POLES

Background

While the Poles were always a numerical minority in eastern, or Ukrainian Galicia, it is difficult to speak of them as a minority, because from at least the mid­fourteenth through mid-twentieth centuries they were the dominant political, social, and cultural force in the area.

Yet despite the gradual settlement of Poles eastward, most observers of Galicia at the time of its incorporation into Austria (1772) claimed that, with the exception of urban areas, the eastern half of the province was inhabited primarily by Ukrainians. This ethnodemographic situation changed substantially during the second half of the nineteenth century, when the first nationality censuses were taken. Between 1869 and 1910, the number of Poles (i.e. Roman Catholics) in eastern Galicia almost doubled, from 753,700 (21.8 percent of the population) to 1,350,800 (25.3 percent). To be sure, within the category Roman Catholic there were many polonized Ukrainians (including the so-called Latynnyky-Roman Catholics who spoke Ukrainian but who often did not have a clear sense of their national identity). But the main reason for the dramatic rise of Poles was large-scale immigration. In 1890 alone, 288,609 Poles residing in eastern Galicia were registered as having immigrated from western Galicia.

Bearing in mind the tenuous nature of nationality statistics, it seems safe to say that by 1914 there were well over one million Poles living in eastern Galicia. As for the socioeconomic composition of the Roman Catholic population (which reflect­ed largely the Poles), in 1910, 68 percent were peasants, 16 percent were engaged in industry, 8.5 percent in trade and transport, and 7.5 percent in administration, the professions, and service jobs.

After World War I, when all of Galicia became part of the independent Polish Republic, the number of Poles (i.e. Roman Catholics minus Latynnyky) continued to grow in eastern Galicia (Ternopil’, Stanyslaviv, and L’viv provinces), so that there were over 1,232,000 in 1931. The plight of the Poles in eastern Galicia changed dramatically with the coming of World War II. During the first brief period of Soviet rule (1939-1941), Polish “colonists,” that is, those who came during the interwar period, were deported eastward, and most of the Polish cultural institutions in L’viv and elsewhere were either ukrainianized or closed. After 1945, several hundred thousand Poles were sent to postwar Poland as part of the Polish-Soviet population exchange, so that by 1959 only 93,000 Poles re­mained on former eastern Galician territory.

Studies

As is evident from the preceding chapters, there is an enormous literature in Polish about Galicia. Most of these works, however, deal with the province as a whole (as defined by its borders during the last years of Austrian rule), and more frequently than not they stress developments in western Galicia. This approach is evident in both general works and those that concentrate on specific periods. Thus, the literature specifically on Poles in eastern Galicia is limited in the main to works about the Polish aspect of individual cities and regions or to Polish reli­gious, cultural, and educational institutions in the area, such as the Roman Catholic archdiocese, the Ossolineum, the University of L’viv, the Polish Histori­cal Society, and the Polish Theater.

Nonetheless, with few exceptions, the achievements of eastern Galicia for Polish national life are not treated in isolation, but rather as part of Galician or general Polish political, social, and cultural history. The reason for this approach is simple. From the Polish point of view, all of Galicia has since the Middle Ages been considered an integral part of historic Poland. If one adopts such a premise, then there should be no reason to single out for special analysis the Poles living in any one part of “Polish” territory. Consequently, there are only a few studies

1 For the numerous guidebooks and histories of individual regions, cities, and towns, see chapter 2, notes 85 - 94, 102-103, 108-111, and 114-143. On the Roman Catholic archdiocese, see chapter 4, n. 48; on the Ossolineum, see chapter 2, notes 68-70; on the University of L’viv, see chapter 2, n. 82.

On the Polish Historical Society (est. 1886), see the introductory article by Tadeusz Manteuffel and Marian Serejski in Polskie Towarzystwo Historyczne 1886-1956 (Warsaw: PWN 1958), pp. 3-28. On the Polish Theater, see Stanislaw Schnur-Peplowski, Teatr polski we Lwowie 1780-1881 (L’viv: Gubrynowicz i Schmidt 1889); idem, Teatr polski we Lwowie 1881-1890 (L’viv: Gubrynowicz i Schmidt 1891); Barbara Lasocka, Teatr Iwowski iv latach 1800-1842 (Warsaw: Pahstwowy Instytut Wydawniczy 1967); and Franciszek Paj^czkowski, Teatr Iwowski pod dyrekcjq Tadeusza Pawlikowskiego 1900-1906 (Cracow: Wyd.

For introductory studies on the Polish press in Galicia, see Irena Homola, “Prasa galicyjska w latach 1831-1866,” in Jerzy Lojek, ed., Prasapolska w latach 1661-1864 (Warsaw: PWN 1976), pp. 199-246; and Jerzy Myslihski, “Prasa polska w Galicji w dobie autonomicznej 1867-1918,” in idem, Prasa polska w latach 1864-1918 (Warsaw: PWN 1976), pp. 114-176.

