The Mongols Stage an Appearance
Elsewhere, on the opposite end of the Orthodox Christian lands of Eastern Europe, the appearance of a different people announced another foreign invasion, one which would be of a much greater magnitude.
It would have a great effect on Europe and alter the balance of power in Eurasia, which would never return to its original state. The new invaders were the Mongols, also known as Tatars, whose first arrival in the Russian and Ukrainian prairies occurred in the spring of 1223 in very much the same way as previous Asian nomads had made their appearance, suddenly and without warning. They, like the Huns and Avars before them, had inherited Sarmatian tactics and military technology, such as body armor and the composite bow, which would have a devastating effect. SarmatianAlans had penetrated far to the east, which is witnessed by engravings of horsemen on rocks along the Enisei River, which are very similar to those painted on walls in tombs found on the Ukrainian prairies and the Crimean Peninsula. We know from Mongol mythology and legends that they venerated Alan-Qpa, or Alan the Beautiful, who was wife of the warrior-knight Dobun-Mergan, and the Mongol language also had Sarmatian words for “glory” and “hero,” which were prominent in a warrior culture such as the Sarmatian.36Mongol conquests began in the Far East where, led by their commander Temujin, better known as “Chingis Khan” (Great King), by 1215 they had conquered most of northern China and Manchuria. Next, Kara Khitaiwas defeated and continuing west they overran the Moslem Sultanate of Khorezm, (todays Uzbekistan), Tadjikistan, Turkestan and Azerbaijan in central Asia and part of the Caucasus Mountains. A Persian army which was sent to support Sultan Mohammed II was crushed and a Mongol army corps led by the one-eyed Subodai and Jebei Noyon (“The Arrow”) went in pursuit of the sultan who had fled to Azerbaijan in the Caucasus Mountains.
The force was but a small portion of the whole Mongol “urda” or army, and did not have heavy equipment such as siege catapults or gunpowder which they had obtained in China. News reached them that Sultan Mohammed was dead, and the Mongol contingent settled into winter quarters in the Mugansk steppe in southern Azerbaijan to await further instructions.Their marching orders were not long in coming. They were to cross the Caucasus mountain range, reconnoiter the steppe to the north, and subdue the Polovtsian Khanate. In September 1222 Subodai and Jebei invaded Georgia reinforced by regiments sent by Chingis Khan, and the local Muslim Kurdish and Turkic tribes. When the powerful Georgian army led by King Giorgi III “The Brilliant” came out to meet them, Jebeis men initiated the old nomad cavalry withdrawal ruse. Charging the Georgian cavalry the Mongol mounted archers released several volleys, then turned and fled with the Georgian cavalry in hot pursuit. Subodei s men had been placed in ambush at a prearranged spot, where the pursued Mongol cavalry quickly mounted fresh horses and turned on the pursuing Georgians. Riding tired steeds and encircled by Subodei s waiting regiments the Georgian cavalry was destroyed, with the loss of its entire military nobility.
Continuing their advance the Mongol army soon found itself trapped in the narrow passes of the Caucasus range. Guided by hostile local highlanders they were led deep into the mountains towards the northern slopes and Sarmatian territory. When the captive guides vanished, Subodei and Jebei found themselves in unknown surroundings hemmed in by tall peaks and facing a combined force of Polovtsi and Alan cavalry, which was blocking the mountain passes along the Terek River. Unable to maneuver, the Mongol leaders resorted to deception. Subodei and Jebei sent emissaries to the Polovtsi Khans with generous gifts, explaining that they had no wish to fight a people of a similar tongue; and being religious, they did not want to shed innocent blood.37 The Polovtsi accepted the Mongol overtures, broke camp and left their Sarmatian allies to their own devices; they were promptly attacked by superior forces and defeated.
After plundering the Sarmatian lands and replenishing their supplies the Mongols advanced into Polovtsi country and in a major battle on the Don River the main Polovtsi army was shattered and destroyed with only a few survivors managing to flee beyond the Dnipro River.It is these Polovtsi who brought news of the unknown newcomers to the western Polovtsi federation led by Khan Kot- ian, Mstislav the Daring’s father-in-law. Their coming was first recorded in the Kyiv Chronicle: “An enemy hitherto unknown appeared, godless Moabites called Tatars (who) attacked the Polovtsi land....Juri Konchakovich the senior prince of all the Polovtsi... fled. And many were slaughtered (pursued) to the river Dnipro.”38
Bearing many gifts, Khan Kotian turned to Prince Mstislav the Daring with a proposal of an alliance and a warning that Rus was next on the newcomers’ agenda. Realizing that the Polovtsi could join the Mongols if defeated again, Prince Mstislav called for a meeting to be held in Kyiv, presided by himself and the other two Mstislavs of Kyiv and Chernihiv and attended by the junior southern princes. It was decided to lead a strong army out into the steppes rather than wait for the Mongols’ arrival, which would have endangered Kyiv and all Rus.
