Ghazali 118, 309, 443

Ghaznavid dynasty 370-1

Ghose, Aurobindo 709

Ghost Dance 833, 881, 889, 891

Gignoux, Philippe 568

Gilson, Etienne 238 glossolalia 915, 920, 961

Gnosticism 102, 144-5, 146, 149-50, 356, 562, 964

Gobind Singh, Guru 722-3, 724

God

in Asian religions 537-8; see also daeva; deva ;kami

attributes 321 existence of

arguments for 115, 208, 210 arguments against 54-5, 58 as neutral 537

as Parent 934

as personal 53-9, 538, 611, 708, 715,838 unintelligibility 59, 172

see also Bhagavan; monotheism; Supreme Being; theism; and under individual deities

Goddess, in Hinduism 614, 616-18, 620,

624, 625, 742; see also Saivism

Gomar, Francis 223

Gordon, David C. 351

Gore, Charles 237

gospel

integrity of 297, 300, 304

social 263, 282, 297

Gospels, as historical evidence 94, 97, 98 government

Church 104, 146, 194, 225, 284

Islamic 336-7, 341,345-9,399, 403, 468 Ottoman Empire 394-5

and modem Hinduism 712

grace 172, 209-10, 226-7, 302

in Augustine 162, 222, 227

in Hinduism 643-4, 648, 657 Graham, Billy 263

Greece, and Orthodoxy 175-7, 181, 229, 233

Greek, Old Testament (=Septuagint) 70 Gregory I 194-5, 204

Gregory Palamas 172

Gregory VII, Pope 197-9,201,203,206,211 Grotius, Hugo 229

Guhyakali, cult of 684-6

Gunabibi, Australian Aboriginal ceremony

838, 840-1

Gurdjieff, G.I. 926, 927, 930 guru, role of 625, 682, 699, 719, 721 Gustavus II Adolphus 225 guthi in Nepal 743, 745, 748, 749 Gutierrez, Gustavo 302

Ha-Am, Ahad 136

hadith (Tradition) 309, 315, 318-20, 323,

363, 376, 378-80, 385, 468, 510

hadj, see pilgrimage

Hadrian, Emperor 92, 144

Haeckel, Ernst 237

Haiku poetry 768, 773

Haile Selassie, Emperor of Ethiopia 187 Hakuin, Buddhist writer 777

Halachah (law) 106, 113-14, 130, 134

Halevi, Judah 118, 119, 132 al-Hallaj, al-Husein ibn Mansur 309, 324, 376-7

Hamzah Fansuri 438, 440, 441-3

Han dynasty, China 756, 757

Hanafite school of law 342, 395

Hanbali school of law 458, 460

Hare Krishna movement, see Krishna Consciousness, Institute for

Harivams'a 607, 612

Harivarman, Buddhist scholar 635,759,769

Harnack, Adolf von 138, 237

Harrist Church 253

Hasidism, Eastern 123, 127-8, 136

Haskalah 135

hatha-yoga 715, 801

Hausaland, Islam in 475, 476, 478 head-hunting, Melanesia 849-50 healing

in Christianity 94, 95, 253, 263 in new religions 933, 935-7, 943, 948, 964

in shamanism 825, 877, 879-80 heaven/paradise

in Islam 483

in new religions 936

Hebrew

as living language 140

Old Testament writings in 70, 72, 88

Hebrew Union College, USA 133 Hebrews, Epistle to 105

Hegel, G.W.F. 132, 137, 236

Heissig, W. 770

Hellenism

early Church 167 and Orthodoxy 176-7 see also Judaism

henotheism 556, 557, 559, 562, 564, 579

Henry III, German Emperor 196-7

Henry IV, King of France 222

Henry IV, German Emperor 198

Henry VIII, King of England 221

Heraclius, Emperor 168-9, 190

Herberg, WiU 528-9

Herbert, Edward 15-16

heresies, early Christian 102-3, 104, 161-2 Herod Antipas 91, 94-5

Herodotus 559

Herzl, Theodor 135-6 hesychastic movement 172, 178

Hillel, Rabbi 106, 112

Hinayana Buddhism 603, 627, 632-3, 635, 769, 797, see Theraväda Buddhism in China 757, 759, 763

Hinduism 272, 275, 277, 295, 368 and Christianity 707-8 diversity in 539-40, 574 early history 533 epic-puränic

God and gods in 610-18, 643 literature 604-10 worship 618-26

and Islam 373-4, 377-8, 381, 385, 705, 708

modern 705-12

and new religions 909, 932, 964 and shamanism 834 and Sikhism 715-16, 723-4 see also Epics; monotheism; philosophy;

Puränas; theology; Vedas Hirsch, Samson Raphael 130, 135, 140 history

Islamic 314-18, 322, 354 theology of 85 see also Old Testament, as history history of religions 37-8 holiness movements 262-3, 913 Holland

colonialism 427-8, 430-1, 434, 445-7

Protestantism 222, 229 Holocaust 136, 138-40 Holy Places, Jerusalem 181, 214 Holy Roman Empire 195-8, 203, 217, 233 Holy Spirit, doctrine of 146, 157, 172-3, 302, 557, 920, 961 holymen, in Africa 472, 473, 475, 477, 483 Honen, Buddhist scholar 771-2, 774 Hooker, Richard 223-4 Horowitz, Isaiah 123 Horton, Robin 288, 489-93 hospice (khanaqahs) 374-6, 388 hospitals, early Church 158, 205, 212, 275 Hosso school of Buddhism 769, 774 House Church Movement 920, 962 Howitt, A.W. 836-7 Hua-yen school of Buddhism 761-2, 770 Huang-po, Zen sect 777 Huarochiri Narrative 900, 902-3 Hubbard, L. Ron 916-17 Huguenot Church 222, 229, 257-8 Hui (Chinese Muslims) 410-11, 412-14, 419-20

Huitzilopochtli, South American god 896, 899

Hultkrantz, A. 874, 883 Human Potential Movement 917-18, 921 humanism

as ideology 43, 48

Renaissance 219-20 Humayun, Emperor 372, 383

Humbach, Helmut 554, 557

Humbert, Cardinal 173

Hume, David 54, 230

Hungary

Islam in 516

Orthodoxy in 180, 239, 299 hunter-warrior, in traditional religions 874,

876, 895-6, 898-9, 902

Hus, John 203

Husein, martyrdom of 322, 355, 364, 383 Hutterites 223

Huxley, Julian 53

Huxley, T.H. 237

I Ching 542 Ibadites 331, 334, 335, 337, 343, 462-4, 468,

481

Ibas, Nestorian Bishop 168, 183

Ibn Abd al-Wahhab, Muhammad 458-9,

478

Ibn al-Arabi 338, 360, 363, 377-9, 384, 438 opposition to 378-9, 386

Ibn Battuta 433, 481

Ibn Gabirol, Solomon 118

Ibn Sa'id, geographer 476

Ibn Saud, Muhammad 458-9

Ibn Sina, philosopher 358

Ibn Taimiyya 377, 458

Ibn Taymur, Sa'id 464

Ibn Tumart 336

Ibn Yasin 335, 339, 341 iconoclastic controversy 170-1, 172 idealism, German 235, 269 identity, and role of Islam 466, 499, 501,

504-5, 509-10, 518, 527 ideology 41-51

definition 41-3, 47

evaluation of 49-50

partial and total 41

religions as 43-5 ‘idolatry’, in Hinduism 620, 622, 705-10,

716

al-Idrisi, geographer 481

Idrisid dynasty 331

Ifriqiya, Islam in 330-9, 341 Ignatius Loyola 187, 217-18, 222 Ikhwan movement 459-60, 461 ‘Illumination, Oriental’ 359, 361 Illyricus, Matthias Flacius 223 Iltutmish, Sultan 371,387 imam, role of 462-4, 483

Imams, in Sh'ia Islam 310, 318, 321 Immaculate Conception, doctrine of 234 immortality, in Taoism 547-8, 549

Inca religion 884, 899-904 Incarnation, doctrine of in Christianity

162-5, 169, 171, 277, 297

in Hinduism 707

in Islam 362

see also avatdra

India

Buddhism 272; see also Tibet, Indian influence

Christianity in 272-8, 380, 532, 572 influence on Islam 324, 369-70 Islam in 272, 368-89, 410, 417 education and culture 383-8 history 368-74 movements 381-3 and society 374-6

links with Indonesia 430, 432, 437 religions 571-4

St Thomas Christians 189-90, 272-3 Syrian Jacobites in 188, 274 traditional religions 574, 611-12, 619-20 see also Buddhism; Hinduism; Jainism;

Parsees; Sikhism

Indian National Congress 373 individualism

in Christianity 205, 259, 263, 282 and traditional religions 864—5 Indonesia

Buddhism in 429, 430, 431, 533 Christianity in 430-1, 434 diversity of 428-9, 435

Hinduism in 429, 430, 431,444 Islam in 425-54, 533

Islamisation

extent 430-1

history 431-5, 437-9, 445

reasons for 435-7

traditional and modern 449-51 politics 451-4 religions in 429, 430-1 religious tensions 443-9, 453-4 Indra, Vedic deva 577, 611, 747-8 indulgences 212-13, 220 Infallibility, papal 227, 234 inheritance, Islamic 336 initiation

Africa 868, 869

in shamanism 829, 886-7

in Tantrism 660, 662, 669, 671, 682,

691-2, 742, 743, 750, 754, 787, 799, 814

in traditional religions 838, 844, 845-6,

850, 876, 878-9, 883

Innocent III, Pope 200-1 Innocent X, Pope 227 Inquisition 124, 162, 207, 216-18, 225 ‘Institution, Muslim’ 394-5 ‘Institution, Ruling’ 394, 396 intiehiuma, Australian Aboriginal ceremony 837

Investiture Contest 198-9 Iqbal, Muhammad 381

Iran

Islam in 354-67, 406, 466, 563-4 Revolution 320, 321, 349, 354, 366-7, 407, 453, 496, 528, 567, 959-60 and Sufism 360-1 see also Mazdaism