For bibliographic data on Polish writers mentioned here and others from eastern Galicia, see Bibliogrqfia literatury polskiej: Nowy Korbut, 17 vols (Warsaw: Panstwowy Instytut Wydawniczy 1953-81).

focusing specifically on Poles living in what was the eastern half of old Austrian Galicia. Both the Polish and Ukrainian encyclopedias published outside the homeland contain general information on Poles in eastern Galicia.^[605] Not surpris­ingly, the problem of the ethnographic boundary between Poles and Ukrainians and the difficulty in assigning a national identity to the Latynnyky have prompted the publication of studies both during and after World War I.^[606] Yet perhaps the only work dealing specifically with Poles as an element in eastern Galicia is Alfons Krysiriski’s extended statistical analysis of the group, with emphasis on their status during the 1920s.^[607]

JEWS

Background

Of all the minorities in Galicia the Jews (known in Jewish circles by the often derogatory designation Galizianer) were the most important not only in numerical terms but with regard to their economic, cultural, and political influence as well. It is not surprising, therefore, that the historical literature on Jews is more voluminous than for any of the other groups.

The early history of Jews in Galicia does not differ significantly from the experience of Jews in other areas under the control of the Polish Kingdom and later the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. Jews began immigrating to Poland from Germany in the eleventh and twelfth centuries, but it was after the Tatar invasion of 1241 that they came in large numbers, welcomed, together with Germans, by Polish kings anxious to rebuild the devastated urban areas of the country.

The Jews were appreciated for their economic prowess and, in return for loyal service to the state, they were granted a wide degree of self-government. Begin­ning in the sixteenth century, their judicial, administrative, and religious auton­omy was administered through a system known as the Council of Lands, which met twice annually during the fairs in Lublin and Jaroslaw. Galicia was one of the four lands of the council, which met also from time to time in Jewish centers of Galicia like Przeworsk, Zolochiv, and Brody, as well as in Jaroslaw. Throughout this period, the Jews played a decisive role in the economic system of Galicia. The province (especially L’viv and the small town of Iwanie near the southeastern- most tip of Galicia) also became the center in the 1750s for the Frankist move­ment, a Jewish sect that eventually converted to Christianity.

Jewish life was profoundly affected by the incorporation of Galicia into the Austrian Empire in 1772. The system of the Council of Lands had already ceased to function on the eve of Poland’s first partition.

Such a system clashed with Joseph H’s goals of centralized authority, however, and the Generaldirektion as well as rabbinical civil law was abolished in 1785. From Vienna’s point of view, Jews should be totally assimilated and be no different from other citizens: they should not be discriminated against, should pay the same taxes as others, serve in the army, and use German, not Yiddish.

As with Joseph’s sweeping reforms in other areas of Austrian life, his efforts at benevolent reform of the Jews were undone by his successors. Soon new restric­tions were placed on Jews that affected their freedom of movement and their ability to serve in certain offices and professions. As a result, the status of the Jews in Galicia fluctuated with the internal political fortunes of the Habsburg Empire. During the revolutionary period of 1848-1849, they were granted full equality, only to lose certain rights during the era of reaction that began in earnest in 1850. In the era of constitutionalism that began in 1861, the Jews undertook a political struggle for legal equality that finally met with success after 1867. Thus, during the last decades of the nineteenth century, Jewish life flourished in Galicia. While it is true that the masses lived under conditions of severe poverty, forcing as many as 236,504 (172,514 from eastern Galicia) to emigrate between 1881 and 1910, especially to the United States, it is equally true that the same era witnessed the rise of Jewish wealth in Galician banking, trade, oil, industry, and large landowning, as well as the growth of Jewish political influence at the local, urban, and provincial levels.

In the final analysis, the period of Austrian rule (1772-1918) represented the high point of Jewish life in Galicia. The size of the group grew-as a result of a high birth rate, as well as of government-induced immigration and flights from pogroms in Russia-from a low of 144,200 people in 1776to 448,971 in 1850 and, despite increasing emigration, to 871,895 in 1910. Three-quarters of Galicia’s Jews lived in the eastern part of the province, most especially in cities and towns like Brody, Belz, Buchach, Rohatyn, Peremyshliany, Deliatyn, and Sokal’, which were almost entirely Jewish, and L’viv, Zhovkva, Drohobych, Stanyslaviv, Ternopil’, and Kolomyia, where they made up a significant proportion of the population. Their largely urban residence was reflected in the group’s socioeco­nomic status. In 1910, 53 percent of Galicia’s Jews were engaged in commerce, 24.6 percent in industry and crafts, 11.4 percent in civil service and the liberal professions, and only 10.7 percent in agriculture.