The combined princes’ army set out along the Dnipro River, with the infantry on boats and the cavalry following the western shore, until they reached a town called Zarub where envoys from Subodei and Jebei awaited them with the words:
We are all men and we are descendants of Adam. Why should we senselessly and vainly shed our blood, quarreling and fighting? We have not come against you and we have taken nothing of yours but we have come against our slaves the Polovtsi because from ancient times the Polovtsi have tended our horses.39
Seeing the large force set out against them, the Mongols were attempting to repeat the deception they had used to split the combined Polovtsi and Alan army on the Terek River.
The Kyiv Chronicle made it a point to stress the large force fielded against the Mongols:... all Ruskyprinces crossed the river Dnipro with numberless armies. Great Prince Mstislav Romanovich of Kyiv.... Great Prince Volodimer Riurikovich of Smolensk... the princes of Chernihiv, of Galich, of Volin, of Kursk, of Trubchevsk, and of Putivl; and the princes from all the land of Rus with an endless multitude ofwarriors.40
The Mongol proposal fell on deaf ears and the envoys were handed over to the Polovtsi tribesmen who promptly executed them—a serious violation of the Mongol code. An advance Mongol force was defeated by the Rusian mounted archers on the Khortitsia tributary of the Dnipro River, and encouraged by the victory the princes and their Polovtsi allies pressed on deeper into the endless steppe. The enemy, however, was nowhere to be seen but on the eighth day in early June scouts reported the Mongol army was camped nearby, beyond the Kalka River.41 Subodei and Jebei had lured the allied army far into the steppe to a battlefield of their own choosing. Perhaps they were also aware of the allies’ divided leadership and the lack of communication between the three Mstislavs, “out of jealousy, for there was a great discord between them.”42 Not possessing a clear numerical superiority the Mongol leaders would attempt to Outmaneuver the disorganized enemy and attack each ally piecemeal after the princes had made the initial move.
Mstislav the Daring of Galich was the first to attack the Mongols with a cavalry charge, supported by young Prince Danylo ofVolodimer (in Volin) and the Polovtsihorsemen. Instead of responding with the usual mounted archers, Subodei and Jebei unleashed their heavy cavalry of armored men and horses, and a great battle broke out on the Kalka River. Prince Vasilko was struck by a lance while his eighteen-year-old brother Danylo, although wounded, met the Mongols head on, supported by princes Iaroslav Nemoi, Oleg of Kursk and the Polovtsi Khan Iarun.
As the battle was raging the Polovtsi began to give way, and pressed by the Mongol cavalry broke and fled. In their hasty retreat they charged through the Rusian camp rampaging as they went, perhaps in anger at the lack of support from Mstislav of Kyiv, which could have won the day. Instead, due to a lack of communication between the princes, he had not been informed of the attack and his men were unprepared for battle when the Mongols struck their camp. Mstislav the Daring with young Danylo and Mstislav of Chernihiv, seeing the attack on the Rusian camp, broke away from the battle and, fighting a rear-guard action, headed towards the Dnipro River. Abandoned by his allies and taken by surprise, Mstislav of Kyiv decided to stand his ground and fight. Barricading themselves on a rocky rise by the Kalka River for the next three days, his men beat off all Mongol attacks, inflicting heavy casualties on the enemy.Besides the Polovtsi nomads the steppe was also home to Slavic freebooters, escaped slaves or the “izgoi,” who did not fit into society and had fled Rus to pursue a life of freedom on the vast and plentiful steppe. They were known as “Brodniki,” or wanderers, and had joined the Mongols to fight against the princes of Rus. We know from the Kyiv Chronicler that on the fourth day Mstislav of Kyiv was approached by the head of the Brodniki, one Ploskinia with a proposal: all lives would be spared and prisoners offered for ransom if the men of Rus would surrender. The promise turned out to be a deceptive ruse for no sooner did Mstislav’s men lay down their arms than they were attacked and slaughtered. A special fate was reserved for the nobility. Prince Mstislav of Kyiv with his grandson, son-in- law and other princes were brought to the Mongol camp, and when a great feast was held to celebrate the victory they were wrapped in carpets, placed under the floorboards of the tent and slowly crushed to death, as the Mongols celebrated on the floor above them. According to one contemporary observer, “there was a victory over the Rusian princes as had never before occurred since the beginning of the land of Rus.”43
Records indicate that about half of the princes died in the battle and probably the same proportion of other ranks out of a likely force of 10,000 men.44 The battle fought in June 1223 was the first encounter between a Christian European army and the Mongols. It would not be the last.