Iraq

and early history of Islam 314, 319-20, 323-4, 356-8, 364

modern 366, 466, 467

Ireland, religion in 224,233,237-8,241,959 Irenaeus 146

ISKCON, see Krishna Consciousness, Institute for

Islam

as African religion 493-5

and Christianity 310, 318-19, 321, 323-4, 327, 330, 505, 511-13

and Church 213-14, 248, 249-50, 254, 291, 293-4

early history 170, 194, 311, 313-28 and the Arabs 314-16 Christian sources 316-17

in Europe 241

extent and influence 307-8 and Mazdaism 354-5, 563-7 modernisation 310, 347-51, 373, 380, 400, 401-6, 449-51, 457 and secularisation 461

and new religions 946-7, 949, 950-2 political, as ideology 44-5, 47, 49 reforms in 346-9, 377, 379, 381-2, 446, 475

rise of 170, 194

and Sikhism 715

and state 341-2, 345-6, 348-9, 351, 358, 364,377,379,404,406,451,466,503 tropical Africa 477, 479-80, 496

and traditional religions 823 twentieth-century expansion 486-9, 498-513, 516, 527 reasons for 489-97, 501-2 view of Old Testament 68 as a way of life 336, 339 see also Crusades; identity; Judaism;

Ottoman Empire; and under individual countries

Islamic Associations, Federation of 527 Islamic Conference 405-6

Ismail, Shah 361-2, 397

Ismailis 322, 334, 356, 359, 382-3, 517 Israel

history 72-5, 79-80, 105-6

modern state 66-7, 135-6, 139-40, 294, 467

religion 80-6 Italy, and Islam 487 Ithna-i Ashariya 382-3

Ivory Coast

Christianity in 248, 250, 253

Islam in 474, 486, 494-5

Jacob Baradaeus 187

Jacob ben Asher 121

Jacobite Church, Syrian 168, 187-8, 189, 294, 296

Jahangir, Shah 378, 383, 387-8

Jainism 272, 532-3, 583, 609, 622, 639-40, 656, 661 early history 588-91, 592 later history 646-8

Jamaat-i Islam 382

James, brother of Jesus 101, 142-3

James, William 37

Jamnia, as Pharisaic centre 106-9, 112 Janissaries 396, 398-9

Jansenism 227-8, 232, 267 Japan

Buddhism in 533,752, 760, 768-77, 833 links with China 768-9 monasticism 770-1, 772 schools 769-76 threats to 777 see also Zen Buddhism

Christianity in 182, 776, 777 new religions 533,777,907, 910,932-43, 964, 965

Orthodox Church in 182

Shinto 768-9, 772, 773, 777, 833, 964 Jdtaka stories 728, 735

Java, Islam in 425, 427-8, 431, 438-40, 443-6

history 434, 435-6, 438, 445-6, 452 jawi (modified Arabic script) 427, 433, 440 Jayadrathaydmala 674-8,682-3,685-6,694-5 Jazuliyya brotherhood 344

Jehovah’s Witness movement 913, 945, 962-3

Jerome 156, 158, 194

Jerusalem

Fall of (597 âñå) 77

first century 103, 111, 142-3 as Muslim holy city 456, 467 Patriarchate of 181, 194

Jesuits 187, 217, 225, 226, 227, 323 missionary activity 243, 245, 248, 267, 273, 281-2, 301, 741

Jesus

death and resurrection 98-9, 101, 103, 146

as fulfilment of Old T estament 68-9,143 finality of 104—5

historical evidence for 93-4, 97-8

Islamic view 310-11, 326, 327 and Judaism 63-4, 78, 94-5, 96-7, 99, 210

mission and status 95, 97-8, 99, 209 teaching 95-7

see also crucifixion; christology; miracles Jesus People 914, 915, 920 Jews, see anti-Semitism; Church, medieval;

Judaism; Israel

Ji (‘Time’), Buddhist sect 772 jihad, concept of308,326,348,416-17,435, 479, 484

jihadist movements 476-7, 480-1, 494 jlva,see soul, in Jainism

Job, Book of 59, 71-2, 74, 86-7, 89, 139 JochananbenZakkai, Rabbi 106,107-9,112 Jochelson, W.I. 828-9

Jodo Shinshu Buddhist sect 772 Johannine writings 101—2 John, Gospel of 94, 96, 97, 105, 143 John the Baptist 93, 94-5 John Chrysostom 156, 163 John of Damascus 170, 172 John Paul II, Pope 66, 239, 291 John XXIII, Pope 240, 263, 291 Johns, A.H. 436, 438 Jojitsu school of Buddhism 769, 774 Jonagpa, Buddhist order 787 Josephus, historian 93, 106, 116 Judaism

and Christianity 63-7, 96, 99, 102, 104-5, 107, 142-3 breaking of links 144-5, 236 modern era 126, 137

Hellenistic 92, 107, 111, 112 historical evidence 105-6 and Islam 115,116,117-18,316-17,319, 320, 324, 326, 588

Liberal 132

Middle Ages 116-28 and modem scholarship 130-1 neo-Orthodoxy 130 Orthodoxy 131-2, 134-5, 137, 139 Progressive, Reform 128, 131-4, 137 Rabbinic91-3,104,105-10,111-16,128 and Roman occupation 91-2 universality and parochialism 66, 107, 116

view of Old Testament 68-71, 109

see also Babylonia, Judaism in; rationalism; worship; and under individual countries judge, see qadi Julius, Pope 157 Julius II, Pope 218-19 Jung, C.C. 240, 915, 927, 930 jurisprudence, Islamic (fiqh) 308, 318-21,

435, 447, see also Shari'a jurist (faqih) 332-3, 362, 364-5 justification 220 Justin Martyr 144, 146

Justina 159, 161 Justinian, Emperor 168, 169-70, 173, 181, 187, 195

Kadampas, Buddhist order 785-6, 787-8,

794 kadi, see qadi Kagyupa, Buddhist order 787-8, 792, 796,

801

sects 788-90

Kali, cult of 653, 669, 670, 672, 674-8, 695, 696, 698-9, 708

and Kaulism 682-4, 694 kami (god) 537 Kanem, Islam in 476 Kanjur 769, 799, 814 Kant, Immanuel 33, 129, 132, 136, 230 Kapalika tradition 670-5, 678-80, 682, 691, 694, 700

Kaplan, Cemalettin 406 Karaite sect, Judaism 115 karma 295

in Buddhism 603, 732, 735-6, 757, 804 in Hinduism 584-5, 587, 594, 641, 660, 693, 762, 809

in Jainism 589-91, 648 Karoem, prophecies of, Melanesia 851 Kashmir

non-Tantric traditions 701-4

Saivism in 663, 679, 681, 683, 689 post-scriptural traditions 690-704 Katen, Tibetan texts 809 Kaulism, see Saivism, Kaula kebatinan (Javanism) 444, 454 Kegon school of Buddhism 770, 774 a Kempis, Thomas 214, 219 Khadija, Sister 525 Khalji dynasty 371 Kharijites 322, 331, 462, 481 Khatmiyya order 472, 478 Khilafat movement 373 Khojas 383, 417 Khomeini, Ayatollah 320, 366 kiai (teacher) 444, 446, 449; see also ulema Kierkegaard, S. 48, 238 Kimbangue, Simon/Kimbanguist Church 254, 293, 947, 948, 950 Kingdom of God 96, 97 knowledge

in Buddhism 783, 796, 797

in Hinduism and Jainism 582, 584-5, 638, 644, 648

in Islam 309, 310

in new religions 909-10

in Tantrism 650, 672, 691-3, 703 and understanding 30-6, 37, 48, 230 see also Gnosticism

Knox, John 222

Konkokyo (Golden Light) 932, 934 korero tahito, Maori 855-62 konvar figures 843-4

Krama system, Tantrism 663, 677, 682-3, 684, 685, 690, 694, 696-9

Kramasadbhava 683-4, 696

Krishna Consciousness, International Society for (ISKCON) 914-15,926, 932, 963

Krsna, Hindu god 606, 607-8, 611-12, 613-14, 624-5, 644

ksatriyas (warriors), in Indian religion 587, 588, 605, 740, 747

Ksemaraja, Saivite teacher 699, 700-1, 703 Kubjika, cult of 663, 686-8, 699, 701, 703 Kubjikdmata 686-7

Kublai Khan 786, 812

Kundakunda, Jain teacher 588, 648

Kusha school of Buddhism 769-70, 774

laity

in Buddhism 632, 766, 802, 964

in Christianity 151, 155, 186, 264, 284 in Jainism 590

in Judaism 131

and Papacy 197-9, 206

see also religion, popular Lamaism

China 765-6, 770-1, 815-16

Mongolia 812-16

Tibet, see Tibet, Buddhism

lamas, Tibet, reincarnation of 788, 793—4, 796-7, 809

Lambton, A.K.S. 357

Langdarma, Tibetan king 783-4, 785 language

and Hinduism 572, 638—40

and Jainism 646

languages, Indonesian 426-7, 429, 439 Lao-tzu 541-6, 548, 756-7

Laos, Theravada Buddhism in 730, 731

Las Casas, Bartolome de 265, 271,301 Lateran Councils

Fifth (1512-17) 219

Fourth (1215) 117, 201

Latin America, Christianity in 265-71, 301-2

Latin Church 146-7, 148, 175, 179

Latin language 329, 402

Latvia, Orthodox church in 180

Laud, William 224

Lausanne Committee for World

Evangelisation 291 law

canon 210-11

oral, Judaic 92-3, 106-7, 113-14, 116, 132-3 challenges to 115, 134

see also dharma (cosmic law)