Besides the group’s demographic, political, and economic growth, the period of Austrian rule also coincided with a vibrant Galician-Jewish cultural experience marked by very creative if competitive and often violently antagonistic trends: traditional rabbinic talmudism, Hasidism, Haskalah, assimilation, Zionism, and socialism. With the disintegration of Poland and the traditional system of Jewish autonomy in the second half of the eighteenth century, the old rabbinic-led way of life was challenged. In such an environment, a popular religious movement known as Hasidism came into being. Although originating in the middle of the eighteenth century in what was still Polish-ruled Podolia, Hasidism rapidly spread northward into Lithuania and westward to nearby Galicia. The followers of Hasidism were noted for their belief in the emotional aspect of religious experi­ence, which favored mass enthusiasm, group cohesion, and charismatic leader­ship. Because of its mystical and “superstitious” nature, Hasidism was castigated by both traditionalist rabbis (the mitnaggedim or opponents) as well as by Aus­tria’s enlightened reformers, who found allies among those Jews favoring an end to the group’s isolation and instead assimilation with the dominant German culture. Nonetheless, by the 1830s Hasidism had become the dominant way for Jewish life in Galicia.

The reformers, led by Naphtali Herz Homberg (1749-1841), the imperial superintendent for the new 104 German-language Jewish schools set up in Galicia between 1787 and 1806, argued that Jews should abandon their closed communi­ties (shtetl), traditional dress, talmudic education, and the “bastardized dialect” - Yiddish. Although the government-sponsored schools were abolished in 1806, the modernizing and secular trend in Jewish life was carried on by the Haskalah (enlightenment) movement and its supporters known as the maskilim. The Haska­lah first arose among Jews in Germany during the mid-eighteenth century, but it soon spread eastward to Galicia where it was eventually centered in the town of Brody. Great emphasis was placed on creating a modern secular Jewish educa­tional system on the model of the Jewish gymnasium in Brody and German school in Ternopil ’, both founded in 1815 by Josef Perl (1777-1839). The Haskalah also favored the establishment of reformed Jewish temples, the first of which was founded in L’viv in 1846, and it contributed much to modern Hebrew literature and scholarship as in the writings of Nachman Krochmal (1785-1840), Solomon J. Rapoport (1790-1867), Isaac Erter (1792-1851), and Joshua Heschel Schorr (1814-1895).

Late nineteenth-century Jewish cultural life in Galicia was marked by a strug­gle between assimilationists who favored German culture and assimilationists who favored Polish culture as well as political cooperation with the Poles. After 1870, the Polonophile assimilationists had won out, but while some embraced wholeheartedly the Polish national cause, others allied with Polish and Ukrainian socialists in an attempt to transform the socioeconomic base of Galician life. Still another group initially rejected ideas that real improvement for Jews could ever be achieved in Galicia or anywhere else in Europe. These were the Zionists, who from their first Galician organization in Przemysl (1874) saw emigration to a Jewish homeland-Palestine-as the only salvation for Jews. The Zionists soon realized, however, that such a solution would take time to realize, and in the interim they favored the idea of self-emancipation as formulated by the Galician- born Nathan Birnbaum (1864-1937), which meant participation in local politics in order to improve the status of Jews while they still remained in Europe.

The twentieth century and the outbreak of World War I marked the beginning of the end of Galicia’s Jewish community. As the Russian army advanced into eastern Galicia in August and September 1914, tens of thousands of Jews (many of whom had fled tsarist oppression less than half a century before) fled to Hungary, Vienna, and other provinces in the western half of the Habsburg Empire. Those who remained behind suffered during the several months of Russian occupation until the return of an Austrian administration in the summer of 1915.

In late 1918, with the breakup of the Habsburg monarchy, the Jews were again caught between the Ukrainians and Poles who were struggling for control of eastern Galicia. Each of the Slavic rivals for power accused the Jews of cooperat­ing with its opponent, and when Polish troops finally took L’viv from the Ukrainians, a Jewish pogrom took place on the night of November 22-23, the first serious incident of its kind on the territory of former Austrian Galicia.

As a result of these developments, the Jewish population declined from a high of 872,975 in 1910 to only 740,323 in 1921 (in eastern Galicia the decline was from 659,706 in 1910 to 534,651 in 1921). During the interwar years under a Polish regime, the Jews suffered discrimination, especially in the professions and universities, where their numbers were increasingly restricted by a government- imposed numerus clausus. The Polish government was particularly alarmed that Jews made up such a disproportionately high percentage in certain fields. In eastern Galicia alone, they accounted for 66.6 percent of the total number of lawyers in 1931 and 51.1 percent of the total number of doctors in 1927. As a result, severe restrictions were placed on their further entrance to universities. While 24.4 percent of the student body in Polish universities was Jewish in 1923— 24, only 8.2 percent was Jewish in 1938-39.

The outbreak of World War II in September 1939, the German and Soviet occupation of Poland, and finally Germany’s complete control of Galicia between the summers of 1941 and 1944 resulted in the complete destruction of the Jewish community in Galicia. As in other parts of Nazi-controlled or Nazi-influenced Europe, Jews were physically uprooted and annihilated in concentration camps. Old Jewish quarters, synagogues, even cemeteries were destroyed. If in 1931 there were 789,886 Jews in Galicia (567,554 in eastern Galicia), by 1945 only a few thousand had managed to survive the holocaust. For all intents and purposes, by the end of World War II, Galicia’s once-vibrant Jewish community ceased to exist.

