The Yerykulas of Andhra Pradesh and Telangana
In Andhra Pradesh and Telangana, according to the 2011 census, tribal population accounted for 8.93% of the population, that is 42 lakhs in the total population of 53,549,679. In 1977, the Lambadis, the Yerukulas, and the Yanadis were included in the category of Scheduled Tribes.
The tribal population increased substantially with the inclusion of these tribes (GoI 1981). These people occupy 30,000 sq. miles of area i.e. 11% of the total area of these two states. They are spread over 6197 villages (Lalitha 1995:173). In South India, among various tribes, Yerukulas occupy an important position. According to the 1981 census report the Yerukulas occupy the fourth place out of 33 groups of tribes, and their number was 300,557. These Yerukulas are found in almost all districts in Andhra Pradesh. However, their number is higher in Rayalaseema, Telangana, and coastal Andhra Districts. From the North Arcot district up to the ceded districts they are called Korchas or Korachas. From ceded districts (area ceded to the British East India Company by the Nizam in 1800) they are called Yerukula. The Yerukulas, the Koravas, and the Korchas were in fact branches of the large Korava community operating in different regions of Madras Presidency. Yerukulas lived and traded in Telugu districts; Koravas in Tamil districts; and Korchas in coastal districts of Andhra Pradesh and Telangana (Radhakrishna 1989:3). In Andhra region, these people were called Yerukulavandlu or Korachavandlu, but they always speak of themselves as Kurru. In Nellore they address one another as Kurru and Kula. It has been suggested that Yeru is connected with ‘Erra’, meaning red (Thurston 1909). In Telugu, Yerukulavandlu means fortune-tellers and Oppert (1893) suggests that this could be the reason for which for the Telugu people call these people ‘Yerukulavandlu’. He further connects the word kurru with the root ku, a mountain (Oppert 1893), and Thurston informs us that in a Tamil work of the ninth century (Tirumurukairuppadi) kurru or kuru is given as the name of a hill tribe (also see Oppert 1893). Each caste (clan) has its own sub-castes (sub-clans) and its own caste rules. Social customs, religious beliefs, omens, ordeals, and standards of morality vary from sub-caste to sub-caste and from one social group to another. Their social customs and religious beliefs are perfectly in tune with their career. From times immemorial, the members of the nomadic/ denotified tribes have been following Hinduism in its crude form. Similarly, these Yerukulas also have their own way of living, customs, traditions, taboos, rituals, and ceremonies. These traditions separate them from other populations. Originally the Yerukulas were temple servants. Subsequently, they took to petty trading and the selling of agricultural products in several places. With the development of communications, the Yerukulas discontinued their trade. This disorganisation in their social and economic life resulted in them become petty criminals to make ends meet. Generally they feel that it was an absurd thing to work a whole day for six annas (during that time). By courage and good luck one night adventure may bring in thousands of rupees (Oppert 1893).1.2.1 Position of Women and Children
Traditionally, women were greatly oppressed and this has changed a little, for the better. They are expected to show respect to the male members of the family. In general, the brother-in-law or other children accept women as part of their family. They cannot call their husband by name. Some Yerukulas are particular about the reputation of their women and consider it a serious matter, if any of them return home without an escort after sunset. Debauchery is considered to be the most sinful act and is severely condemned. The fortune-telling women carry a basket, winnow, stick, and wicker tray in which cowry shells are embedded in a mixture of cow dung and turmeric. The basket represents the deity Kolapuriamma. The women go about the streets calling out ‘Yeruko Amma Yeruka’ which means ‘prophecy, mother, prophecy’ (Thurston 1909).
