The Baltic Slavs

The last of the great Indo-European barbarian invaders of the Roman Empire, by the 7th century the Slavs had occupied much of the Balkan Peninsula and parts of northeastern Italy.

To the northeast with access to the Baltic Sea blocked by Prussian and Lithuanian tribes other Slavic groups began to ad­vance from the Vistula River and head west along the southern shores of the Baltic. By the 7th century the entire area of what is today northern Poland and north Germanywas occupied by Slavic tribes, forming unions such as the Polabi (Polabians), Pomorani (Kassubi), Liutichi (Veleti), Obodrichi (Abodrites), the Rani (Ranians), Volgni and others, known to the Germans generally as Wends. Theirwestward advance took them to Hol­stein and pushed the Saxons towards the estuary of the Elbe, which as Adam of Bremen noted, “early in its course it separates the Slavs from the Saxons.”⁴² These were the Polabi tribes, who settled along the Elbe River or the “Taba” as it became known in Slavic.

The first written records about the Baltic Slavs came from Frankish chronicles, which describe Charlemagnes pagan wars. To halt the frequent border raids he first attacked the Saxons, who were finally vanquished in 782 in a hard fought war. To en­sure the raids would not resume Charlemagne imposed Chris­tianity on the pagan Saxons in a brutal fashion, with the warriors given a simple choice; either accept baptism or be put to death. Many refused, and we know that in a single day after the battle at Verden about 4,500 Saxons were beheaded. Ironically, Charlemagne relied on pagan Sorb and Obodriti Slavs led by their chieftain Vilchan (“Giant”) to subdue them. Next he set out against the hostile Liutici (“the Fierce”) tribe. A record of his campaign has been left in the Royal Frankish Annals by Ein­hart.

There exists in Germania, settled on the ocean (Baltic) coast a certain people of the Slavs which is called in its own tongue Weletabi (Veleti) but in the Frankish, Wiltzi (Wends). Always hostile to the Franks, the Wiltzi nourished constant hatred to­wards their neighbors who were either subject to the Franks or bound to them by treaty, and were ever oppressing and harassing them by war. The King (Charlemagne) resolved to attack them. Collecting a vast army together, he crossed the Rhine at Cologne, marched through Saxony and reached the Elbe.... From there he advanced further, and by the Lords’ bounty laid the above-said Slavs under his dominion. Franks and Saxons were with him on the said campaign, while Frisians along with certain Franks came by ship on the river Havel to join him.

To protect the conquered territories Charlemagne estab­lished two defensive borders between the hostile Slavs and the German lands; the “Limes Sorabicus” against the Sorbs, and further to the north the “Limes Saxonicus” against the wild Liu- tici tribesmen, just to the east of today s Hamburg. The Limes Sorabicus was the main boundary between the Christian Ger­manic world and the pagan Slavs, and ran from Regensburg through Erfurt and along the Elbe River to Kiel on the Baltic Sea. The conquered territory was divided into administrative regions called “Marken” or marches, and were governed by dukes or counts known as “Markgrafens” or simply as “margraves.”

Charlemagne advanced no further against the Slavs, who were left to their own devices and religious practices. Mission­ary work continued, and a base was established at Magdeburg on the Elbe River, one which would be bestowed with a cathe­dral and tall spires rising to the sky to dazzle the heathen Slavs.

The coastal areas of the North German Plain were covered with wetlands, streams, bogs and lakes. The marsh north of Demmin “was covered by a thin layer of turf, and while it could support grass, it was so soft underfoot that it swallowed up those who trod there,” as described by the Danish chronicler, Saxo Grammaticus. Other areas were covered with virtually im­penetrable forests as depicted in the early 12th century by the missionary Otto of Bamberg, who traveled in the Pomeranian highlands on a voyage from Poznan to Pyrzyce in today s Poland, a distance of some ninety miles.

... the route is as hard to describe as it was to follow. For no mor­tal man had been able to get through this forest until in recent years... the Duke (of Poland) had blazed a trail for himself and his army with chopped and marked trees. We keep to these marks but it took us all of six days to get through the woods, and we rest on the banks of the river which is the Pomeranian border, and it was very hard going on account of various snakes and huge wild beasts, and troublesome cranes that were nesting in the branches of the trees and tormented us with their croaking and flapping, and patches of bog which hindered our wagons and carts.⁴⁴

Bishop Adam of Bremen also observed that the “region is very rich in arms, men and crops; it is shut in on all sides by fast bar­riers of wooded mountains and rivers.”⁴⁵