Bibliographies

Writings on the Jews in Galicia are treated primarily within the larger realm of Polish-Jewish historiography. Moreover, with the exception of regional or local studies, most writings that deal with Jews in Galicia are concerned with the province as a whole according to its boundaries during the Austrian era. Nonethe­less, since almost three-quarters of the Jews in Galicia inhabited the eastern half of the province (known in some Jewish writings as Red Russia), and since the leading Jewish cultural center was L’viv (Lemberg), much of the general Galician descriptions pertain in fact to the community in the eastern half of the former Austrian province.

Several bibliographical works on Jews in Poland contain many writings that deal specifically with Galicia. These include annotated bibliographies and histo­riographical studies by Meir Balaban and Philip Friedman, both of whom are outstanding Jewish historians and natives of Galicia.^[608] There is also a comprehen­sive bibliography of late nineteenth-century statistical and sociodemographic writings on Jews in Galicia.^[609] Since World War II, numerous memorial books have been compiled by survivors of Galician Jewry living mainly in Israel and the United States. An analysis of the historical value of these memorial books and a list of the 342 published between 1943 and 1972 (twenty-one of which deal with communities in eastern Galicia) have been prepared by Abraham Wein and David Bass.^[610]

Historical surveys and documentary collections

There are no general histories of Jews in Galicia, let alone eastern Galicia, which cover the period from their earliest settlement in the Middle Ages to the destruc­tion of the community during World War II. This is because Galicia is considered an integral part of Polish-Jewish history before 1772 and again for the years 1918 to 1945. Thus, the concept of Galician-Jewish history per se is limited for the most part to the years between 1772 and 1918. Asaresult, in order to trace the full chronological development of Galician-Jewish history, it is necessary to consult general histories of Jews in Poland. There are several such histories, by Simon Μ. Dubnow, Meir Balaban, Jacob Schall, Raphael Mahler, Bernard Mark, Bernard Weinryb, and Salo W. Baron, although it must be admitted that Galicia more often than not receives scant treatment.⁸

For Jewish developments specifically in Galicia, it is preferable to consult the several multivolume Jewish encyclopedias-American, Russian, German, Yid­dish, and Israeli-which have appeared between 1906 and 1972. Each of these includes articles on Galician-Jewish leaders and each has a comprehensive history of Galicia by leading scholars (Μ. Balaban, I. Cherikover, G. Deutsch, J. Meisl, A. Duker, N.M. Gelber), although the chronological coverage is limited to the years 1772 to 1918.⁹ Also useful is the brief biographical dictionary of Galician-

8 S.M. Dubnow, History of the Jews in Russia and Poland from the Earliest Times Until the Present Day, 3 vols (Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society of America, 1916-20), especially vol. I: Majer Balaban, Historja i literatura zydowska ze szczegolnem uwzgl^d- nieniem historji Zydow w Polsce, 3 vols (L’viv, Warsaw, and Cracow, 1916-25), vol. I: rev. 2nd ed. (1920) and rev. 3rd ed. (1925); vol. II: rev. 2nd ed. (1925); Jacob Schall, Historia Zydow w Polsce, Litwie i na Rusi (L’viv 1934), 2nd ed. (L’viv 1936); Raphael Mahler, Toledot ha-Yehudim be-Polin (Merhavyah 1946); Bernard Mark, Di Geshikhte fun Yidn in Poyln bizn sof fun XV jh. (Vfarssm: Tdisz Buch’ 1957); Bernard D. Weinryb, The Jews of Poland: A Social and Economic History of the Jewish Community in Poland from 1100 to 1800 (Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society of America 1972); Salo Wittmayer Baron, A Social and Religious History of the Jews, 2nd rev. ed., 17 vols (New York and London: Columbia University Press 1952-78). Baron’s monumental study is actually an ongoing world history of the Jews, although volume XVI (1976) deals exclusively with Jews in Poland-Lithuania from 1500 to 1650.

Also of value are two multiauthored works that include studies by the leading Jewish specialists on Poland: Ignacy Schiper et al., eds, Zydzi w Polsce odrodzonej: dzialalnosc spoteczna, oswiatowa i kulturalna, 2 vols (Warsaw: 1932-33); and Israel Halpern, ed., Beit Yisrael be-Polin mi-yamim rishonim ve-‘ad li-yemot ha-hurban, 2 vols (Jerusalem: Ha- mahlaqah le-‘inyenei ha-no‘ar shel ha-histadrut ha-siyyonit 1948-53).

