Historical surveys, memoirs, reference works
The general literature on the period 1848-1918 can be divided into several categories: histories of the whole period, memoirs by participants in contemporary political and cultural life, and descriptive works of an encyclopedic and statistical nature.
For the period as a whole and in particular for the legal and administrative aspects of Austrian nationality policy throughout the empire, there are excellent studies by Hugo Hantsch, Robert A. Kann, and in several multiauthored works, all of which have specific sections on Galicia and/or its nationalities.[366] With regard to Galicia itself, the leading postwar Polish authority on Galicia, Stefan Kieniewicz, has compiled a volume of documents with a historical essay for the years 1850 to 1914, although the vast majority of his material concerns Polish-inhabited western Galicia.[367] The best introductory surveys about Ukrainians in Galicia during this period are found in articles by Ivan L. Rudnytsky and Wolfdieter Bihl; for Poles, there are similar studies by Piotr Wandycz and Henryk Batowski.[368] There are also several surveys about Jews in Galicia during the last seventy years of Habsburg rule.[369]It is from the last decades of the nineteenth century that deep splits occurred within the Ukrainian intelligentsia, especially between the Ukrainophiles and Russophiles, and as a result much of the historiography about Ukrainian life during this era is influenced by these national/ideological divisions. The Ukraino- phile view is represented in brief essays by Mykhailo Lozyns’kyi and Volodymyr Levyts’kyi, national activists from the period, who depict Austrian rule in a relatively favorable light, and in two semipopular volumes by Matvii Stakhiv, a political leader from the interwar period, who emphasizes the negative aspects of Austrian cooperation with local Poles that hindered Galician-Ukrainian development.[370] The Russophile view is presented in the second volume of Pylyp Svystun’s history of Galician Rus’ under Austrian domination.
His narrative stops in 1895, and he is extremely critical of both the Vienna government and the Polish provincial administration. Each of them, he argues, promoted in its own way “Ukrainian separatism,” thus perpetuating the Austrian policy of divide et impera at the expense of the “Russian” population of eastern Galicia, which was forced to remain separated from its brethren in tsarist Russia.[371] Reflecting the continued efforts of Soviet Marxist scholarship to deny anything positive in all the regimes that preceded the Soviet “liberation” of Galicia in 1939, Volodymyr Osechyns’kyi paints in the darkest colors the cooperation between the Habsburg government and the Polish upper classes in Galicia to oppress politically and culturally and to exploit economically the Ukrainian peasant masses.[372] The continual changes in Polish-Ukrainian relations in Galicia during the nineteenth century have been traced by Mykhailo Demkovych-Dobrians’kyi.[373]Several memoirs date from this period, some of which were conceived as histories of Galicia. The most ambitious of these is the six-volume work by the parliamentarian Kost’ Levyts’kyi, whose systematic coverage of political and cultural events during the years 1848 to 1918 (from the Ukrainophile point of view) is still one of the best chronicle-type histories of the subject.9 Other memoirs by local leaders focus on shorter periods: lustyn Zhelekhovs’kyi (1840s-1870s), Anatol Vakhnianyn (1847-1874), Oleksii Zaklyns’kyi (1850s— 1870s), Bohdan Didyts’kyi (1860s-1870s), Oleksander Barvins’kyi (18601888), Kornylo Ustiianovych (1870s), Tyt Voinarovs’kyi (1880s-1920s), levhen Olesnyts’kyi (1870s—1890s), Vasyl’ Nahirnyi (1890-1914).10 Also of importance are several memoirs by Galician Polish leaders, including Prince Leon Sapieha, marshal of the Galician Diet (1861-1875); Kazimierz Chlgdowski, writer and government official in Galicia (1868-1880); Jozef Doboszyhski, state prosecutor and jurist in eastern Galicia (1859-1889); Leon Bilihski, imperial minister for Galicia (1895-1897); and Michal Bobrzyhski, viceroy of Galicia (1908-1913);'1 as well as memoirs by Mykhailo Drahomanov, the political