Law, William 231

Laye movement 950-1 leaders, new religions 909, 932-3, 948, 951-2, 961-2

Lebanon, Islam in 466-7, 959 legend, in traditional religions 874

Leibniz, G.W. 230

Leo I, Pope 156, 164, 172, 193-4

Leo IX, Pope 196-7

Leo X, Pope 124, 219, 220

Leo XIII, Pope 235, 262

Lessing, G.E. 129, 230 liberalism, as ideology 43,45,49,234, 270-1 liberation

in new religions 926

see also salvation

liberation (moksa, mukti)

in Buddhism 592,593,595-7, 596-7,633 in Hinduism 582, 584, 585, 587, 638-42, 644, 648, 800

in Jainism 588, 589-91, 639

in Tantrism 653, 662, 664-7, 673, 681, 691-9, 703, 750

liberation theology 44, 66, 301-3

Libya

Islam in 342-3, 345, 349-50, 457 and Muslim separatism 421

Licinius, Emperor 153, 155

Lightfoot, J.B. 236

Lin-ch’i, Zen sect 765, 773

Lingayite movement 657 literature

adab 440, 442, 452

Arab 294, 314

Buddhist 600-1, 603, 609, 627-9, 678, 761, 773-4, 794, 801

Chinese Muslim 413

Hindu 572, 605-10, 624-5 Indo-Muslim 384-7

Indonesian 439-43, 450-1

Jain 646-7

Jewish 135-6

kitab 441, 443

Nestorian 184, 319

Orthodox 176, 177, 181, 239

Persian 359, 360, 361, 367, 377, 385-6 Sikh 717-18, 720-1, 723

Swahili 494-5

Lithuania, Orthodox Church in 179, 180 liturgy

Catholic 66, 266-7

early Christian 104

monastic 204

Orthodox 172, 179, 182, 237 Protestant 221, 222, 236

Rabbinic Judaism 108, 112 traditional religions 838; see also ritual

Livingstone, David 247

Locke,John 229-30

Lodi dynasty 371, 372

London Missionary Society 245, 247 Lossky, Vladimir 238

Lotus Sütra 629,635,761,770,774,775,777, 938-9, 941

Louis XIV, King of France 222, 227

Lü (Vinaya, Disciplinary) school of Buddhism 763, 770; see also Vinaya

Luke, Gospel of 94, 103

Luria, Isaac 121, 123-4, 127

Luther, Martin 126, 216, 219-21

Lutheranism 223, 247, 248, 257-8, 261-2 Luwum, Archbishop Jnani 293

Lyons, Council of 1274 173

Ma Hua-lung 410, 416

Mädhyamika school of Buddhism 634, 758, 769, 795, 797, 800-1

madrasah (college) 327,340-1,358-9,374-5, 383-4, 449-50

Indonesia 443

al-Maghili (scholar) 475-6 magic

in new religions 933 and religion 5-6, 7, 9

in Tantrism 649-50, 661, 689-90 in traditional religions 849-50, 950

Mahabharata (Hindu scripture) 607-8, 612, 613, 647

Mahämudrä (Great Seal) 787, 788, 790, 801 Mahänayaprakäsa 698

Mahäpurdna, Jain 609, 646 mahdsdrighikas 603

Mahdvastu (Buddhist scripture) 603, 609, 622

Mahavira (Prince Vardhamana) 583, 588-9, 591, 605, 647

Mahayana Buddhism 549,598,603,627-36, 637, 653-4, 656, 730, 761, 793, 938 early sources 627-9

philosophy 633-6, 643, 795-6, 797 revivalism 629-33

tantric approach 651, 653-5, 661, 800 in Tibet 783, 784

Mahdi, concept of321,334-5,336,342,362, 392, 416-17, 447, 478-9, 947

Mahdist rebellion 457

Mahmud, Sultan 370, 382

Mahmud, Yorro 520-2

Maimonides, Moses 117, 118-19, 120, 132 Maitreya, in Buddhism 549, 630, 731, 758, 766, 776

Maitreyanätha, Buddhist scholar 634 al-Majlisi, Muhammad Baqir 363 malam, see marabout

Malanggan rites, New Ireland 844

Malankarese Church 190

Malaya, Islam in 433, 435-6, 439-40

Malik as-Saleh (Malik az-Zahir) 433 Malik, Charles 294

Malikite school of law 332, 334-6, 338, 343, 477, 479

Malinowski, B. 839, 846, 849

Mamluk dynasty 185, 189, 371, 471 man

divinity of 709, 909, 915, 925, 937 as perfectible 909, 916, 930 mana, concept of 849

Manbhav (Mahanubhavas) movement 656-7, 658

mandala 651-2, 670, 672, 673-5, 677, 681, 770-1, 798-9, 941

Manggundi, cult of, Melanesia 850 Manichaeism 161, 355-6, 390, 561-4, 760, 763

mantra, tantric 649-52, 662, 665, 672, 684, 696, 747

Mantrapit ha, cults of668, 669-70, 672, 675, 678, 700

Manu 587

Mao Shan (Shang Ch’ing) sect of Taoism 549

Maoism 766

Maori religion 823, 854-63

Mar Thoma Church 190, 274, 278, 296 marabout 339-45, 346-8, 350, 488-9, 495 Marching Rule, Melanesia 852

Marcian, Emperor 164, 167

Marcion 104, 145, 146

Marie of the Incarnation 831, 834 Maritain, Jacques 238

Mark, Gospel of 94

Maronite Church 190-1

Marpa, Buddhist scholar 787-8, 801 marriage

arranged 508-9, 515, 707

of Clergy 196-7 and secularisation 955

Martin V, Pope 203 martyrdom, in Islam 322, 365, 367

Marx, Karl, theory of religion 40, 237, 280, 287

Marxism

and atheism 53, 56-7, 270

and Buddhism 766

and ideology 41-3, 45-6, 49 and Islam 385

Mary, devotion to 163, 164, 170, 183, 212, 234, 238, 267

mass, see eucharist

Mata system, Tantrism 682-3, 684, 694 materialism 56-7, 230, 237, 258, 297, 299 and atheism 55-6, 58

as ideology 49

matha (dsrama) 623, 625-6

Matheson, V. 442-3

Matswa, Simon 254

Matthew, Gospel of 96, 103-4, 143

Maya, religion of 890-1, 894, 896-9 Mazdaism (‘Zoroastrianism’) 313, 354-5, 357, 360, 552-68

deities 553, 557-8, 561, 563-4, 811; see also daeva

and evil 354, 537, 552, 564, 568 and historicity of Zarathushtra 555-8 history 533, 553-6, 559-63

Mazdakism 356, 562-3

Mbiti, John 866, 869

Mecca

as focal point oflslam 307,309,317,413, 420, 445, 456-7, 460-1, 467

Grand Mosque 461

mediator, concept of 934, 961 medicine-men 877-9; see also shamanism Medina, as focal point oflslam 308, 456, 460-1, 467

meditation

in Buddhism 596, 633, 733, 737-8, 757, 769, 771-2, 797-802

in Indian religions 324, 582, 584-5, 590, 592, 618, 641-2, 644, 648

in Taoism 543—4, 547-8

Meditation, Transcendental 914-15, 926, 963

mediums, spirit 805, 833, 867 medrese (college) 394-5, 400, 402; see also madrasah

Mehmet II, Sultan 398

Melanchthon, Philip 220, 223

Melanesia, traditional religions 823, 843-52 Melkites 168, 185

Mendelssohn, Moses 129-30

Mennonites 223

merit

in Buddhism 630, 728, 730, 732, 734-6, 737, 766, 783, 796, 797, 941

in Hinduism 643-4

in Islam 326

in Jainism 647

in Nepal 745, 748-9

Messiah, Jesus as 97-9, 100, 103, 107, 143, 229

messianism

Islamic 356, 362, 410, 415-17, 461 Judaism 107, 109, 111, 116, 123-5, 131, 134, 136, 143

Methodism 228, 236, 240, 247, 250, 259-63 Methodius, apostle to the Slavs 173-4, 177 Mevlevi (Whirling Dervishes) 392 Mexico, traditional religion 883, 885, 889 Middle East, Islam in 456-69

as centre for schoarship 457

and internal politics 458, 466 isolation 456-7, 463-4, 465, 466, 468 Midewiwin, Algonkin priesthood 833, 878, 884, 886-8

Midrashim 106, 112-13, 122 Milamala, Melanesian feast 846-7 Milan, Edict of 153

Milarepa, Buddhist scholar 787, 789 millenarianism

Buddhist 731

Christianity 236, 254, 259-60, 262-3, 266-7

in new religions 910, 914, 915, 924, 933 in traditional religions 850-1, 871, 881 Millerism 913 millet system 397, 399 Milne, William 282 Miltiades, Pope 154 Mimamsa 639, 640, 662, 691 Minangkabau 436-7, 447 Ming dynasty 409, 414-15 ministry, Christian 104; see also priesthood miracles, ofjesus 95, 165 Mirghaniyya brotherhood 457 Mishnah 68-9, 105-7, 113 missionaries

Catholic 176, 195, 234, 235, 244, 245, 248, 254, 257, 265-6, 269, 282

Protestant 188, 190, 228, 235, 245-8, 250-1, 254, 270, 274-5, 281-2 Mitra, god of Mazdaism 558, 559-61, 563 Modalists 148, 154 modernisation 287-304 modernists, Islamic 449-51, 462-5, 467-8 Mogul Empire 363, 372-3, 379, 383, 387-8, 721, 723 moksa see liberation Molcho, Shlomo (Diogo Pires) 124 Mole, Marijan 554, 557, 562-3 monarchy

Islamic 358, 363, 364-7, 368, 371

Jewish 73, 76, 77, 89, 92 monasticism

Buddhist 598-9, 601-2, 629-30, 752; see also Sangha

Christian 151,158,171,172,177-8,180, 183, 187-8, 203-8, 296

Hindu 643; see also matha (ds'rama) Mongol dynasty 272-3, 360-1, 375, 376-7, 409, 765-6, 774 and Turks 393