9 Isidor Singer, ed., The Jewish Encyclopedia, 12 vols (New York and London: Funk and Wagnails 1906-07), with an article on “Galicia, Austria’’ by Gotthard Deutsch, vol. V, pp. 549-553; Evreiskaia entsiklopediia: svod znanii o evreistvie i ego kul'ture v proshlom i nastoiashchem, 16 vols (St Petersburg: Obshchestvo dlia nauchnykh evreiskikh izdanii i Brokhauz-Efron 1906-13), reprinted in Slavistic Printings and Reprintings, vol. CXCIII, 1-16 (The Hague, Paris, and Vaduz: Mouton and Europe Printing 1969-71), with an article on “Galitsiia” by Μ. Balaban and I. Cherikower, vol. VI, pp. 87-103; Georg Herlitz and Bruno Kirschner, eds, Jüdisches Lexikon, 4 vols in 5 (Berlin: Jüdischer Vlg. 1927-30), with an Jewish leaders by Gershom Bader.^{[611] [612]} There are also a few journals published in Galicia before World War I that contain valuable information about all aspects of the Jewish community in the province.^[613]

As with general histories, so too are there no documentary collections devoted specifically to Jews in Galicia. There is, however, much material pertaining to Jewish matters between the fifteenth and eighteenth centuries in the multivolume collections of documents on Galicia and on the city of L’viv.^[614] Several collections of documents on Jews in Poland from earliest times to World War II also contain material on communities in eastern Galicia (L’viv, Przemysl, Brody, Droho­bych).^[615]For an introduction to these and other materials, there are two essays that survey documentary sources for the study of Jews in Poland.^[616]

Specific periods and problems

The literature is much better developed for specific periods or topics. The Jewish community in Galicia (Rus Czerwona) during the sixteenth and first half of the seventeenth century has recently been analyzed from the standpoint of demogra­phy and socioeconomic developments in a detailed monograph and in several shorter works by Maurycy Horn and his associates at the Jewish Historical Institute in Poland (Zydowski Instytut Historyczny w Polsce).^[617] The last decades of Polish rule before 1772 have also received attention in a study by Zbigniew Pazdro on the legal status of Galicia’s Jews.^[618] Finally, the history of individual Jewish communities before 1772 is the subject of several works. L’viv has received the most attention, especially in the writings of Meir Balaban,^[619] and there are also studies on Jews in Brody, Drohobych, Jaroslaw, Przemysl, the Sanok region, Stanyslaviv, and Zolochiv from earliest times to the late eighteenth century.^[620]

The vast majority of literature on Galicia’s Jews deals with the era of Austrian rule between 1772 and 1918. Several monographs cover in detail some specific periods, such as Meir Balaban’s history of the preconstitutional era (1782— 1868);^[621] Wolfgang Häusler’s description of Jews in Galicia before 1848 based on contemporary descriptions;^[622] Michael Stoger’s older but still useful analysis of the Jews’ legal status under Maria Theresa and Joseph II;^[623] Raphael Mahler’s discus­sion of their legal status and cultural development between 1772 and 1815;^[624] Philip Friedman’s description of the Jewish struggle for political and legal rights between 1848 and 1868;^[625] and several studies by Wilhelm Feldman and others on Jewish political life and cooperation with Poles and other groups during the constitutional era (1868-1914).^[626]There are also a few contemporary accounts of Jewish life in Galicia, especially concerning the influx of immigrants into the border town of Brody after the outbreak of pogroms in Russia in 1881.^[627] The period of World War I and its immediate aftermath has received special attention in studies devoted to the Russian occupation (September 1914-June 1915),^[628] the pogroms of late 1918,^[629] and in memoir-like historical accounts of the whole period, which is viewed as the first time in the modern era that the Jews of Galicia were singled out for destruction.^[630]

Economic and demographic analyses of the Jewish community during the Austrian period are available as well. Ignaz Schipper and Philip Friedman have written brief reviews of Galician economic developments after 1772.^[631] Studies of later periods tend to dwell on the socioeconomic reasons for the massive Jewish emigration to the United States and to a lesser degree other parts of the Austro- Hungarian Empire, especially its capital Vienna,³⁰ and on the economic status of the community during the first decades of the twentieth century.³¹ With regard to demographic questions, Polish scholars have provided solid analyses of the Galician-Jewish population: Jozef Buzek describes Austria’s administrative poli­cies, which at first caused a decline then a growth in the number of Jews in Galicia (244,980 in 1772; 144,200 in 1776; 212,002 in 1785), and Bohdan Wasiutynski reveals the fluctuations in the size of Poland’s Jewish population during the nineteenth and first three decades of the twentieth century.³²

Cultural history

Considering the rich cultural life of Jews in Galicia during the Austrian period, it is not surprising that several studies are devoted to various aspects of that experi­ence. The standard works by Simon Dubnow on Hasidism and by Meir Balaban on the earlier Frankist movement provide general histories as well as discussions of the impact of each of those movements upon Galicia.³³ Rafael Mahler has

30 Raphael Mahler, “The Economic Background of Jewish Emigration from Galicia to the United States,” YIVO Annual of Jewish Social Science, VII (New York 1952), pp. 255-267; Meir Henisch, “Galician Jews in Vienna,” in Josef Fraenkel, ed., The Jews of Austria (London: Valentine, Mitchell 1967), 2nd ed. (1970), pp. 361-373. See also the more general Arieh Tartakower, “Jewish Migratory Movements in Austria in Recent Generations,” in ibid., pp. 285-310.

