Religion in Early Civilizations and States

Human beings have their origins in Africa and our earliest record of religions comes from Africa as well. Rock art from southern Africa dates as far back as 26,000 years ago, and it was likely produced by early hunter-gatherers.

The Bantu Migration was a major population movement from West Africa to Central and Southern Africa from around 2000 bce and until about 1500 ce. The movement of agriculturalist Bantu peoples spread their languages, technologies, political forms, and cultural practices to other African peoples, many of whom were hunter-gatherers. Although we do not know much about early Bantu religion, it is safe to assume that essential teachings and practices that we might term “religious” also moved with the Bantu migration. Although Bantu peoples today and in the past are very diverse, it is possible that the migration led to the development of religious commonalities in many parts of West, Central, and Southern Africa, such as the recognition of complex spirit worlds that interact with the human realm.

In the Common Era, great city-states and powerful empires arose throughout sub-Saharan Africa. In the northeast, in what is today Ethiopia and Eritrea, the kingdom of Axum (also spelled Aksum) flourished from the first century to the eighth century ce. Axum was known for its impressive stone monuments called stelae, minted gold coins, and the written language known as Ge’ez (a precursor to modern Amharic). Prior to 350 ce, when Axumite King Ezana I converted to Christianity, Axumites practiced a polytheistic religion that held many similarities to religions elsewhere in northeastern Africa and the Arabian Peninsula.

Further south in eastern Africa, dozens of prominent city-states arose in a narrow strip along the Swahili Coast (Kenya and Tanzania today) from the eighth century to the eighteenth century. City-states like Zanzibar, Mombasa, and Kilwa dominated trade between Africa and other Indian Ocean locales, and became particularly powerful from 1500 to 1800. The city- states were first populated by Bantu peoples but became increasingly diverse with the arrival of Arab and other Indian Ocean traders. This led to intermarriage and the emergence of the language and cultures known as Swahili. There was an early Islamic presence on the coast, and pre-Islamic religious ideas and practices were likely similar to farming and pastoralist communities further inland. Until the present day, the coastal region is home to both practitioners of indigenous religions and Islam, and many people incorporate elements of both into their lives.

In southern Africa, the city of Great Zimbabwe arose as a large urban center of as many as 20,000 Shona-speaking Bantu people. (The term Zimbabwe refers to stone buildings, and the country of Zimbabwe takes its name from this city). Great Zimbabwe was probably the center of a large state or kingdom, and it flourished as a major center of trade from around 1100 and to 1500 ce, frequently trading with Swahili city-states. Great Zimbabwe was dominated by a central building complex that archaeologists believe was the religious and ritual center of the city. Although it is uncertain what forms of religious practice took place in the complex, some scholars think that people venerated their ancestors through offerings of various kinds.

Numerous prominent states and empires arose in West Africa, including the Ghana Empire from 600 to 1100 ce and the Mali Empire from 800 to 1400 ce. Although the modern country of Ghana takes its name from the former empire, the Ghana Empire was located farther north, in what is today Senegal, Mauritania, and Mali. The empire had a major role in trans-Saharan trade and became wealthy through controlling the gold trade. Although we do not know a great deal about religion in the Ghana kingdom, it seems evident that the wealthy and powerful kings were regarded as semidivine and were considered religious leaders of their people, who likely made offerings to them.

As the Ghana Empire began to decline, the Mali Empire (1215-1450) arose and eclipsed it, growing incredibly powerful and wealthy. The first king of Mali was known as Sundiata (or Son Jara), who ruled from 1230 to 1255. Although Muslims were certainly present and influential in the region during his reign, oral tradition holds that Sundiata adhered to indigenous beliefs and practices. As with Ghana Empire kings, it is likely that Sundiata was thought to have semidivine powers. A great epic narrative, known as the Epic of Son Jara

(Sundiata), telling of his life attributes powerful magical abilities to him and his family. While later Malian kings were overtly Muslim, ordinary people probably held on to their indigenous religious practices and beliefs for some time.

Throughout the continent, indigenous African religions have faced common historical forces like the spread of Islam, and then later the spread of Christianity and the devastation of colonialism. However, as we have seen, even when merchants or kings become Christians or Muslims, the influence of indigenous religious traditions remained. This is true even until today, when about 90 percent of Africans identify as Christians or Muslims. Indigenous religious ideas, narratives, and practices coexist with Christianity and Islam, and Africans often combine elements of many religions in their own worldviews and practice, as will be discussed below.