Extensive agriculture was difficult in such an environment but this did not present an obstacle to the Slavhunters and gath­erers, who were accustomed to similar wetlands of Eastern Eu­rope. On the contrary the wetlands and the highland forests were rich in fish and game and other produce, and offered a more plentiful supply of food than most agricultural activities. The Baltic Sea and the rivers draining into it provided easy transportation as opposed to land routes, and trading with man­ufacturing emporia soon sprang up on waterways not far from the sea. More inland towns and fortified “grads” also began to emerge protected by high wooden bridges, walls and mounds of earth, which could only be reached by wooden bridges as recorded in Ibrahim Ibn Jacub s travel memoirs.⁴⁶ Island forts housed warriors led by a “knez” or chief with temples overseen by priests attracted carpenters, smiths, weapon makers, furriers, tanners and weavers. The bigger towns were visited by inter­national merchants, as noted by Adam of Bremen:

... even alien Saxons have the right to reside there (trading city of Jahna) on equal terms with others, provided only that while they sojourn there they do not Openlyprofess Christianity.

Awell known group of Slavs were the Havelians with their main CityofBrunobor (Brannabor) and the fortress at Spandov (Spandau) built in 750. Another stronghold, that of the Sprew- ans, was built on the Spree River and by 825 it was fortified with a high oval wall some 50 meters in length complete with towers, palisades, and gates. Both fortified settlements had become prosperous from the east-west trade route which passed through their territory, beginning from the Rhine River to Brunobor, Kyiv and onto the Caspian Sea and the Muslim markets.

Bythe early IOth century the thriving pagan emporia along the Baltic coast were attracting the attention of the German kings. In 919 the Duke of Saxony, Henrythe Fowlerwas elected as King Henry I of Germania, the “Regnum Teutonicorum.” In the winter of928 after careful preparations he launched the first major offensive against the Baltic Slavs since Charlemagne, be­ginning a policy of expansion that became known as “Drang nach Osten” or the Drive to the East. Crossing the Elbe River and the frozen marshes Henry I attacked and defeated the Abo- drites and the Liutici of Polabia by the Danish border, forcing them to pay tribute and recognize him as their sovereign. The campaign seems to have ended the following year, but it marked the beginning of German expansion to the east that would con­tinue for several centuries.

Henry I was succeeded by his son Otto I in 936, who con­tinued his father s expansionist policy. Concentrating attention to the region further south, between the Elbe and Saale rivers, he crossed the Elbe in 948 and attacked the Hevelian Slavs, overrunning their territory and capturing the capital Brunobor which was renamed as Brandenburg. The Slavlands were thinly populated and the tribes, which were not united, did not resist for long.

The brutal attempts at conversion, the banning of pagan worship, and the forced taxation soon resulted in an uprising by some of the Slavic tribes. In 955, encouraged by the temple priests and led by the brothers Nakon and Stojgniey the Abo- drites revolted but were defeated by Otto I at the battle of Reknice. The German Emperor died in 973 and was succeeded by his son King Otto II who, like his father, also continued to meddle in Italian and Papal politics. In 982 he suffered a dev­astating defeat in Calabria at the hands of the Sicilian Muslims which was noted by the Baltic Slavs. In the following year, led by Prince Mistivoy, all Slav tribes between the Elbe and Odra rivers rose in revolt against the HolyRoman Empire. Hamburg was captured and burned, and in a well orchestrated attack the Havelians recaptured IheirholycityBrunobor (Brandenburg), destroying the new church and massacring the German inhab­itants. Three weeks later the strongholds and bishoprics at Havelsburg and Zeitzwere razed to the ground as Slavwarriors swept through the newly established German Mark killing most of the clerics and settlers. ByJuly all Christian outposts had been razed to the ground and the population either killed or driven out. The fighting continued until 1018 and only Holstein and the southern lands of the Sorbs remained in German hands. Otto II died in 983 and was buried in St. Peter^,s Cathedral in Rome, disappointed at his failure to impose Christianity on the Baltic Slavs. We have an account of the size and intensity of the pagan uprising left by the missionary Adam of Bremen.