Mongolia

Buddhism in 811-16

Tantrism in 812-14 monism 324, 360-1, 642, 656; see also self-religions

Monophysites 162-3, 164-5, 167-9, 183, 184-91, 294

monotheism

and Buddhism 771-2

in Hinduism 583, 611-13, 615, 624, 643, 656-7, 705, 707

and Indian religions 586 and new religions 946 spread of 489-92 in traditional religions 822, 883-4, 899-904

monothelite doctrine 169, 190-1 Montaigne, Michel de 230 Montalembert, Count Charles de 234 Montanism 243

Moody, Dwight L. 262-3

Moonies, see Unification Church morality

Christian 229, 240 intellectual, principal of 54-5, 58-9 see also ethics

Moravian Brethren 223, 228, 247 Mormonism 913, 945, 963

Morocco, Islam in 335, 336, 341-2, 344-50, 499-500, 502

Morony, Michael 563, 564 Morrison, Robert 281, 282 mosque, status of 332, 350, 374, 398, 414 Mount Athos 172, 178, 182-3

Mouride brotherhood 495, 949, 951 Mueller, Max 6, 26

muftis 395 Muhammad

as central to Islam 307,308,310,313,326 critical study 311,323 death of 317

and Eastern Church 168, 170 life 314-17, 327, 440, 494

Muhammad Abduh 346-7, 446, 466 Muhammad Ahmad, Mahdi 472, 477-80, 488

Muhammad al-Badr 465

Muhammad Ali, Pasha of Egypt 459, 472 Muhammad Bello 476, 479

Muhammad bin Tughluq 371, 384 Muhammad Rida Shah 366 mujahidin 377, 379, 382 mukti, see liberalism murabit 333, 335, 337-9, 341, 342, 344, 348 Murjites (‘Suspensionists’) 322

Murngin religion, Australia 839-40, 841 Musar movement 135

music

Christianity 225, 229, 276 Indo-Muslim 388

Muslim Brethren 349, 466, 503 Mutazilites (‘Withdrawers’) 322, 325, 362, 376

mysticism

and atheism 57-8, 59

Buddhist 782, 792, 797

Christian

medieval 219

post-Reformation 228, 231

Eastern, see Taoism

and essence of religion 19, 25, 47 Hindu 644, 706, 708-9

Islam 57, 318, 320, 354-5, 377-8, 385, 435; see also Sufi Islam

Judaism 109, 117, 118-21, 125, 127-8, 131, 136; see also Kabbalah and new religions 930 and Saivism 680

myth, Old Testament 87 myths

in traditional religion 837, 839—41, 854-62, 874-6, 879-80

Vedic 577-8, 850

Nachmanides (Moses ben Nachman) 119-20, 122

Nagarjuna, Buddhist scholar 634, 758, 792 Nanak, Guru 272, 378, 657-8, 714, 716-17, 720-1

successors 718-20, 721-2 teachings 717-18

Nantes, Edict of 222

Napoleon 130, 132, 186, 233

Naqshbandi (Nagshbandi, Naksbendi) order 401, 402, 404, 410, 478 in Europe 503 in India 375, 378-9, 381, 385

Narayana-guru 658

Naropa, Buddhist teacher 787, 790, 801 Nasiruddin Chiragh, Shaykh 378 al-Nasser, Jamal Abd 461

Natha-yoga 622, 657, 715, 716

Nathas, see Natha-yoga

Nation of Islam movement 526-7 nation-state, rise of 76, 226 nationalism

and Buddhism 729, 731

and Christianity 174-7, 189, 233, 237-9,

277, 279-80

and Hinduism 707—8

and Islam 400-1, 403, 425-6, 466, 468 Islamic 345-7, 350, 354-5, 361-2, 381 naturalism 57

nature

philosophy of 17-18

in traditional religions 576, 864, 873-4 Nayanars 572, 624, 644

Nazism, anti-Semitism 65, 136, 238-9 nenbutsu (recital) 771-2, 774 neo-Buddhist movement 296

Neoplatonism

and Christianity 149, 157, 161, 235 and Islam 325, 360

and Judaism 118, 122

Nepal

Buddhism and Hinduism in 533, 739, 741-2, 744-8, 750-5 history 739-40 modernisation 741 monarchy 739-40, 747 religion as worship 742-50, 754 Tantrism 742, 743,747, 750,754; see also Tantrism

Neri, Philip 225

Nero, persecutions 101, 143

Nestorianism 163-4, 167—8, 183-4, 187—8, 190, 272-4, 294 in China 760

and Islam 319, 323-4, 390

New Order, Indonesia 448

New Sect, China 410, 415-17

New Testament attitudes to 68-9 canon of 103, 104, 146 as historical source 143, 236-7

New Thought movement 913, 915, 916,964

New Year, in Melanesian religions 844, 846-7, 848

New Zealand, traditional religions, see Maori religion

Newars 663, 740-8, 751-5 and Tantrism 684—5, 750

Newman, J.H. 235

Ngata, Sir Apirana 863

Ngugi Wa Thiongo 287-8

Nicea

First Ecumenical Council (325) 153,155, 156-7, 162, 168, 172

Seventh Ecumenical Council (787) 170-1

Nichiren, Buddhist sect 770, 774-6, 914, 938-41

Nichiren Shoshu tradition 938,939-40,914; see also Soka Gakkai

Nichiren-Shu tradition 940-1

Nicholas II, Pope 197

Niebuhr, H. Richard 263

Niebuhr, Reinhold 263

Niemoller, Martin 238

Nietzsche, Friedrich 237

Nigeria

Christianity in 488 Islam in 470, 474, 476, 478-9, 486, 488, 494, 497

nihilism, and Buddhism 538, 597, 629, 635

Nikodim, Patriarch 298-9

Nikon, Patriarch 179, 229

Nimeiri, of Sudan 486, 496 nirvana

concept of 598, 601, 629, 631-2, 635, 661, 677, 698, 764, 795, 797, 805 and Islam 308-9 in Theravàda Buddhism (nibbana) 733-4, 735-7

Nitydsodas'ikdrnava 689-90

Nizami, K.A. 381 Nizamuddin Auliya, Shaykh 375-6, 385 Nizaris 383

Nobili, Robert 273 N6 drama 768, 773 Nonconformity, England 235-6; see also

Protestantism

North Africa

Christianity in 330, 334

early Church in 148, 150-1, 152-4, 156-8, 160-2, 243

Islam in 185, 186-7, 243-4, 329-52, 473-4 holy men 337-42 modern states 342-51 and tribal societies 329-31, 334-7, 340, 342, 345

North America

Christianity in 880-1, 956

Islam in 520-9

Judaism in 132-5

new religions 907, 912-24, 929-30 Orthodox Churches 66, 181-2, 262 traditional religions 823, 873-82 North India, Church of 278, 296 Nuruddin ar-Raniri 438, 442 Nydya-dars'ana 638, 640 Nyimapa, Buddhist order 788, 790-2,

794-5, 796, 800-1, 810

oil, Middle East, impact of 349, 366, 461, 464

Old Believers 179, 229

Old Catholics 234 Old Testament

as history 71-5, 86-7, 89

difficulties 75-80

languages 70, 72, 88

as literature 75, 86-8 order 70-1

and religion of Israel 80-6, 89 see also Christianity; Judaism; Islam Oman, Islam in 362-4, 457, 469, 480, 481 Omotokyo (Great Origin) 934-7 Ondiir gegen 815 Oneida community 260 Oratorian Order 225, 226, 227 ordination, Theravàda Buddhism 728, 729-31, 733, 808

Organisation of African Unity 496 Origen of Alexandria 149-50, 154, 168, 243 Orthodox Churches 66, 167-73, 229, 233, 239, 274, 293

expansion 173-8, 181-3

modern 180-3

Western influence 179-80 Otto, Rudolf 18-19, 23-5 Ottoman Empire 358-9, 363, 393-400, 513-14, 515

and Christianity 175-7, 188, 233, 393, 399

decline of 398-400

and Jews 397, 399-400 and Middle East 459, 464-5 in North Africa 342-4

Ottomanism 400

Padmasambhava, Tibetan Buddhist 782,

791-2 padri, Indonesia 447 paganism, and early Church 150-1, 153,

155-6, 159, 177 Pahlavi dynasty 355, 365-6 Pakistan

creation of 373-4, 381, 506

Muslim immigrants from 500 Palestine, Islam in 466-7 Pali, Theravada Buddhist scriptures written in 726-8, 732, 735 pan-Africanism 865 pan-Islamism 381,400,420,445,461;see also unity of Islam pan-Turkism 400 Pancaratra school of Hinduism 621, 643,

644, 653, 660, 678, 694, 701 Pannikar, Raymundo 277 pantheism 229, 230, 236

and Islam 377-8, 386 Papacy

authority of 194,197-8, 227, 233-4, 235 and China 285

criticism of 66, 173

early development of148,151,155,159, 193-4

in Middle Ages 193-203, 211, 213

and modem Italy 233-4, 238 and national Churches 285 and New World 268-9 and Reformation 216 reforms of 196-9, 201, 217-19, 224-5 Para, goddess 673-4, 681, 687, 696, 701 parables, of Jesus 87, 95, 103 Parbatiyes (service caste) 740-1 paritta texts, Buddhism 734, 735 Parousia 99, 103, 104, 105, 148 Parsees 552, 533, 565-7; see also Mazdaism Pascal, Blaise 227 Passionist Order 228 patriarchs 73, 74, 75 patriarchy, and Islam 336, 351, 484-5 Paul IV (Pietro Caraffa), Pope 224-5 Paul, apostle

and early Church 100-2, 103, 104, 105,

142-3, 145

and ecstacy 827

letters 93-4, 95, 100-1, 104

Paul VI, Pope 291

Paul, Vincent de 226 peace movement 180 Pelagianism 161-2 penance 205

Pentecostalism 263, 913, 920, 961, 963 Perfect Liberty Kyodan 937-8 persecution

of Buddhists 759-60, 761, 763, 777,814, 816

Catholic/Protestant 223

of Christians by Muslims 176, 184

of early Church 100-1,143,145,147-53, 313, 562-3

of Jains 646

of Jews, see anti-Semitism; Church; Holocaust

modern 299-300

of Muslims 415-17, 422, 488

of Orthodox 180, 237, 239, 298-9 Persia, Churches in 184, 187 Persia, Empire, and Islam 313-14, 355-7 Pesach (Passover) 140 pesantren, Indonesia 443-4, 450 Peter the Great 179, 229 Peyote Cult 881 Phagpa (’Phags-pa), Tibetan abbot 786, 812 Pharisees 78, 93, 94, 96, 100-1, 105-7, 109, 111-12

and early Church 143

Philip II, King of Spain 217

Philippines

Christianity in 303

Islam in 420-1

Philo of Alexandria 107, 112

Philocalia 176 philosophy

Buddhist 631-2, 633-6, 640, 769,795-7, 806

and Christianity 145, 148-50, 210, 214

Hindu 637-45

and Hinduism 37-45

in Islam 322-3, 324-5, 358, 362-4, 378 and Judaism 112, 118-19, 122, 136-7 Photian Schism 173 Pieris, Aloysius 302-3 pietism

