Indigenous or Pre-Buddhist Beliefs
There are two distinct, somewhat opposed, and yet similar religious traditions in Tibet. One is represented by Buddhism, brought from India, and the other is Bon, which claims different origins but in fact represents a heterodox form of Buddhism from the eleventh century onwards.
Both these religions claim—and are followed in this by some Western scholars—that Bon and its followers, called Bonpos, represent the ancient religious beliefs of Tibet. Critical scholarship has proved decisively that such an assumption does not portray the true situation. Ever since Buddhism was introduced in Tibet, it gradually eliminated the ancient beliefs, especially those that were in a direct contrast to its doctrines. Some of the more acceptable practices, and especially myths as we have seen, were subsumed into both Buddhism and carried forward by Bon, in both religions under an appropriate terminology. Thus all the materials in Tibetan religious sources that contain or refer to the ancient beliefs are given a suitably transformed interpretation. The description of the ancient beliefs, therefore, can only be limited to generalities and certain accounts that appear almost certainly to have existed in Tibet before the introduction of Buddhism in the seventh century; some of the ancient elements have already been mentioned above.The oldest indigenous Tibetan beliefs seem to have centred around the sacral and divine character of the very early kings. The transition to the earthly mortality of the kings did not eliminate their sacral nature but it necessarily introduced new elements which were largely connected with funeral rites. The interment of the kings, from Drigum onwards, involved elaborate ceremonies to assure their peaceful stay in the realm of the dead. The kings were buried with a whole set of worldly possessions, including animals and probably their companions.
The funeral rites included special ransom ceremonies which aimed to prevent evil powers from disturbing the dead, and also, it seems, to seal off, as it were, the world of the dead from the living. On such occasions animal sacrifices were performed and suitable verses were recited. The belief in the realm of the dead led to the cult of ancestors which was expressed through periodical offerings made by families to their departed forefathers. It seems quite certain that bloody sacrifices were still practised on special occasions, such as the swearing of solemn oaths or the instalment of the kings, even during the initial stages of Buddhism in Tibet. A great number of the ancient practices seem to have been concerned with divination and astrological calculations to determine the causes of people’s misfortunes and ailments, and to procure suitable cures to eliminate them. The sources of people’s troubles were often attributed to local gods and demons of all kinds. The usual manner of counteracting and preventing harmful influences of various evil powers was achieved through the use of ransom offerings.The specialists who performed the funerary rites, divination or made offerings to different categories of spirits were known as bon or shen (gshen). Those priests engaged by the royal court were credited with various magical powers, skills in ritual sacrifices and abilities to perform spectacular feats such as flying in the air. The religion, as such, seems to have had no name but at times it is referred to in texts as ‘divine conventions’ (lha-chos) in contrast to ‘human conventions’ (mi-chos), or again as ‘the custom of heaven and earth’ (gnam-sa’i-lugs). Some scholars assert that it was called tsug (gtsug) or tsuglag (gtsug-lag). The origin of the world is attributed to a category of celestial beings called cha (phyva). The heavenly dwelling consisted of thirteen levels and the earth had nine. The cha gods, presided over by a leader (sku-lha), controlled the cosmic events according to the Law (tsug). The harmonious rule of the universe was retained by the Law with some gods remaining in heaven and other gods taking residence on the earth. The universal order was disrupted by a demon released from the ninth subterranean level. Moral decay evolved and only some people sustained the Law. The general immoral chaos will end and good people will regain the control epitomised by the Law but, in the meantime, they remain in a peaceful state in the abode of the dead.
Another discernible feature of the ancient beliefs is the cult of mountain deities. Certain mountain peaks were treated as sacred and it seems that the early Tibetan tribes had their separate mountains. The deities living on those mountains belonged mostly to the group of the most powerful category known as tsan (btsan, ‘mighty’). Even today there are many mountain peaks which are considered sacred.