Afterhis death (Otto II) the kingdom remained in confusion. Then, indeed, the Slavs, more than fairly oppressed by their Christian rulers, at length threw off the yoke of servitude and had to take up arms in defense of their freedom. Mistivoi and Mizzidrag were the chiefs of the Winuli under whose leadership the rebellion flared up. Under these leaders the rebel Slavs wasted first the whole OfNordalbingia with fire and sword; then, going through the rest of Slavia, they set fire to all the churches and tore them down to the ground. They also murdered the priests and other ministers of the churches with diverse tortures and left not a vestige of Christianitybeyond the Elbe. At Hamburg, then and later, many clerics and citizens were led off into captivity, and even more were put to death out of hatred of Christianity.... These things were done... under Duke Bernhardt, the son of Benno, who grievously oppressed the Slavic peoples.⁴⁹

The Baltic Slavs were learning an important lesson. If they were to defeat the Christian kingdoms—soon to be joined by Poland—all tribes had to act in concert, or else suffer defeat at the hands of a more numerous enemy. The Liutici tribal con­federation was formed soon after, followed by the Abodrites in 990 who organized something resembling a state, and were suc­cessful in defeating an attempt at a reconquest by Conrad II (1029-39). The Liutici and Abodrite tribal confederations were joined by the Brzezan tribes centered at Havelburg and by the Stodorane of Brenna, a wealthy trading emporium judging by the silver hoards excavated in its vicinity.⁵⁰ The victories over the Christians were accompanied by a pagan revival led by tem­ple priests, with the main center at Radgoszcz. Slavic pagan temples would continue to play an important part in Baltic so­ciety, but soon the Baltic Slavs would be caught between two fires.

While Otto I was expanding his holdings at the expense of the western Slavs the tribes to the east were facing an expan­sion of the Slavic Poliane tribe under Prince Mieszko I.⁵¹ The Pagan Poliane had trade relations with the silver-rich Pomeran­ian emporias, and to gain control of the lucrative trade, in about 960, together with Bohemian allies, Mieszko attacked the Pomeranian, Wolinian and Veleti pagans. When the Saxon Duke Hodon attempted a similar invasion he was defeated by the Slav pagans in the battle of Cedynia on the Odra (Oder) River. Christianitynevertheless was beginning to make inroads among the Slavleadership and Prince Mieszko converted to Christian­ity following his victory over the Pomeranians in 967. Antici­pating a German-Polish conflict, and to demonstrate his inde­pendence from the Holy Roman Empire Mieszko had himself baptized in Slavic Bohemia rather than in Germany (Polish in­dependence was later formalized by the Pope when Miezko s son Boleslavthe Brave was granted an archbishopric in his cap­ital, Gniesno). In 979 an alliance was concluded between Mieszko and Otto II, and when another great pagan Slavic up­rising broke out in 983 Mieszko attacked the pagan Abodrites and the Liutichi confederations, to extend his domain at im­perial expense. Unrest continued, however, and a pagan Slav revolt of 1035-37 forced Boleslavthe Brave to move his capital to Cracow. Religion at times took a back seat when it came to control of territory. When Emperor Otto III died at the age of 22 and was succeeded by Henry II, Boleslav seized Meissen and Lausitz (as well as Bohemia) and Henry, in the war that fol­lowed, was forced to ally himself with the pagans against the Catholic Boleslav.

Following the pagan victories, by IOOO many Slavic areas between the Elbe and the Odra rivers were free from Christian kingdoms. The brutal methods of conversion used by Saxon missionaries had bred hatred against Christianity, which would be expressed by bloody retaliations and human sacrifices of Christians. Two major groupings were formed to resist German and Polish pressure. The Abodrite confederation, which con­sisted of several tribes such as the Polabians, Wagrians, and the Varnians, comprised eastern Holstein and most of the territory around today s Mecklenburg and Schwerin in northern Ger­many. On their eastern border lay the lands of the Liutici (Veleti) confederation, stretching between the Varnava River (near Rostock) and the mouth of the Odra. The Liutici form of government was described by Thietmar the bishop of Mes- selburg at the beginning of the Ilth century, at the Saxon out­post on the Saale River.

All these tribes, called jointly the Liutici, are not ruled by a single master. They discuss their problems in a joint council and decide matters by general consensus. If some citizen of the land objects to the decisions which have been taken, they beat him with clubs and if he openly resists outside the council he is either deprived of his property by fire or confiscation or is obliged to pay a sum of money according to his station.... Theyvalidate a peace treaty with a handshake and the offering of a tuft of hair along with a blade of grass (symbols of personal and communal guarantees).⁵²

Clearly a form of democracy, but not without limits. The common cult of the Abodrite and Liutici tribes was the worship of Svarozich with his temple located at Riedegost where repre­sentatives of the various tribes met to decide policy and courses of action. Consensus was not always achieved, however, and in the second half of the Ilth century the confederation fell apart with the western tribes joining the Abodrites while those to the east merged with the Pomeranians.