Christian 228, 231, 240, 259-60, 282-3

Islamic 475

Judaism 112, 127, 135

pig festival, in traditional religions 848-9 pilgrimage

in Buddhism 736-7

Christian 104, 213

in Hinduism 622

in Islam (hadj) 307, 309, 326, 350, 406, 413, 420-1,477, 483, 496, 517 ‘pillarisation’ 958

Pimen, Russian Patriarch 180, 298-9

Pius IV, Pope 225 Pius IX, Pope 233-4 Pius XII, Pope 239 Plato

and atheism 53

see also Neoplatonism

Platonism, and Islam 360 Pliny 144

Plotinus 57 pluralism, religious 257-60, 262, 264, 290, 871 Plymouth Brethren 236, 962 poetry, Jewish 118, 123

Poland

Islam in 516, 524

Orthodox Church in 179, 180, 237, 239, 299

polygamy, in Islam 352, 950 polytheism, and Hinduism 539, 579,610-11 Poma, Guaman 900, 902, 903

Pontiac, American shaman 884, 886, 887-8 Pontius Pilate 91-2, 99

Popieluszko, Jerzy 299

Popul vuh, Maya text 890, 894-5, 898 Portugal, colonialism 243, 244-5, 265-7,

272-4, 301, 428, 431, 434, 462, 481 positivism 53, 237, 268 possession

and shamanism 826-8, 829, 831, 834

in Tantrism 682, 769, 810

traditional religions 482, 536, 868-9, 870, 876, 879, 946, 950 power (sakti) 651-2, 655, 673, 680 Power Tantras (Sakti-tantras) 672-4 prayer

Christianity 228

understanding of 32-5 prayers, daily, Islam 309,326,336,350,391,

413, 525-6 predestination 162, 222 Presbyterian Church 224, 238, 240, 247,

259-63 priesthood

of all believers 220

Christian 66, 104, 151, 211, 219, 226, 236, 269

Judaism 92-3, 108

in Mazdaism 563-4, 565-7

and shamanism 833, 894

traditional religions 843, 894, 898 in Vedic religion 578-81, see also brahmin

‘Principlite’ school of law (Usulis) 364 Prithvi Narayan Shah 740 privatisation of religion 241, 290, 400, 965 priyayi, Indonesia 444—6

Prophets 69, 71, 107 prophets

and history 78-9

and religion of Israel 82-4, 88, 93 traditional religions 846, 870, 871, 881 Protagoras 59 Protestantism 237

in China 280-2, 284-5, 300

expansion 224, 226, 228-9

Liberal 83, 237

modern 235-6, 238, 239-41

New World 257, 258-63, 270 origins 216, 219-24 and secularisation 962 see also Calvin, John; Enlightenment;

Luther, Martin; missionaries; Reformation; Church of England Proverbs, Book of 71, 74, 85, 88 Psalms, Book of 70, 71, 74, 80-2, 85, 89 psychoanalysis

and new religions 915-18, 926-7

and shamanism 829-30 psychology of religion 38-9 Puranas

Hindu 573, 605-10, 615, 642-3, 647, 662-3, 706

Jain 646-7

purdah 509, 515, 711

Pure Land (Ching-t’u) school, Buddhism 758, 763-5, 766, 771-2, 779-81, see also Amitabha Buddha

Purgatory, concept of 212

Purim 140

Puritanism 258

Pusey, E.B. 235

Qadarites 322

qadi (judge) 333, 336-7, 394-5

Qadiriyya brotherhood 343-4, 375, 381, 385, 473, 479, 495

Quakers, see Friends, Society of

Quetzalcoatl, in Aztec religion 890, 891-2, 894, 896, 898-9

Quillian, William 506

Qumran settlement 93

Qur’an

as allegory 340

and Arabic text 501

as central to Islam 307, 308-10, 315, 349-50, 378-80, 460, 468, 483, 510 commentaries on 376,377,381,385,442 critical study 311, 317-18

rabbinate, origins 112; see also Judaism, Rabbinic; Pharisees

Radhakrishnan, Hindu philosopher 295, 709, 710

Radin, Paul 888-9

Rahmaniyya brotherhood 344

Raja Ali Haji 442—3, 452

Rajneesh movement 907, 914, 921-2, 923, 930, 963

Ram Das, Sikh Guru 718-19, 720-1

Rama, Hindu god 606, 608, 611, 613, 625

Ramadan, see fasting, Islam

Ramakantha, Tantric scholar 690, 691, 693

Ramakrishna, Hindu mystic 274, 295, 708

Ramakrishna Mission 274, 295

Ramanuja 643

Ramdyana 608, 613, 625, 647

Ramprasad Sen, Hindu poet 617, 625 Rashi of Troyes 120

Rashidiyya order 472, 478

Rasmussen, K. 827—8

Rastafarian movement 910 rationalism and Buddhism 630, 764 and Judaism 115, 118-20, 125, 129-30, 133, 138

opposition to 909, 923, 957-9

Raushaniya movement 378 realism

and Buddhism 631, 634, 635, 640, 653 and Hinduism 640, 643

reason

in Eastern religion 534—9, 705, 731 in Islam 322, 380, 450 see faith and reason

Recognition, doctrine of, Tantrism 695-6, 699, 700

Reconstructionism, Jewish 134-5 redemption, doctrine of 145, 162; see also salvation

Redemptorist Order 228 Reformation

history of 211, 216-24

impact of 216

see also Protestantism

regeneration rites, traditional religions 844, 847, 850

reincarnation 295, 483, 916; see also transmigration, concept of

Reiyukai (Association of Friends of the Spirit) 777, 940-1, 964

Relation de antiguedades 900

relationships, in traditional religions 824, 867-8, 871-2, 873-4, 876

relativism 546, 758

relics

in Buddhism 736, 737

Christian 213

religion

definition 4, 5-12, 13, 21,38, 41, 43-4 ‘family resemblance’ view 10-12 as social phenomenon 24-6, 30-1,45-7 religion, popular 211-14, 219, 222, 240,

266-8, 290, 299

and Buddhism 802-10

and Islam 308, 381

religions

comparison 4

folk 532, 533, 732

tribal 431, 444, 475-6, 489-95, 532, 583, 873-4

religions, new 11, 289, 292, 296, 833, 869, 907-10

characteristics 948-9 orientations 917-22 and secularisation 910, 942, 949, 963-5 support for 922-4

religions, study of, as disinterested 3-4, 7, 15-16, 20-6

focus of attention 30-1, 36-8 historical 4

methodology 38-40

religions, traditional 250-1, 254

and modernisation 491-5, 823-4, 864-5, 870-2

study of 821-3

threats to 841-2, 846, 852 Remonstrants 223 Renaissance

and Judaism 124

visual arts 218-19

‘Renaissance, twelfth-century’ 205, 208 renouncer traditions 295, 581,582-603,610,

618, 640, 735·, see also Buddhism; dervishes; Jain; Upanisads resurrection, doctrine of 99, 325, 326, 851,

956

Reubeni, David 124

Revelation, Book of 103 revelation

in Christianity 105, 108, 229

in Hinduism 575, 707

in Islam 308, 309, 315

in Judaism 113, 115, 118, 137-8

and new religions 948

in Tantrism 660,661,662,669,692,699; see also smrti; s'ruti

revivalism

Buddhism 628, 629-30, 632, 791

Christian 228, 241, 259-64, 290; see also fundamentalism, biblical

and secularisation 960-2, 965 revivalism, Islamic 294, 344, 377, 406-7 in China 408, 409-10, 413, 415-17 in Indonesia 446

in tropical Africa 477-80

see also Wahhabis

revolution, Islamic 349-50, 475; see also Iran Rg-Veda 575, 578, 580, 584, 638, 662 ribat (fortress) 333, 337

Ricklefs, M.C. 445-6

Rida (Reza) Shah 365-6

Riddell, P. 442

Rime movement, in Tibet 792

Rinchen Zangpo, Tibetan scholar 784 Rinzai, Zen sect 765, 773, 777

Rios Codex of Tenochtitlan 894, 895 Risshokoseikai (Establishment of

Righteousness and Friendly Intercourse) 777, 933, 940, 941, 964

Ritschl, Albrecht 237

Ritsu school of Buddhism 770 ritual

Buddhist 633, 653, 735, 744-7

Hindu 621-3, 625-6, 644, 657, 662, 744-7

in Mazdaism 562-3, 564, 568

tantric 651-2, 654-5, 660-2, 668, 670, 673, 680, 681-2, 684, 690-703, 744, 750, 770-1

traditional religions 838-42, 843-8, 874, 876-80, 890-1

in Vedic religion 576, 577-80, 590, 640 Robertson Smith, William 6, 8

Romania

Church in 175, 177, 180, 233, 239, 299 Islam in 516

Rome

and early Christian Church 142—4, 147-8, 151-5; see also Papacy

and Eastern Church 168-9, 172-3

and Islam 313-14

and Judaism 91-2, 106-9, 112 Rosenzweig, Franz 136-7 Rosh Hashana 140

Rousseau, Jean-Jacques 230, 231

Roy, Rammohan 277, 295, 705-6 Rubinstein, Richard 139

Rudra, vedic deity 664—8, 671, 675; see also Siva

Rumi, Persian scholar 377, 384 Russell, Bertrand 41,46, 54

Russia, Orthodox Church in 47, 177-80, 181, 229, 237, 239, 298; see also Soviet Union