9 Kost’ Levyts’kyi, Istoriia politychnoi dumky halyts’kykh ukra'intsiv 1848-1914, 2 vols (L’viv: p.a.
1926); idem, Istoriia vyzvol’nykh zmahan' halyts’kykh ukra'intsiv z chasu svitovoi viiny, 3 vols (L’viv: p.a. 1929-30); idem, Velykyi zryv: do istori'i ukrai'ns'koi' derzhavnosty vid bereznia do lystopada 1918 r. na pidstavi spomyniv ta dokumentiv (L’viv: Chervona kalyna 1931), 2nd ed. (New York: Vyd-vo Chartoryis’kykh 1968).10 “Avtobiografiia o. lustina Zhelekhovskago,” Viestnik ‘Narodnago Dorna’, XXVII (V), 1-4 and 6-12 (L’viv 1909), pp. 9-17, 23-31, 44-51, 65-97 and 97-104, 128-144, 158-164, 166-171, 193- 200, 205 - 210; XXVIII (VI), 1-12 (L’viv 1910), pp. 8-16, 25-28, 40-46, 54-59, 68-72, 82-88, 107-113, 127-134, 142-148, 160-168; Anatol’ Vakhnianyn, Spomyny z zhytia (posmertne vydannie) (L’viv 1908); Oleksei Zaklyns’kyi, Zapysky parokha starykh Bohorodchan (L’viv: Chervonaia Rus’ 1890), 2nd ed. (Toronto: Dobra knyzhka 1960); Bohdan Didytskii, Svoezhyt’ evyy zapysky, pt 1: Hde-shcho do ystoriy samorozvytiia iazyka y azbuky.Halytskoi Rusy (L’viv 1907), first published in Vistnyk ‘Narodnoho Doma’, nos 2-4, 6-12 (L’viv 1906) and pt 2: Vzhliad na shkol’noe obrazovanie Halytskoi Rusy v XIX st. (L’viv
1908) ; Oleksander Barvins’kyi, Spomyny z moho zhytia, 2 vols, Zahal’na biblioteka, no. 115120 (L’viv: lakiv Orenshtain v Kolomyi 1912-13); Kornylo N. Ustiianovych, M.F. Raievskii i rossiiskii panslavyzm (L’viv: K. Bednarskyi 1884); memoirs of Tyt Voinarovs’kyi are in Istorychni postati Halychyny XIX-XX st., NTSh, Biblioteka ukrainoznavstva, vol. VIII (New York, Paris, Sydney, and Toronto 1961), pp. 15-75; levhen Olesnyts’kyi, Storinky z moho zhyttia, 2 vols (L’viv: Dilo 1935); Vasyl’ Nahirnyi, Z mol'kh spomyniv (L’viv: Reviziinyi Soiuz Ukrains’kykh Kooperatyv 1935).
11 Leon Sapieha, Wspomnienia (z lat 1803 do 1863 r.) (L’viv, Warsaw, and Poznan: H. Altenberg, G. Seyfarth, E. Wende, Rzepecki 1912); Kazimierz Chl^dowski, Pamiipniki, 2 vols, ed. with an introduction by Antoni Knot (Wroclaw: ZNIO 1951), especially vol. 1: Galicja (1843-1880); Jozef Doboszyhski, “Pamiftnik,” in Pami^tniki urz^dnikbw galicyjskich, ed.
with an introduction by Irene Homola and Boleslaw Lopuszanski (Cracow: Wyd. Literackie 1978), pp. 357-416; Leon Bilihski, Wspomnienia i dokumenty, 2 vols (Warsaw: F. Hosick, 1924-25); Michal Bobrzyhski, Z moich pamiqtnikdw, ed. with an introduction by Adam Galos (Wroclaw and Cracow: ZNIO 1957). The introductions by Knot, Homolka, and Lopuszanski referred to above include surveys of Galician-Polish memoir literature.theorist from the Russian Ukraine who spread ideas of Ukrainianism in Galicia during the late 1860s and 1870s, and Vasilii Kel’siev, the Russian Slavophile who toured Galicia in 1866-1867.[374]
Finally, there are several handbooks, statistical compilations, and descriptive works dealing with the years 1848-1918. The best source material on the administrative structure of Galicia is found in the handbooks for the whole empire published almost every year by the imperial government. Beginning in 1856, each volume contains 100 or more pages devoted to Galicia, listing everyone in the Diet, provincial administration (executive, judicial, fiscal, trade, and rural branches), educational system, the military, and the churches.[375] Comprehensive statistical data are available in 104 volumes of the series entitled Oesterreichische Statistik. This series contains data from each of the decennial censuses between 1880 and 1910, dealing with population (place of habitation, age, marriage status, demographic growth and movement, occupation, religion, mother tongue), sanitation, foreign trade, judicial proceedings (civil and criminal), education, banking, parliamentary election results, internal commerce and trade, and communications. Each of these volumes, with the exception of those on foreign trade, contains a section on Galicia.[376]
Statistical data on the size and composition of Galicia’s population have received special attention. The Austrian government published the results of four of its decennial censuses between 1857 and 1900.
One volume for each census was devoted to Galicia, listing all villages with the total number of houses and persons, the latter figures broken down by sex and sometimes national and religious categories.[377] Yearbooks and other statistical guides for Galicia and the city of L’viv were also published in the late nineteenth century.[378]In an era when the peasant masses were being asked for the first time to identify themselves with some national label (usually they would still identify themselves by religious affiliation), it is not surprising that difficulties developed with respect to the accuracy of the statistical data. Accuracy would have been a problem even in the most objective environment, which Galicia was not, and the census results caused continual controversy (complete with political repercussions) over the exact number of Ukrainians vs Poles or Greek Catholics vs Roman Catholics. Stanislav Dnistrians’kyi has provided an excellent history of census collecting in Austria-Hungary with reference to specific problems in late nineteenth-century Galicia.[379] The problem of national and religious identity among Ukrainians and Poles in eastern Galicia as reflected in contemporary statistical data is analyzed in great detail by Volodymyr Okhrymovych, and an effort to determine correlations between religious background and professional status based on data from the 1900 census was made by Jozef Buzek.[380]
Also of use are the encyclopedia-like guides on all aspects of the province during the last years of Habsburg rule: several were prepared in Russia on the eve of the war and reflect the tsarist government’s growing interest in Galicia:[381] two others were written by Poles during the war and emphasized the positive aspects of the Polish-dominated administration in the province.[382] Less partisan in approach is a recent work by the Polish scholar Konstanty Grzybowski.[383] An encyclopedic survey on the city of L’viv is also available, and although the chronological coverage is only 1870 to 1895, this work, with long historical sections by Aleksander Czolowski and Kazimierz Ostaszewski-Barariski, is perhaps the most comprehensive study on any period of the city’s history.[384]