1.2.2 Gotras or Clans
They have their own ‘gotras’ or clans. They are Sathupati, Kavadi, Manepati, and Mandragutti (Hatch 1928). These are all corrupted Tamil words. Sathupadi is a corruption of Sattupadi which means adorning a Hindu deity with flowers, jewels, and vestments; Kavadi means a pole carried on the shoulders with two baskets, pendants hanging from both ends. Manepati is a corruption of manpadi which means stitching a pair of shoes and presenting them to the temple (Pratap 1974:14). In earlier days, these people were very particular about their gotrams. Of these four major divisions, Sathupati and Kavati
Religion, Rites, Rituals, Customs and Traditions among the Denotified/Nomadic Tribes gotrams are considered superior. A Kavati man (styled as Pothuvadu in Telugu), according to the tradition, can marry into a Sathupati family as they are endogamous. However, the reverse is not generally acceptable, though there are very few exceptions. These people are said to have many sub-divisions but these refer chiefly to the various occupations they follow. Some of these are Kavali Yerukulas, Uppu Yerukulas, Dabba Yerukulas, Karrepaku Yerukulas, Parigimugga Yerukulas, Koot Yerukulas, Kotulas, Bhazantri Yerukulas, Ram Yerukulas, Nagi Yerukulas, Suvva Yerukulas, Kunchapari Yerukulas, Sathupati Yerukulas, Kuddikatti Yerukulas, etc. Some men who were appointed as watch men were called Kavali Yerukulas. Some men who maintained their livelihood by taking the business of salt were called Uppu Yerukulas. Dabba Yerukulas were those who prepared bamboo baskets. The people who sold Karvepaku leaves were called Karvepaku Yerukulas. Pamulas were those who caught snakes and exhibited them in the villages to earn a living. Parigamuggalas were those whose profession was tattooing. The people who obtained their livelihood by prostitution were called Koot Yerukulas. In Telugu areas, these people were called Bogamuvaru. They also kidnapped and sold children; Kotulas were those who trapped monkeys and performed rituals.
The people who played the orchestra at the time of festivals, marriages, and other cultural proceedings were called Bhazantri Yerukulas. Ram Yerukulas were those who lived on the occupation of working in rocks. The people who ate monkeys were called Nagi Yerukulas. Some gathered roots in forests and made them into long brushes. They were excellent hunters. They were called Kunchipuri Yerukulas. Satupati Yerukulas were those whose main source of livelihood was preparing baskets. Etapulla Yerukulas were those whose main occupation was net weaving. Suvva Yerukulas were those whose main occupation was basket making with iron rods. Presently, these occupations are in decline.Among the Yerukulas, there are basically three religious groups viz., Hindus, Christians, and Muslims. But the number of Hindus and converted Christians are large in number (Simhadri 1979:71). The Hindus worship Venkateswara, Lakshmi, Siva, and other gods of the Hindu pantheon. The Christians attend church services. But due to the influence of the American Baptist Telugu Mission, Canadians, and the Salvation Army there are a good number of people who go to church, though they are traditionally Hindus. Both Hindus and Christians celebrate their festivals like Dasara, Deepavali, Pongal, Christmas, and New Year’s Day. Some of the people who engage in criminal activities are animists. They believe in natural forces and worship all kinds of idols, animals, birds, and supernatural forces. The Kula Dharma (caste duty) of Yerukulas was dongatanamu (stealing). Before going out on a house breaking excursion or a raid on a peaceful village they used to pray to the Moodhevi (goddess of sleep). The contents of the prayers are that they themselves would remain alert while heavy sleep might fall on their victims, and the police would not interrupt their operations.
In the settlements the people observe their gotras or kinship relations very strictly while performing marriages, ceremonies, rituals, and customary practices.
They identify a certain person by his house name. Thus, they follow endogamous rules. Today, inter-caste marriages are taking place among the Yerukulas.1.2.3 Rites, Rituals, and Religious Practices among the Yerukulas
Yerukalas worship Vishnu in the form of Lord Venkateswara and his consort Laxmi, the goddess of wealth. They also worship minor deities like Bhavani, Mahalaxmi, Maremma, Kollapuremma, Poleramma, Peddamma, etc. Pigs, jackals, crows, and other animals and
birds are used as offerings and sacrifices to these deities. They have faith in natural forces like the sun, moon, fire, etc. The presiding goddess of the profession of crime among the Korvas is Moodhevi, the Goddess of Sleep. Moodhevi is invoked in their prayers to keep their victims asleep at the time of their operation. They observe the new-moon day (Amavasya) and full-moon day (Poornima) or Krishna Paksham and Shukla Paksham respectively. They celebrate all Hindu festivals. In addition, these are animists. In their view, the world consists of not only human beings, but also of a multitude of beings including animals. They have a belief that if evil spirits are not worshipped properly they have to face the wrath of the God and hence diseases, such as small-pox and cholera are caused. To worship God, they need not go to any temple, nor are they allowed to enter any. In the Madras presidency, they generally kept a stone or a mud idol under a neem-tree, smeared it with saffron and red colours, called it by the name of the Goddess, and worshipped it, offering coconuts and burning incense and camphor. This worship was followed by a carousel, where toddy was drunk freely and meals were eaten heartily. The practice is still followed among traditionalists. During the Dussehra festival they worship a ‘Durratu’ (a pruning hook). They consult a Brahmin priest about the fixation of the date of the festival. If we take the present condition of life of the Yerukalas into account, it is observed that they no longer follow only old systems of sustenance viz.