Russian Orthodox Church Abroad 182

Saadya Gaon, Jewish leader 115 Sabbatai Zvi 124-5, 127

Sabbath laws 140

sacraments

Christian, see baptism; confirmation; eucharist

Hindu 625

sacred, the, and the mundane 25-6

Sacred Heart, devotion to 226 sacrifice

in Mazdaism 562, 565

in Nepal 742, 745

in Tibet 811

in traditional religions 838, 848, 849-50, 879, 893, 895

in Vedas 576-80, 582, 586, 618

Sadat, President 459

Sadducees, 92-3, 106-7, 111 al-Sadiq 480

Sadra, Mulla 363

Sadyojyoti, Kashmiri scholar 690, 693 Safavid dynasty 361-4, 383, 397

Sai Baba movement 926, 964

Saicho, Buddhist monk 770, 772 Said Nursi 403-4 saints, veneration of

in Christianity 170

in Islam 327, 339, 458

Saiva-siddhanta 624, 644, 657, 663, 668-70, 678, 679, 690, 691-3, 699-703

Saivism 621, 651

asceticism 651, 663, 664—7, 670, 679, 681-2

Atimarga 664-7, 671 Lakula division 665-7, 670 Pasupata division 664—5

and the Goddess 660, 668, 671, 675-7, 684, 687, 698

Kaula 666, 679-90, 691,699, 702, 704

Mantramarga 664, 666, 667-70, 671, 674, 689, 690, 703

and Tantrism 653, 656, 660, 663 domesticated cults 690-704 sources 663, 664-90 see also Krama system; Trika

Saiyyid Ahmad Brevli 379

Saiyyid dynasty 371, 372 Saktism 618

Sakya sect, Tibetan Buddhism 786-7, 792, 800, 812

Sakyamuni 549, 771, 772, 775-6, 791, 806, 808; see also Buddha

Sakyapa, see Sakya sect

Saladin, Caliph 118, 185

Salafiyya movement 346, 349, 351-2 salvation

in Buddhism 731, 732, 938

in Christianity 101, 144, 150, 162, 201, 206, 209, 213

in Hinduism 706, 716

in Islam 344

in new religions 916-17,919,920-1,923, 930, 936, 948

in Sikhism 717—18

in Tantrism 691-5, 703

see also liberation

Salvation Army 236 Sama-Veda 575, 578, 584

Samanid dynasty 357, 358

Samaritans 69 Sambhava system 687 Samhitas 575 Samkhya darsana 586, 640-1, 642—3 Sammaniyya order 472, 478 samsdra

in Buddhism 595, 631-3, 732, 795,797-8 in Hinduism 617, 638, 639-42, 648 in Tantrism 691, 695 samurai, and Japanese Buddhism 773-4 San-chieh school of Buddhism 762—3, 771 San-lun (Three Treatise) school of

Buddhism 758, 759, 769 Sangha, Buddhist monastic community

727-31, 734-5, 738, 759 Sanhedrin, Jewish 92, 105, 108, 109 Sankara 574, 643, 687 Sanron School of Buddhism 769, 774, 776 Sanskrit

and Buddhism 628

and Hinduism 580-1, 638-9

and Jainism 591, 646 Santaraksita, Tibetan Buddhist 782-3 Santeria, Cuban cult 832 santri, Indonesia 437, 443-6, 448 Sants, India 624, 648, 657-8, 716, 717 Sanusiyya brotherhood 345, 457, 478 Saraha, Dohdkosa 656, 657 Saramati, Buddhist scholar 634 Sarasvati, Dayananda 707—8 Sarvastivada school of Buddhism 635 Sasaki, K. 833 Satan, Christian views 149, 158, 241 Saudi Arabia 421, 457, 459-62 Saudi dynasty 459 Sautrantika school of Buddhism 634, 635,

795

Sava (Rastko), founder of Serbian Church

175 Schacht, Joseph 320 Schelling, F.WJ. von 137, 230 Schill, E. 42 schism, East-West, in Church 156-7,167-9,

172-3, 201, 203, 214 Schism, Great 202—3 schisms, Muslim 429, 462 Schleiermacher, Friedrich 230-1 Schmidt, Wilhelm 822 Schweitzer, Albert 237 science of religion 14-15, 20, 22 science and religion, in Islam 310, 324-5,

347, 384, 385, 398-9, 461 Scientology 916, 923, 928, 964 Scotland, Protestantism 222, 224, 235-6 scribes, Judaism 92-3, 96-7 Scriptures

as allegorical 148, 149-50, 161

Jewish and Christian attitudes to 64-5

literalism 236, 262

see also Bible; New Testament; Old

Testament secularisation

and Christianity 237, 240-1, 262-3, 288,

290, 293-4, 296, 299

and Islam 293, 346-52, 400-7, 452-3,

457, 502, 529

and modern religion 953-66

and oil revenues 461 reaction to 958, 959-66 of religious institutions 955-9 of society 953-5, 965 secularism 953, 954 Seicho no le (House of Growth) 936-7 Seikai Mahikari Bumei Kyodan (World True

Light Civilisation) 936, 940 Sekaikyuseikyo 935-6, 943 self, see dtman

Self Transformation Seminars 929 ‘Self-Religions’ 909, 925-30, 941 Selim I, Sultan 396, 397, 398 Seljuk dynasty 358-9, 390, 391-3 Sen, Keshab Chunder 706-7 Senegal

Christianity in 248, 250 Islam in 488, 495, 500, 949 separatism, Muslim 417—19, 420-1 Separatists 258

Sephardi Jews 115, 117-21, 122, 125, 128, 133-4, 138, 140

Septuagint 107

Serbia, Church in 174-5, 177, 180, 233 Sergius, Russian patriarch 180 Sergius of Radonezh 178

$eriat 392, 394—6, 401—7; see also Shari'a Seventh-day Adventist Church 963 Severus, Patriarch of Antioch 187 sexuality

in Buddhism 776

in Indian religions 538, 587, 598-9 and Islam 356, 484, 509 in new religions 914—15 and shamanism 831, 834-5

in Tantrism 652, 666, 677, 680, 681-2,

698, 750, 771, 799-800, 813

in traditional religions 847 Shadhiliyya order 338, 343, 473 Shafi’i school of law 464-5 Shaftesbury, Earl of 235 Shah Jahan 377, 378, 385 Shahada (Confession of faith) 308, 396 Shaker communities 260, 913 shamanism 533, 536, 562, 565, 825-35 definitions 825-6

and ecstasy 826-9, 831, 832-3, 834 Mongolia 811-14, 815-16

North America 833, 876-7, 879-80, 883

religions 832-3, 933

South America 884-92

Turkey 359, 390, 391

and women 831, 832, 833, 964 Shari'a (Islamic law) 309-10, 332-4, 338,

345-6, 349, 368, 413

in Europe 508

in India 375-6, 378, 386

in Indonesia 435, 436, 448-9, 452-4 in Middle East 460, 461,465, 468 rise of 319-20

in sub-Saharan Africa 477, 496-7 Sharifianism 342

Shattari order 375, 378, 381,385

Shavuot (Pentecost) 140 Shaykhi school 364 Shema 69, 84, 108, 109 Shembe, Isaiah 253, 293, 951

Shenrab, religious figure, Tibet 807-8,

809

shepherd, in Inca religion 902-4

Shi'a Islam 293, 310, 318, 321-2, 366 in Africa 481 in Europe 502, 507 in India 379, 382-3

in Iran 357-8, 361, 363-5, 367; see also Twelver Shi'ism; Zaydism

in Lebanon 466

and Mazdaism 254-5

in Middle East 466-7, 517 opposition to 458

and Turks 390-1,392, 397, 404-5 view of law 320-1

Shihabuddin Muhammad 371, 382 Shingon school of Buddhism 654, 770-1, 772, 774, 776

Shinto 768-9, 772, 777, 833, 964

and new religions 932-4, 942 Shirazi culture 481

Shirokogoroff, S.M. 825-6, 830, 833 Shotoku, Prince 769

shrine worship, Islam 337, 339, 350, 351, 379-80, 459, 473

Shubiyya movement 356-7

Siddhartha, the Buddha 589, 592, 593, 596, 597-8, 600, 603, 605, 735

Siddur (Jewish prayer book) 114—15, 117 Sierre Leone, Christianity in 245-6 Sikhism 272, 714-25

and antinomianism 657-8 contemporary 724-5 early history 714-17 and Islam 379, 533 Khalsa 722-3, 724 leaders 717-20 reform 723-4

Simeon Stylites 158, 188 simony 196, 197

sin

Christian views 162, 209, 222, 241, 302

Jewish view 82, 139

in traditional religion 904 Sinai, Church of 181 Sira (life of Muhammad) 316 Siva, in Hinduism 577, 610, 611-15, 620,

624, 653, 656-7; see also Saivism Siva-Buddha cult 430

Slav Churches 173-5, 177, 213, 229 slave trade, Africa 870 slavery 244, 260-1

Christian views 103, 158, 235, 246, 249 in Islam 352, 396, 480-4, 512

North America 520-3

smrti

in Buddhist meditation 596 secondary revelation 609, 660, 662-3, 701

Snouck Hurgronje, C. 431, 439, 441, 447-8 socialism 235, 237, 299

Socialism, Christian 235, 236 socialism, and Islam 348, 350, 496, 517-18 society, cohesion of, and religion 573, 837,