31 Sigfried Fleischer, “Enquete über die Lage der jüdischen Bevolkerung Galiziens” and Abraham Korkis, “Zur Bewegung der jüdischen Bevolkerung in Galizien,” in Alfred Nossig, ed., Jüdische Statistik (Berlin: Jüdischer Vlg. 1903), pp. 209-231 and 311-315; Josef Tenenbaum, Zydowskie problemy gospodarcze w Galicji (Vienna 1918); Abraham Korkis, “Die wirschaftliche Lage der Juden in Galizien,” Der Jude, II (Berlin and Vienna 1917-18), pp. 464-471, 532-538, 608-615. See also the excellent sections on Galicia in Max Rosenfeld, Die polnische Judenfrage: Problem und Losung (Vienna and Berlin: R. Lowit 1918), especially pp. 59-81 and 109-123; and the description of Jews in the eastern Galician towns of Kolomyia, Stanyslaviv, and Boryslav: S.R. Landau, Unter jüdischen Proletariern Reiseschilderungen aus Ostgalizien und Russland (Vienna 1898), especially pp. 1-39.

32 Jozef Buzek, “Wplyw polityki zydowskiej rzjdu austryackiego w latach 1772 do 1788 na wzrost zaludnienia zydowskiego Galicyi,” Czasopismo Prawnicze, IV (Cracow 1903), pp. 91­130; Bohdan Wasiutynski, Ludnosc zydowska w Polsce w wiekach XIX i XX: studjum statystyczne (Warsaw: Wyd. Kasy im. Mianowskiego, Instytutu Popierania Nauki 1930), especially pp. 90-157.

33 Simon Dubnow, Geschichte des Chassidismus, 2 vols (Berlin: Jüdischer Vlg. 1931; reprinted Jerusalem: Jewish Publishing House 1969). An English translation of this work has been completed under the editorship of Prof. Ellis Rivkin of the Hebrew Union College (Cincinnati Ohio) as part of a series, Readings in Modern Jewish History, although it has not yet been published. focused specifically on the Hasidic movement in Galicia, both its struggle with the Jewish Haskalah enlightenment and its efforts to survive in the face of Austrian government pressure during the first half of the nineteenth century.^{[632] [633]} Two of the early leading assimilationists and modernizers, Herz Homberg and Josef Perl, who often cooperated with the Austrian government against the “superstitious” Hasidics or “reactionary” traditional talmudists, have been the subject of several works. Meir Balaban has devoted two studies to Homberg,^[634] while Perl’s writings have been published and his educational work described.^[635] Since the struggle between Hasidism and the Haskalah was for the souls as well as the minds of the Jewish community, one product of the Haskalah was the growth of reformed synagogues. There are histories of the first and most important of these in L’viv (est. 1846).^[636]

The second half of the nineteenth century, which witnessed the struggle between Jewish Germanophile and Polonophile assimilationists on the one hand and the rise of Zionism and socialism on the other, is best described in studies about the political activists Wilhelm Feldman (1868-1919) and Alfred Nossig (1864-1943), both of whom began as Germanophiles but became respectively a Polonophile socialist and Zionist;³⁸ in Nathan M. Gelber’s two-volume history of Zionism in Galicia;³⁹ and in works on the Jewish labor movement in the province.⁴⁰

The cultural richness of nineteenth-century Galician Jewry promoted the growth of talmudic and secular scholarship as well as bellettres in Yiddish and Hebrew, languages which in many ways reflected the competing ideals of the Hasidic and Haskalah movements. Jewish intellectual life in Galicia is treated in several general histories of Hebrew and Yiddish literature, most especially the multi volume works of Israel Zinberg and Meyer Waxman.⁴¹ There are also a few

38 Ezra Mendelsohn, “Jewish Assimilation in Lvov: The Case of Wilhelm Feldman,” Slavic Review, XXVIII, 4 (Seattle, Wash. 1969), pp. 577-590, reprinted in Andrei S. Markovits and Frank E. Sysyn, eds, Nationbuilding and the Politics of Nationalism (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard Ukrainian Research Institute 1982), pp. 94-110; Ezra Mendelsohn, “Wilhelm Feldman ve-Alfred Nossig: Hitbolelut ve-Siyyonut bi-Lvov,” Gal-Ed, II (Tel Aviv 1975), pp. 89- 111. On Feldman, see also the collection of essays: Pami^ci Wilhelma Feldmana (Cracow: Drukarna Narodowa 1922).

On the Germanophile organization Shomer Israel (Guardian of Israel, est. 1868) and the problem of assimilation, see Y.L. Landau, Ha-haskalah ha-hadashah 'o ha-'assimilasyah (L’viv 1883); I. Czaczkes [I. Kirton], “Do dziejow asymilacji i sjonizmu w Galicyi 1880-1892,” Moria, IV (Vienna 1906), pp. 264 - 279 and 310-321; Ze’ev Brode [Braude], “Zikhronotav shel ha-rav,” in Zikhron Mordechai Ze’ev Broda (Jerusalem: Ha-sokhnut ha- Yehudit le-’Eres Yisrael 1960), pp. 15-230; and Joseph Margoshes, Erinerungen fun mayn lebn (New York: M.N. Meizel 1936). For Feldman’s and Nossig’s views of these develop­ments, see Wilhelm Feldmann, Assimilanten, Zionisten und Polen (L’viv 1892); and Alfred Nossig, Pròba rozwiqzania kwestji zydowskiej (L’viv 1887).