With the decline of the Liutichi Confederation the cult of Svarozich also declined and was replaced by the four-headed Svantovit, the patron god of the Ranians who inhabited the is­land of Rujana (Riigen). The idol was housed in the temple of the holy city of Arcona, where the warrior chiefs met with the prince to discuss and decide matters of war and peace. The main influence over Ranian society was exercised by the high priest, the owner of a miraculous horse which no one was allowed to ride. He was also the only male who could wear his hair long. Besides crafts manufacture and trade, a common activity of the Ranians was raiding the Scandinavian shores. With the decline of Viking activity in the early 12th century the Ranian fleet be­came the undisputed master of the Baltic, and raids were con­ducted on towns as far as southern Norway, “making piratical raids upon their enemies, the Danes on one side and the Saxons on the other.” The objective to a large extent was slaves, as de­scribed by Helmold:

The Slavs restored their pirate ships (after a setback) and seized opulent islands in the land of the Danes. They were... filled with the riches of the Danes. I have heard it said that on a market day at Mecklenburg captive Danes to the number of seven hundred souls were counted, all for sale if buyers enough could be found.⁵³

We know something of their way of life from a rare glimpse provided by the contemporary clerics Thietmar and Helmold.

There is in the land of the Redars a certain town in the shape of a triangle with three gates therein, called Riedegost which is sur­rounded on all sides by a large virgin forest.... There is in that town only one temple ingeniously constructed of wood (and) supported by a foundation of horns of various wild animals. On the outside its walls are decorated by various images of gods and goddesses, marvelously sculpted as one can see upon examina­tion. Inside dressed in terrifying helmets and cuirasses stand stat­ues of gods each with an engraved name, the first of whom bears the name of Zuarasic (Svarozich) who is honored and revered above the others by all the people. Their banners are not moved from there at all unless they are needed for a campaign, and then (they are carried) by foot soldiers.... There are as many temples and as many images of demons venerated by the infidels as there are regions in this land, among which the above mentioned town (Riedegost) has the supremacy. When they hasten to go to war, they greet it (the temple) and when they return from it success­fully, they honor it with proper gifts, and they inquire diligently which sacrifice the priests should offer to gods. They placate the gods’ mute anger with human and cattle blood offerings.⁵⁴

Christianityhad suffered a serious setback during the up­rising of983 but it was Slowlypenetrating into pagan Slavic so­cietybeing accepted by some of the tribal princes. One of the converts—although “a bad Christian”—was a son of Mistivoy, one of the leaders of the uprising. His son Gottschalk had also been baptized (with a non-Slavic name) when he heard that his father had been murdered by the Saxons. Rejecting Chris­tianity and refusing to be groomed by the Saxons and the Danes, he crossed the Elbe with a few close “drughs” and made his way to the Winuli tribe where “With their help he attacked the Christians and, it is said, struck down many thousands of Saxons out of revenge for his father.”⁵⁵

It seemed as if Mistislavs grandson had reverted back to his roots, but as fate would have it he once again found himself in the Christian camp. Following a losing battle in about 1029 he was taken prisoner by the Saxon duke Bernhard, who “be­cause of his (Gottschalk’s) bravery spared his life and sent him to England, to King Canute s court.” Fighting between the pagans and Christians continued, with neither side seeming to gain the upper hand. Although of great importance, religion does not seem to have been the deciding factor. We know that Ratibor, a Christian, began to raid Denmark. After he was killed by the Danes, the Winuli tribe launched an attack on the king­dom, reaching as far as Ribe. The situation was only saved by King Magnus, who, returning from Norway, landed at Haddeby and defeated the Slavs, inflicting heavy casualties. Prince Gottschalk also returned from England at this time, now a con­firmed Christian, and with Danish troops and Christian Slavs attacked the pagans. It seems his aim was to create a Slavic Christian kingdom in the western Baltic, as indicated by his marriage to the Danish king’s daughter Sigrid. With many Chris­tian communities springing up in Abodrite towns the Diocese of Hamburg began to grow, but not all teachings of the Church were to the liking of the Danes and Slavs. As noted with some humor by Adam of Bremen: “He (King Svien of Denmark) noted attentively and remembered everything the archbishop (Adalbert) drew from the Scriptures, with the exception that he could not be convinced about gluttony and women, which vices are inborn with that people.”⁵⁶

The drawn-out conflict between Christian and pagan con­tinued. A temporary victory came to the Christian rulers when the four tribes of the Liutici confederation began a dispute amongst themselves concerning Senioritywithin the union. In 1057 Aghtingbroke out and after Severalbloodybattles the Cir- cipani tribe came off victorious. The defeated tribes turned for help to Prince Gottschalk, the Saxon Duke Bernhard, and the king of Denmark, who gathered a large force and attacked the Circipani, and it took the Christian rulers seven weeks of hard fighting to subdue the stubborn pagans. The victory over the Circipani did not seem to signal the final triumph of Christian­ity, however:

Our forces came home in triumph, but of Christianity there was no mention. The victors were intent only upon booty.... I have also heard the most truthful king of the Danes say, when in con­versation he commented on these matters, that the Slavic peo­ples without doubt could easily have been converted to Christi­anity long ago but for the avarice of the Saxons. “They are,” he said, “more intent on the payment of tribute than on the conver­sion of the heathen.” Nor do these wretched people realize with what great danger they will have to atone for their cupidity, they who through their avarice in the first place threw Christianity in Slavia into disorder, in the second place have by their cruelty forced their subjects to rebel.⁵⁷

The victory over the pagan Slavs was short lived. On 29 June 1059, the Saxon Duke Bernhard died, leaving his son Or- dulph to govern the duchy. Burdened with taxes, the Liutici, led by Prince Cruto, rose against the Saxon-Danish coalition and were joined by the Abodrite tribes. Gottschalk was killed in 1066 in the battle of Lenzen, and the Saxons under Ordulph were driven out after repeated defeats by Crutos Slavs. Ageneral revival of paganism followed, and those who persisted in the Christian faith were either killed or driven away. Ratzenburg and Veligrad (Mecklenburg) were sacked, Hamburgwas again razed to the ground and Ordulphs son Duke Magnus was driven out of Holstein. A Christian invasion in 1068-69 captured the pagan city of Radgashch, looting and destroying its great temple, but the Christian force was unable to hold the citadel and was forced to withdraw.

For after that victory (battle of Lenzen) as a consequence of which, on the slaying of Gottschalk, the country of the Nordal- bingians (east Saxony, including Hamburg) was first crushed, with armed hands the Slavs threw off the yoke of servitude and endeavored to defend their freedom with such obstinacy of spirit that they preferred to die rather than to resume the name of Christian or to pay tribute to the princes of the Saxons. In fact the unhappy greed of the Saxons brought this disgrace upon them.⁵⁸

With eastern Holstein under pagan Slavic rule the tables were now turned, and it was the conquered Saxon population which began to pay a heavy tribute. Cruto was getting older and Gottschalks son Henry, who had sought refuge in Denmark, gathered a naval force of Danes and Slav allies and began raiding the coastal regions of the Baltic. Seeking to put a stop to the conflict and disruption of the crucial trade, Cruto invited Henry to return, granting him a princely estate. Henry, however, was seeking power and when during a feast an intoxicated Cruto left the hall he was treacherously killed by a hired Dane wielding a battle axe. Henry now proclaimed himself as Prince (Duke) of the Abodrites, and his first move was to impose a tax on the Slavs and reduce the heavy burden which was imposed on the Christian Saxons by Prince Cruto. In response, the pagan Slavs rose in revolt and a strong force advanced into Polabia to con­front Henry, who had in the meantime sought support from the Saxon Count Magnus. The two armies met in 1093 on the field of Schmielov near Ratzenberg but Magnus began to stall for time using customary negotiations, apparently waiting for the arrival of a relief force of Saxon knights. The knights arrived just as the sun was setting and Magnus’ and Henry’s men charged the pagan formations, breaking through their lines and inflicting a great defeat on the Slavs. The deciding factor of the battle was apparently not the relief force of knights but as Hel­mold records, “Those whose fathers were present tell how the splendor of the setting sun so fiercely dazzled the eyes of the opposing Slavs in the conflict that they could see nothing for the light.”⁵⁹

Henryled a surprise follow-up attack on the Ranian island by crossing the frozen sea in the winter of 1113, but was unable to subdue it. Firmly established by his victories, however, he gained further acceptance by the Abodrites by wisely keeping the Church and priests out of the pagan parts of his domain.

After Duke Henry died on 22 March 1127 his sons and grandsons became embroiled in power struggles for the duke­dom. Seeinghis opportunity, Cnut, the son of Eric of Denmark, went to Lothar the King of Germany, and for a price “bought” the dukedom of the Abodrites, that is “permission” for con­quest. As Cnut attacked the Slavs he was met by Duke Henry’s pagan nephew Pribislav and an Abodrite chief by the name of Niclot, who defeated the foreign invaders and agreed to divide the Abodrite lands between themselves. The Slav victory was temporary and the conflict continued for several decades with neither side emerging as the victor. The struggle for supremacy along the Baltic coast would require the international effort of a Catholic Crusade, against which the divided and outnum­bered pagans could not possibly win.