839, 841-2, 843, 846, 848, 865-6 Socinianism 223, 231 Socrates, church historian 154 Soderblom, Nathan 57 Sofer, Moses 132, 135 Soka gakkai (‘Value-Creating Study

Group’) 777, 910, 914, 933, 938-40, 964 Sokoto Caliphate 479-80 Solzhenitsyn, A. 239, 299 Somananda, Tantric scholar 695 Son of Man, as self-designation ofjesus 97-8 Soto, Zen sect 756, 773 Soubirous, Bernadette 234 soul, concept of 545, 597-8, 639, 644, 757

in Buddhism 597-8, 757, 803-4

in Hinduism 639,640-1,643-4,705,709

in Jainism 589-91, 597, 648

in Mazdaism 558, 568

in Taoism 545

in Tibet 803-4

in international religions 859-60, 880,

889

see also dtman

South Africa

Christianity in 46, 245, 247-8, 251-3, 303 Islam in 486-7, 496

South America

Christianity in 885, 886, 890, 892 traditional religions in 883-904 monotheism 899-904 social organisation 892-9 trance journey 883, 884-92

South India, Church of 278, 296, 962 Soviet Union, Islam in 517-18; see also Russia

Spain

Catholicism in 216-18, 238 colonisation by 265-7, 301

Islam in 330-1, 335-6, 338, 474, 511

Jews in 115, 117-18, 124, 217 Spandakdrikd 694-5

Spencer, B. and Gillen, F.J. 836-7 Spinoza, Benedict 124, 131, 229 spirits

in African religions 482, 489, 867-70

in shamanism 825, 826-9, 832, 834

in traditional religion 489-91, 838-9, 844-7, 871, 876-9

Spiritualism 913 spirituality, post-Reformation 226, 228,

291, 296-7

Sri Lanka, Buddhism in 533, 593, 600, 602-3, 627, 635-6; see also Theravada Buddhism

Srivaisnavism 643-4, 653, 657

Srongtsan Gampo, Tibetan king 780-2, 784 s'ruti (direct revelation) 660, 662, 701 Stanner, W.E.H. 839

state, secular and Islam 411-12, 420, 446-7, 468, 500

see also Christianity; Islam; Judaism; Israel

Sthanakavasins 647

Strauss, David 236

stUpa cults 601-2, 619, 628, 736, 780 Sudan

Christianity in 249

Islam in 457, 470,473,477,480, 486,496 early history 471,472

s'udra, caste 587 suffering

in Buddhism 593-4, 596-8, 632-3, 732, 733-4, 940-1

in Christianity 237, 299

in Judaism 116-17, 118, 123, 139

in Tantrism 664

Sufi Islam

brotherhoods 309, 327, 363, 458, 517 in Africa 343-5, 350,473, 478, 495-6 in China 410

in India 374-80, 381-2, 656, 657, 715, 721

in Indonesia 435, 437-8, 447

in Iran 359, 361-5, 367

in Middle East 456-7, 459

mysticism 118, 293, 308-9, 323-4, 325, 925

in North Africa 473

opposition to 347, 359, 363, 458 origins 337-8, 340-1

and reform movements 478

in sub-Saharan Africa 474, 479, 483

and Turks 390-1, 392, 399

Suhrawardi order 359-60, 375, 381, 385, 565-6

Sukkot 140

Sulawesi (Celibes), Islam in 434, 435

Suleyman I, Sultan 398

sultan, role of 332—3, 336, 341-2, 394-7, 401-2

Sumatra, Islam in 433, 435, 436-7, 447

Sunna in Islam 309-10, 332, 349, 468, 478

Sunni Islam 293, 309-10, 326-8, 366, 458, 465

in Africa 474, 481

in Iran 357-8, 361, 363

in Middle East 459, 466-7, 517

in North America 525, 526 and Protestantism 321, 327 and Turks 390-1, 392-5, 397, 402, 404-5, 502

view of law 320-1, 379

sünyatä (emptiness) 632, 757, 783, 785-6, 795, 797

Supreme Being, in traditional religions 489-93, 838, 868-9, 871, 875, 876, 948 sütra (concise philosophical formula) 639, 641-2

sütra (Sanskrit; Pali: sutta) (the Buddha’s sermons) 600-1, 628

sütra (Mahayana treatise) 628-9, 633, 635, 761, 782

Svacchandabhairava, cult of 669-70, 672, 678, 700-1

Svasthäni, fast of 743, 748-9

Svetämbara Jainism 588, 590-1, 646, 647

Svetds'vatara-Upanijad 586, 611-12

Swahili language 480, 483, 494-5

Swedenborg, Emanuel 231

syair (verse form) 441

Syamsuddin al-Sumatrani (Syamsuddin of Pasai) 438, 442

Syattariah order 447

Syed Ahmad Khan 373, 380, 385 synagogue 92-3, 96, 108, 109, 112

Middle Ages 117

syncretism

and Islam308,355-6,368,375,381,444, 492, 494-5

and Judaism 107, 111

and new religions 933, 945, 946

Synoptic Gospels 94, 105

Syria, Islam in 466-7

Taalbi, Cheikh 346-7

Tahligh movement 382 taboos 650-2, 653-4, 655, 846-7, 877 Tachikawa school of Buddhism 771 Tacitus 143

Tagore, Devendranäth 706

Tagore, Rabindranath 708-9

Tahmasp, Shah 362, 383

Talmud 68-9, 106, 115, 119, 120, 123-4, 126-7, 132

Babylonian 113-14, 117 Palestinian 113, 114

Tanjur (Tibetan-Buddhist texts) 794 Tannaim 113

tantras, classes 805, 806 left-hand/right-hand 655 texts 663, 664, 666, 668, 672-6, 682-5, 696

Tantrism 537, 549-50, 574, 648, 649-55 and Buddhism 651,653-5, 661, 678, 797 decline 662

diversity in 660-1

and Hinduism 651,652-3,654,655,662, 706, 742

Vaisiiava 660-1, 694, 701, 718 and Vedic tradition 662-3 see also Saivism

Tanzania

Christianity in 245, 247

Islam in 480-1,486, 495

Tanzimat reforms 400

Tao Te Ching 541-5

Taoism 281, 300, 533, 537

and Buddhism 549-50, 757, 760, 763, 766, 771

Canon 550

philosophical 541-6, 550, 757-8, 764 religious 546-50

Tarantism 830

tarikats 391, 392-4, 397, 399, 401-3, 405-6; see also tariqa

tariqa 343-4

Tawadu, Muhammad 414

Tawhid (oneness of God) 309

Tawney, R.H. 37, 39

Tayyibiyya order 472, 478, 479

Tea Ceremony, Japan 768, 773

Tegh Bahadur, Guru 721-2

Teilhard de Chardin, Pierre 237 temple

in Buddhism 622

in Hinduism 609, 620-2, 623-4, 625-6, 657

in Jainism 622, 647

Jewish 81, 92-4, 103, 105-6, 108-9, 111 in Sikhism 720, 724-5

Tenak (Torah, Nevi’im, Ketubim) 68-9, 107

Tendai school of Buddhism 770,771-3,774, 776

Teng Hsiao-p’ing 422

Tenrikyo (Heavenly Wisdom) 932, 934

Tepanec religion 985

Teresa, Mother 276, 296

Teresa of Avila 57, 218

termas (treasures) in Buddhism 788, 789,

791-2, 794, 809

Tertullian 146, 148, 154, 243

Thailand, Islam in 420-1 theism 58-9, 230

and eastern religions 537-8, 558-9, 562, 564, 638, 644

popular, see Hinduism, epic-puranic theocracy 96, 169, 171,174, 178-9, 196, 198

Islamic 401, 464-5, 469

Theodore of Mopsuestia 168, 183, 184 Theodosius 1 157, 159-60, 163-4 theology

black 254, 262, 293

Buddhist 781

Chinese 283

Christian 96-100, 162-6, 168-70, 208-11, 220, 226-7 Counter-Reformation 218 definition 3-4

Hindu 607, 610-11, 621-5, 637-45

Indian 276-7

Judaism 114, 117, 118, 122

liberal 262-3, 283

medieval 205, 208-11 modern 240

Muslim 318, 321-3, 362, 438-9, 468 India 376-81

Nepali 747-8, 751-2, 753-4

and Old Testament history 77-8

Reformation 220, 222

Russian Orthodox 179-80

Sikh 717-18

of world religions 13-14, 15-16 Theosophical movement 566-7, 913 Theravada Buddhism 593, 603, 627-8, 631, 633, 635-6

early history 726-9 fundamentalism 731 in India 726, 729 modern 731-8, 732-8 popular 732-4 in Sri Lanka 726-7, 729-31, 732-3, 737 Therese of Lisieux 234

Thomas, M.M. 275, 277

Thomism, see Aquinas, Thomas

Three Self Patriotic Movement 280, 282, 283, 300

Tibet

Bon religion 810-15

Buddhism in 553, 627, 654-5, 661, 752, 812-13, 814-15 characteristics 794-802 history 779-94

Indian influence 782-3,784-5,794-5, 799, 802, 805-6

and popular religion 782, 784, 802-5 sects 785-93

monarchy 779-84, 806

monasticism 782—5, 787—8, 792—3

Tantrism 786-7, 791-2, 797-801, 810

T’ien T’ai Buddhism 550, 761, 770

Tijaniyya brotherhood 344-5, 457, 473, 495 Tikhon, Russian patriarch 180

Timbuktu, as Islamic centre 475

Timur Lane 183-4, 188, 272, 361

Ting, K.H. 283, 300

Tlaloc, South American rain-god 894-6, 898-9

tobacco, Islamic ban on 348, 350, 365, 458 tohunga, Maori 854-6, 858 toleration, religious 222—3, 226, 229, 231,