39 N.M. Gelber, Toledol ha-tenu‘ah ha-siyyonit be-Galisyah, 2 vols (Jerusalem: Ha-sifriya ha- siyyonit 1958).

See also the study of Shabbetai Unger, “ Tvri’ ve- ‘ha-’ ‘Ivri’ (Pereq be-Toledot Tenu'at ha- ‘Ovedim ha-Siyyonit be-Galisyah),” Gal-Ed, III (Tel Aviv 1976), pp. 83-109.

40 Jacob Brass, “The Beginnings of the Jewish Labor Movement in Galicia,” Y1VO Annual of Jewish Social Science, V (New York 1950), pp. 55-84.

41 Israel Zinberg, Di Geshikhte fun der Literatur bay Yidn, 8 vols (Vilnius 1929- 37), translated into English as A History of Jewish Literature, 12 vols (Cincinnati and New York: Western Reserve University Press, Hebrew Union College Press, and KTAV Publishing House 1972-78); Meyer Waxman, A History of Jewish Literature, 5 vols in 6 (New York: Bloch Publishing 1930-36), 3rd ed. (New York and London: Thomas Yoseloff 1960).

See also the discussions of the Galician Haskalah in Max Erik [Zalman Merkin], Etyudn tsu der geshikhte fun der Haskole (1789-1881) (Minsk: Melukhe Farlag fun Weisrusland 1934); studies devoted to specific periods or problems in Galician Jewish literature.^{[637] [638]}

Interwar Poland and the holocaust

Writings of Jews in Galicia after 1919 are largely treated as part of descriptions of Polish Jewry as a whole. A detailed analysis of the 1931 Polish census makes it possible to determine the social and demographic structure of Jews in former eastern Galicia (the L’viv, Stanyslaviv, and Ternopil’ provinces), and there is also a statistical study of Jewish participation in the Polish land distribution program in the Stanyslaviv province.^[639] The problems faced by Galician Jews in professional and academic life can be gauged from more general discussions of those aspects of interwar Poland by Saul Langnas, Samuel Chmielewski, Raphael Mahler, and Nathan Eck.⁴⁴ Finally, the Jewish community of L’viv during the interwar period is the subject of two works.⁴⁵

On the World War II years, which resulted in the willful annihilation of Galicia’s Jewish community, there is an excellent introduction in Philip Fried­man’s dispassionate account of Ukrainian-Jewish relations under the Nazi occu­pation.⁴⁶ Friedman and T. Berenstein also have written studies on the physical extermination and forced labor programs,⁴⁷ while more details on Galicia can be found in a bibliography and in general histories of the holocaust in eastern Europe,⁴⁸ as well as in several memorial books devoted to Galicia as a whole and to several of its individual communities. The memorial books include histories of the community in question as well as several memoirs dealing primarily with the interwar years and the holocaust. Some of the better volumes have appeared in two series: Ensiqlopedyah shel galuyyot (Encyclopedia of the Jewish Diaspora) and Arim ve-’Immahot be-Yisrael (Towns and Mother Cities in Israel). Besides

44 Saul Langnas, Zydzi a studia akademickie w Polsce w latach 1921-31 (L’viv: Centralna Zydowska Akademia Stowarzyszeniowa Samopomoc. 1933); Samuel Chmielewski, “Stan szkolnictwa wsrod Zydow w Polsce,’’ Sprawy Narodowosciowe, XI, 1-2 (Warsaw 1937), pp. 32-74, and separately (Warsaw: Instytut Badari Spraw Narodowosciowych 1937); Raphael Mahler, “Jews in Public Service and the Liberal Professions in Poland, 1918-39,’’ Jewish Social Studies, VI, 1 (New York 1944); Nathan Eck, "The Educational Institutions of Polish Jewry (1921-1939),” Jewish Social Studies, IX, 1 (New York 1947), pp. 3-32.

45 Lwow: zydowska gmina wyznaniowa (L’viv 1928); J. Schall, Przewodnik po zabytkach zydowskich Lwowa (L’viv 1936).

46 Philip Friedman, “Ukrainian-Jewish Relations During the Nazi Occupation,” YIVO Annual of Jewish Social Science, XII (New York 1958-59), pp. 259-296, reprinted in his Roads to Extinction: Essays on the Holocaust (New York and Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society of America 1980), pp. 176-208.