soothsaying and tattooing as the earlier generations used to live. The culture and social organisation of the Yerukalas is quite different from any other tribe of the country. Even now the code of conduct of these people is determined and controlled by ‘Kulapanchayat’ or caste assembly. They have great respect for the unwritten law or the verdict of Kulapanchayat. The caste assembly enforces rigid principles on them. Irrespective of their position in society, they subordinate themselves to the will of the elders. These elders decide whether a man is guilty of an allegation or not by dipping the fingers of the accused person in boiling oil or making him pickup a red-hot iron rod or walking through a crackling bed of fire, etc. Though the methods involved here look uncivilised and barbarous, they are very simple and do not have a chance of perjury or impersonation.1.2.3.1 Marriage System
The Yerukulas strictly follow their religious beliefs while performing their marriages. The type of marriage that prevails among Yerukulas is polygyny. But it is now giving place to monogamy. Elders arrange the marriage of children. They freely admit other caste women into theirs, except those of the lowest order, such as Malas, Madigas, and the like. At present, they are admitting these women also into their fold. A marriage is generally negotiated between the parents of the bridegroom and the bride; and the former promises to pay a voli or bride price of Rs.3.50 for the first marriage and Rs.7/- for the remarriage of a man or woman (Sherring 1974:137). The amount now differs according to the social status of the family. Child marriages are not allowed. There was a custom, which is hardly seen now, whereby the maternal uncle may claim the first two daughters of his family as wives for his sons. Generally, the selection of a match is followed in the following manner. First, they select a suitable bride and the parents of the bridegroom visit the bride’s house with all elderly persons. The village head plays the role of mediator between the two parties. If they find that the girl is suitable to their bridegroom, they give their acceptance. Instead of a bride-price, the dowry system slowly has stepped into their life due to the Sanskritisation process. People take dowry according to their social status. It is taken in terms of agricultural plots, cash, gold, vehicles, and other luxurious goods. Soon after the selection, they
Religion, Rites, Rituals, Customs and Traditions among the Denotified/Nomadic Tribes celebrate the occasion with drinking of toddy in the presence of the village head. Parents of both parties exchange toddy and also supply one vessel to the head of the Kulapanchayat. A feast follows after drinking. After the betrothal ceremony is over, the parents of both parties are bound by the contract. Otherwise a meeting is called for, and explanation is given accordingly for the breach of the contract if any takes place. The Kulapanchayat gives its judgement and it is followed strictly. Generally, for those that follow Hindu customs, a Brahmin priest fixes the marriage muhurtam (auspicious time) and performs it. A Pastor performs the marriage for converted Christians (Oppert 1893). The Tali consists of black beads and Talambralu (rice grains over the heads of bride and groom) will follow (GoM 1903: 23-24). Widows are not allowed to participate in the function. Another custom that exists in their family is to make contract of marriage between two would-be fathers before the birth of their children. But if a Brahmin objects, then there is a scope for its breach.
1.2.3.2 Puberty
Puberty is a happy occasion in the community like marriage. If a girl attains puberty, the news is sent to her maternal uncle. The girl ‘sits’ for five days and observes pollution. Her uncle gives her new clothes, a comb, a mirror, flowers, kumkum (vermilion), nuts, bangles etc., and also arranges for a feast for her. Sweets are distributed to celebrate the occasion. They go to the temples and worship their tutelary gods.
1.2.3.3 Divorce
Divorce is rare and, if it takes place, the divorced parties may rake up their differences and become enemies. In the case of elopement, the father of a boy or girl summons a meeting at which the accused is penalised. The man who elopes with the girl is forced to marry her. If a married person elopes with another girl, both woman and man are strictly punished by the village elders in the Kulapanchayat. A certain amount is also fixed as a fine on the accused. This system is also implemented on those who have illegal relations. If a man, already having a wife, does not have children, then he is eligible to take a second wife. Otherwise, he is punished. He is obliged to pay for the maintenance to the first wife. They take oaths in front of gods and goddesses while being divorced from each other.
1.2.3.4 Widow Marriage
Widow marriages are quite common in this community. It is said that a widow can marry seven times. A woman who marries seven times is called Peddabeyasani. She is considered to be a sacred woman in marriages and other religious ceremonies. A person who wishes to marry a widow buys a new saree and accepts her as his wife in the presence of others. This is what is called (wearing the saree) cheerakattukovadamu (also see Hassan 1989). The head of the village acts as a mediator. They celebrate it with drinking toddy. Another custom prevailing among them is that in the absence of her husband who is in jail, his wife lives with other person. On his return, the husband again accepts her along with the new-born children (Hatch 1928).