250, 254, 259, 261, 280

in Hinduism and Buddhism 626, 753-4

in Islam 369-70, 371-2, 393, 397, 403, 445,517-18

of Islam 511—12

Toltec religion 895

Torah (Law) 68, 69, 92, 96-7, 101, 103-4,

106-9, 132

Middle Ages 112-13, 115, 119-20, 122-3, 125

Torquemada, Tomas de, Grand Inquisitor

217

trade, and spread of Islam 368-9,409,437-8, 470, 472, 474, 480-2, 493

tradition

apostolic, appeal to 104, 146 in Islam 350-1, 354 oral 575, 791, 822 in Orthodox Church 172, 179 traditionalism

Islamic 449-51, 462-5, 468, 479

Jewish 127-8, 129-30, 132-5, 139 ‘Traditionate’ school of law (Akhbaris) 364 traditions, oral 866-7 traditions, esoteric, India, see Tantrism Trajan, Emperor 107, 144 trance

in Islam 340

in shamanism 825, 828, 829, 833, 877, 884-92, 894-5

in Tantrism 682, 810

in traditional religions 883 transcendence, concept of 43-7, 582-3,

584-5, 603, 610, 639, 642 transmigration, concept of 582, 589-90,

593-5, 692, 695, 718, 734-5, 757, 804-5

Trent, Council of 224, 225

Trickster—transformer—culture-hero, in

North American religions 875 Trika

Tantras 663, 669, 672-3, 677, 678, 689-90, 703-4 Kashmiri 692-3, 695-6, 699, 701 Kaula form 681-2, 683

trikaya (Three Buddha-Bodies) 633, 653, 774-5, 796, 809

Trinity

Christianity 146, 148, 154-5, 157, 169,

223, 276

Hindu 610, 614

Tripurasundari, cult of 663, 687, 688-90, 701, 703-4

Trisong Detsen, Tibetan king 782-3, 808 truth 13-15, 35-6, 210

in Buddhism 795, 797

in Hindu thought 710-11 Ts’ao-tung, Zen sect 756, 773 Tsongkapa, Buddhist scholar 786, 792-3, 801, 813

Tughluk dynasty 371-2, 377, 386, 388 Tukano Indians 834

Tulsidas, Hindu poet 613, 625 Tungus, and shamanism 825-6, 827, 830, 833, 834-5

Tunisia, Islam in 342-50, 352, 499-500, 502 Turkey

and Christianity 175-7, 188-9 and Islam 358-9, 390-407, 452, 500,

502-3, 510-11, 513-14

early history 390-3

Ottoman ascendancy 393-8

Ottoman decline 398-400 and secularisation 400-7 see also Ottoman Empire Turkoman tribes 391-3

Twelver Shi’ism 321-2, 354, 358, 361-2, 367, 382-3, 465, 468, 517

Tylor, E.B. 8, 17-18

Uganda

Christianity in 487

Islam in 487

Uighurs 410, 420, 811-12 ulema (teachers) 305, 308

India 376, 379-80

Indonesia 448-9

North Africa 338,340,342-3,345-7,349 Saudi Arabia 461

Turkish 392, 394-5, 397-9 Ultramontanism 233, 234, 238, 262, 959 Umar, Caliph 315, 382

Umar b.Sa'id, al-Hajj 474, 475, 478-9 Umasvati, Jain teacher 588, 591

Umayyad dynasty 315, 318, 330-1, 369-70, 456

Umbanda, Brazilian cult 832 understanding

and belief 21-6

see also knowledge

Uniate Churches 181, 184, 187-8, 229, 239 Unification Church (Moonies) 910, 914, 920, 924, 932, 964

Union Tantras (Ydmala-tantras) 669, 672,

675

Unitarianism 11, 223, 231, 261 United Dutch East India Company 427-8,

431, 434, 446

United Reformed Church 962

United States

Christianity in 257-64, 290

Islam in 520-9

unity

early Church 156-7, 165, 216

of Islam 307-8, 412-13, 419-20, 438, 468, 483, 496, 950; see also pan-Islamism

of religions 11, 12-20 unity of being, in Islam 360,363,375,377-9 Universalism 261

universities, medieval 208, 216, 225 Upanisads 575, 576, 583-8, 589, 592, 605,

638, 640, 642-3, 706

Urdu, Islamic use of 385, 386

Uthman, Caliph 315, 382

Uthman b.Fudi, Shaykh 474, 475, 476-7, 478-80

Utpaladeva, Tantric scholar 695-6, 700

Vaibhasika, Buddhist school Vaikhanasa school of Hinduism 621, 795 ‘Vailala Madness’, Melanesia 851-2 Vairocana Buddha 678, 769, 771, 774, 792,

798, 801

Vaise?ika dars'ana 640

Vaisnavism 620-2, 624, 653, 660-1, 694,

701, 718

va/sya, trader caste 587

Vajrayana Buddhism 627, 654, 661, 751,

797, 801, 925

Valentinian II, Emperor 159-60, 161 Varuna, Vedic deva 577, 579 Vasubandhu, Buddhist scholar 634, 635,

760, 762, 763

Vasugupta, Tantric scholar 690, 794 Vatican Council

First 234

Second 65, 240, 291, 512, 956 Vedanta (Hinduism) 586, 625, 638, 642-4,

705, 707, 709, 913 l/eddnta-dars'ana 642 Veddnta-sutra 586, 642-3 Vedantadesika, Hindu poet 624, 643 Vedas 575-81, 582-3, 586-7, 590, 596, 604,

609-10, 612, 640, 701-2, 747-8; see also Hinduism

veil, ban on 365, 402

Verethraghna, god of Mazdaism 558, 561,

563

vernacular, in worship 182, 220-1, 240 Vianney, Jean-Baptiste (Cure d’ Aris) 234

Vibration, doctrine of, in Tantrism 694-5, 697

Vidyapitha 668-79, 680, 681

Vijnanavada, Buddhist school 634, 795, 797

Vinaya 599-600, 601, 602, 728-9, 776, 782, 784-6, 792, 795, 800

Vira-Saivite (Lirigayite) movement 657

Viracocha, cult of 883 4, 900, 903-4 virgin birth, doctrine of 956

Viryakali, cult of 683

vision quest, in North American religions 876-7, 878

Visnu, in Hinduism 577, 610, 611-12, 613-16, 622, 624, 643-4, 656-7, 660, 686, 715, 748

Visuddhimagga 727-8, 737-8

Vivekananda, Hindu philosopher 708, 709-10, 913

Voodoo, Haiti 831, 832, 834

Vulgate translation 194

Wabose, Catherine 888

Wahhabis 379, 410, 446-7, 458-60, 462-4, 468, 478

Waldensians 206, 214

tvali (governor) 336-7

wall (thaumaturge) 473

Waliullah, Shaykh 379, 381-2, 384-6, 417 walk, solar, in traditional religions 886-92 war, just, theory of209, 213

Warner, W.L. 839, 841

Weber, Max 36-7, 38, 39

Weiss, Johannes 236-7

Wesley, Charles 228

Wesley, John 228, 231

West Africa

Christianity in 244, 246-7, 249

Islam in 474-80, 482, 486, 488, 495

West Germany, Islam in 500, 501, 502-6 Westminster Confession (1643) 224

White Fathers 248

Wiener, Leo 520

Wiesel, Elie 139

Wilberforce, William 235

William of Ockham 210

Wilson, Bryan 943

Winnebago, traditional religion of 888-90 wisdom literature, Old Testament 74, 88 Wise, Isaac M. 133

witchcraft 223, 258, 292

traditional religions 869, 871, 877

Wittgenstein, L. von 10, 11, 54

Wolff, Christian 230

Wolsey, Cardinal Thomas 218 women

attitudes to 66, 95, 156, 303 education of 384, 461

in Indian religions 648, 711, 964

in Islam 351-2, 400, 403, 461, 473, 484-5, 502, 517

in new religions 952, 964

Christian Church’s ordination of66,264

in traditional religions 878

see also shamanism

World Council of Churches 66, 239, 291 World Muslim League 461, 503, 513 Worldwide Church of God 910

Worms, E.A. 838-9, 840 worship

Islamic 332; see also prayers

in new religions 948

Orthodox 169-70, 172

sacrificial, Judaism 80-3, 89, 102, 108 see also Nepal; ritual

Writings 69-70, 107

Wujudiya concept 438, 441-2

Yahya ibn Muyhammad 464—5 Yajur-Veda 575, 578, 584, 662, 665 Yavneh, see Jamnia

Yemen, People’s Democratic Republic 464, 465

Yemen Arab Republic, Islam in 464-5, 469,

480

Yerushalmi, Yosef 116

Yigdal 118-19

Yinger, J.M. 8

yoga

in Buddhism 757, 787-8, 798, 799-801 in Hinduism 585, 623-4, 641-2, 708-9 in Tantrism 655, 673, 678, 702-3, 800

in Taoism 547

see also hatha-yoga·, Ndtha-yoga Yoga-darsana 638, 641

Yogacara school of Buddhism 634, 760 yogi, Tibet 785, 792, 799

Yoginis, cult of 671-3, 674, 678-9, 697-8 reformation of 679-90

Young Turks 400

Yu Chi 548, 549

Yugoslavia, Islam in 500, 502, 511, 514, 524

Zaddikim 127

Zaehner, R.C. 324

zakat (alms tax) 309, 326, 392

Zanj Revolt 481

zar cult, Africa 482, 831

Zarathushtra 552, 554, 555-8, 565-6 zawiya 338, 340-1, 342, 343-4, 350 Zaydism 355-6, 464-5, 468

Zealots 91-2, 93, 106

Zen Buddhism 768, 772-6, 777, 914; see also Ch’an (Zen) Buddhism

Zeno, Emperor 165, 167-8, 183, 187 Zhao Fusan 280

Zimbabwe, Islam in 486

Zinzendorf, Count Nikolaus von 228

Zion Christian Church 946, 950

Zionism 44-5, 134-6, 140

Zohar 122-3

Zuhri, Kiai Haji Saifuddin 432

Zunz, Leopold 131

Zurvanism 560, 561-2, 564-5, 811 Zwingli, Ulrich 221, 223