47 Filip Friedman, Zaglada Zydow Iwowskich, Wydawnictwo Centralnej Zydowskiej Komisji Historycznej przy Centralnym Komitecie Zydow Polskich, no. 4 (Lodi 1945), 2nd rev. ed. (Munich 1947); in Hebrew as “Hurban yehudei Lvov.” in 'Ensiqlopedyah shel galuyyot: Lwow (Jerusalem 1956), pp. 599-746; in English as “The Destruction of the Jews of Lwow,” in his Roads to Extinction: Essays on the Holocaust (New York and Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society of America 1980), pp. 244-321; T. Berenstein, “Eksterminacja ludnosci zydowskiej w dystrykcie Galicja (1941-1943),” Biuletyn Zydowskiego Instytutu Historycz- nego, no. 61 (Warsaw 1967); idem, “Prace przymusowe ludnosci zydowskiej w tzw. dystrykcie Galicja,” ibid., no. 60 (Warsaw 1969).

See also the description of the notorious camp and interrogation center just outside of L’viv in Leon Weliczker-Wells, Janowska Road (New York: Macmillan 1963).

48 Jacob Robinson and Philip Friedman, Guide to Jewish History Under Nazi Impact, Yad Washem and YIVO Joint Documentary Projects Bibliographical Series, no. 1 (New York 1960). See also the extensive references in Friedman’s study, n. 46 above. general memorial books on Galicia as a whole,⁴⁹ there are volumes for twenty- five towns and cities in eastern Galicia: Bolekhiv,⁵⁰ Borshchiv,⁵¹ Brody,⁵² Bu- chach,⁵³ Dobromyl’,⁵⁴ Drohobych,⁵⁵ Horodenka,⁵⁶ Husiatyn,⁵⁷ lavoriv,⁵⁸ Kolo- myia,⁵⁹ Kosiv,⁶⁰ Kuty,⁶¹ Lesko,⁶² L’viv,⁶³ Przemysl,⁶⁴ Rohatyn,⁶⁵ Sanok,⁶⁶

49 N. Zucker, ed., Pinkas Galicia (Buenos Aires 1945); N. Zucker, ed., Gedenkbukh Galitsye (Buenos Aires: Zychronot 1964).

50 Y. Eshel, ed., Sefer Hazikkaron le ’Kedoshei Bolechow (Tel Aviv 1957).

51 N. Blumental, ed., Sefer Borszczow (Tel Aviv 1960).

52 N. Gelber, ed., Brody. ‘Arim ve-’Immahot be-Yisrael, vol. VI (Jerusalem: Rav Kook Institute 1956).

53 I. Kahan, ed., Sefer Buchacz: Matsevet Zikkaron le’Kehila Kedosha (Tel Aviv: Am Oved 1956).

54 Μ. Gelbart, ed., Sefer Zikkaron le-Zekher Dobromil I Memorial Book Dobromil (Tel Aviv: Dobromil Society in New York and the Dobromiler Organization in Israel 1964).

55 N.M. Gelber, ed., Sefer Zikkaron li-Drohobycz. Boryslaw ve-ha-Sevivah (Tel Aviv 1959).

56 Sh. Meltzer, ed., SeferHorodenka (Tel Aviv 1963).

57 A.Y. Avitov (Birnboym), Mi-bet Abba: Pirqei Zikhronot mi-yemei Yaldut be-‘Ayarat Moladeti Husiatyn (Tel Aviv: p.a. 1965).

58 Shmuel Druck, ‘Yudenshtodt Yavorov': Der Umkum fun Yavorover Yidn / Swastika over Jaworow (New York: First Jaworower Independent Association 1950).

59 Sh. Bickel, ed., Pinqas Kolomey (New York 1957); D. Noy and N. Schutzman, eds, Sefer Zikkaron li-qehillat Kolomey ve-ha-sevivah (Tel Aviv 1972). See also documents from the postwar war criminals trial in T. Friedman, ed., Schupokriegsverbrecher in Kolomea vor dem Wiener Volksgericht (Haifa 1957).

60 E. Kresel, Sefer Kosov-Galisyah ha-mizraliit (Tel Aviv 1964).

61 Isaac Husen, ed., Kitever Yizkor Bukh (New York: Kittiver Sick and Benevolent Society in New York 1958).

62 N. Mark and Friedlander, eds, Sefer Yizkor: Muqdash li-yehudei ha-'Ayarot she-nispu ba- Sho'ah ba-shanim 1939-44: Linsk [Lesko], Istrik... ve-ha-sevivah (Tel Aviv: Libai 1965).

63 Y.L. Fishman (Maimon), ed., Lw6w, ‘Arim ve-’Immahot be-Yisrael, vol. I (Jerusalem: Rav

Kook Institute 1947); N.M. Gelber, ed., ’Enyiqlopedyah shel galuyyot: Lwi'm (Jerusalem 1956). '

64 A. Menczer, ed., Sefer Przemysl (Tel Aviv 1964).

65 Μ. Amihai, ed., Qehillat Rohatyn ve-ha-sevivah I Rohatyn: The History of Jewish Community (Tel Aviv: Former Residents of Rohatyn in Israel 1962).

66 E. Sharvit, ed., Sefer Zikkaron li-qehillat Sanok ve-ha-sevivah (Haifa 1968).

Skalat,^[640] Sokal’,^[641] Stanyslaviv,^[642] Stryi,^[643] Tartakiv,^[644] Ternopil’,^[645] Turka,^[646] and Zhovkva.^[647]