1.2.3.5 Rites and Rituals: Birth Ceremonies
In earlier days, immediately after the birth of the child, they burned incense in front of the hut. They purify the hut with cow dung. After this purification, everybody is allowed to see
the new-born baby (Rao 1901). They also follow certain practices for the safety of the child in order to escape from supernatural forces. They bestow attention on mother and child. They take a bath on the ninth day (Oppert 1893). Toddy and dinner are served. Naming the child takes place after a few months. These names are most probably selected from their ancestors, sometimes from their heroes or from their gods and goddesses. Generally, the names are Venkatigadu, Gangadu, Nagi, Ankali, etc. After a name is given, a black string is tied to the wrist of the infant. The maternal uncle takes interest in the new-born child. They consider it a good omen if the child is born on the new moon night (Thurston 1909). If the child is born with an umbilical cord twisted round his neck, they take it as a bad omen and that might lead to, as it is believed, the death the of father or maternal uncle. They overcome this by killing a fowl and wearing its intestines round the neck and afterwards burning them along with the umbilical cord (Thurston 1909). The Yerukulas, during the colonial period, used to teach their children to answer negatively to whatever questions are put to them and also teach them all sorts of methods of committing crime. Writing about Yerukulas, T. Cain informs us that the religious belief among the Yerukulas is that, immediately when the woman feels the birth-pains, she informs her husband, who takes some of her clothes, puts them on and places the same on his head. She retires into a dark room where there is only a very dim lamp, and lies down on the bed, covering herself up with a long cloth. When the child is born, it is washed and placed on the cot beside the father. Asafoetida, jaggery (molasses), and other articles are given not to the mother but to the father.
1.2.3.6 Disposal of the Dead
If a wandering Yerukula dies, he is buried as quickly as possible, keeping the head to the north and feet to the south. They cover the corpse with new clothes and the dead are given a bath and a coin is placed in one corner. They invite crows thinking that the spirit of the dead moves around. After exactly one year, they perform a funeral function and that completes the major death ceremonies. More or less the same procedure is followed by converted Christians with minor charges. Some Yerukulas plant a tulasi (basil) plant at the place where the body is burnt. Each family has its snares and nets to catch edible birds for religious purposes; for offering to gods and goddesses while propitiating. However, they also use it to catch birds and animals for consumption and sale.
1.2.3.7 Taboos
The falling of a lizard in front of them is considered bad luck and if it chirps on either side, it is taken as a sign of good luck. While starting any journey or work, if any member of his family sneezes once, it is considered to be bad luck, but if it is done repeatedly, it is considered to be good. It is inauspicious to them to see an oil man, a barber, a police constable, and a cock-eyed man while they are going. A crow flying towards the right hand side is considered a good omen, but if it flies over the head of a person, it is considered a bad omen. If the crow cries, it is believed to mean that somebody is coming home for a visit. It is considered bad luck, when starting on a journey, if one sees widows, pots of milk, barking dogs, or a man leading a bull. Number three is considered ominous and an expedition never consists of three members. Sundays are auspicious for weddings while they are inauspicious for crime. Mondays, Wednesdays, and Saturdays are unlucky (Hatch 1928). It is a bad omen to meet with a bundle of wood or cow dung cakes. If they meet a well-dressed widow or a cat it is taken seriously as it is considered a very bad omen.
1.2.3.8 Kulapanchayat
In the past, the village head played a very important role in tribal communities. He was the person concerned with registering births, deaths, and new arrivals into the settlement. All of the settlers were controlled by him. He was elected on the basis of his popularity, age, and ability to deal with the cases of various types. The Panchayat comprises five persons. These five elders of the tribe are called Berumanusom, big people or elders from the council. All of the individuals respect their unwritten law and obey the verdict of Kulapanchayat. Any violation of these conventions is seriously dealt with. The meetings of the panchayat are held at a common meeting place. The alleged culprit and his people usually sit to the left side and the aggrieved party to the right side or vice versa while the elders sit in between the two parties. The elders secretly decide the type of ordeal to test the guilt of the culprit. It is customary that the accused should dip his fingers into the boiling oil and it is an indication of his innocence or guilt. Still there remains traces of this custom. The other system of this sort is lifting a red-hot crow bar from a fire and carrying a pot filled with water to its brim without slipping a drop. The tribal panchayat usually deals with cases of immorality within the members of the tribe. If any woman is caught red-handed when she is involved in adultery, the husband brings the case to the members of the Kulapanchayat.
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