Theme 15. The Social and Political Development of Ukraine between 1945 and 1991

The purpose of the theme is to give an idea of the development of the Soviet Ukraine from the post-war rebuilding to the collapse of the Soviet Union. The attempts of the Soviet government to improve the State economy through administrative reforms, the struggle of the Ukrainian people against the Communist regime, and the collapse of the Soviet Union are considered.

The main topics of the theme are the following: the foreign policy of the Soviet Ukraine; the shaping of the territory of the Soviet Ukraine; the post-war rebuilding of the Soviet Ukrainian economy; the Great famine (1946 - 1947) in Ukraine; the Sovietization of the Western Ukrainian lands; the Ukrainian Insurgent Army (UPA); the operation "Vistula"; the Zhdanovism; the Lysenkoism; the death of Yosyp Stalin and struggle for power in the Party; the transferring of Crimea to Ukraine; the policy of Liberalization; the XX Party Congress and the secret speech of M. Khrushchov; the reform of decentralization of the State economy managing; the Virgin Lands Campaign; the disastrous Corn campaign; the Livestock compaign; the development of the Ukrainian culture, "the Sixties"; the Dissidents; the economical reforms of Alexey Kosygin; the Period of Stagnation; the crisis of the Soviet economy; the Dissident movement; the policy of "Reconstruction"; the nuclear explosion at Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant; the policy of "Glasnost"; the crisis of the Soviet economy; the national intelectual movements; the People's Movement of Ukraine for the "Reconstruction"; the great strike of miners; the first alternative elections to Verkhovna Rada; the Declaration on State Sovereignty of Ukraine; the Act of Declaration of Independence of Ukraine; the collapse of the Soviet Union.

The foreign policy of the Soviet Ukraine. In 1944, the January plenary session of the All-Union Communist Party (bolsheviks’) voted the new rights for the Soviet Union Republics in foreign policy.

In February of 1945, in the Yalta Conference (also known the Crimea Conference) the United States and the United Kingdom agreed to accept membership of the Ukrainian SSR and Belorussian SSR into the United Nations, the anti-war international organization, which it was planned to found in near future. In April of 1945 the Soviet Ukraine officially became one of the founding members of the United Nations.

Then, the Ukrainian SSR became a member of the United Nations Economic and Social Council. From 1948 to 1949 Ukraine was a permanent member of the United Nationa Security Council.

However, all the territorial questions, regarding to the Soviet Ukraine, were considered only by the People's Commissariat of Foreign Affairs of the Soviet Union. The propositions of the United Kingdom and Sudan about establishing direct diplomatic relations with the Ukrainian SSR were left without any answers by the Soviet Union [3; 5; 9; 11; 17; 28; 29; 37; 38].

The shaping of the territory of the Soviet Ukraine. While the Red Army had been advancing to Berlin, the Soviet Union and Poland concluded Soviet-Polish agreement (in August of 1945). Poland gave the Soviet Ukraine Eastern Halychyna and Volhynia. In return, Poland received some small eth­nic Ukrainian territories (Nadsiannia, Lemkivshchyna, Kholmshchyna and Pidliashshia) also known as Zakerzonnia, near the western borders of the modern Ukraine.

In November of 1944, the Congress of People's Committees of Zakarpattian Ukraine announced a reunion with the Ukrainian SSR. In June of 1945 Czechoslovakia officially gave Zakarpattia to the Ukrainian SSR.

In February of 1947 the Soviet-Romanian treaty was signed, about transferring Northern Bukovyna, Southern and Northern Bessarabia to the Soviet Ukraine [3; 5; 9; 11; 17; 28; 29; 37; 38].

The post-war rebuilding of the Soviet Ukrainian economy. In March of 1946 the Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union adopted the five-year plan of reconstruction and economic development of the Soviet Union.

During the post-war rebuilding the Ukrainian SSR got machines and equipment from the East regions of the Soviet Union. Germany also sent to Ukraine machines as reparation repayment. However, for the most part, the recovery of the Ukrainian economy was made by the Ukrainian SSR at its own expenses. First of all the coal-mining, petroleum extraction, energy sector, metallurgy, and heavy engineering industry were rebuilt. In 1953 the total output volume of the heavy industry reached 153 per cent of the pre-war production level [3; 5; 9; 11; 17; 28; 29; 37; 38].

The greate famine (1946 - 1947) in Ukraine. Between 1946 and 1947 the Ukrainian population had been suffering due to the greate famine. The famine was caused by a drought, post-war devastation, and, mostly, high rates of grain procurements implemented by the State for needs of the rebuilding of heavy industry. The second reason for the high rates of grain procurements was a Soviet reclamation in Eastern Europe - in 1946 about 100 tons of grain were donated by the Soviet Union to countries of Eastern Europe, as a "fraternal aid". The Soviet famine of 1946 - 1947 killed nearly 1 million people [3; 5; 9; 11; 17; 28; 29; 37; 38].

The Sovietization of the Western Ukrainian lands. In the Western Ukraine the Soviet Government, making Industrialization, implemented the total Collectivization, the goal of which was to consolidate individual land and labour into collective farms, which was actually managed by State officers. The 1950 became known as the year of total Collectivization of the Western

Ukrainian lands. This year 93 % of the rural population entered the collective farms under compulsion. Meanwhile, in Western lands the Communists persecuted Nationalists and free-thinkers, who were disagreeing with the Communist ideology and politics.

The Ukrainian Insurgent Army (UPA). When the Soviet State had been making its unpopular policy in Western Ukraine, the Ukrainian Insurgent Army (UPA) had been fighting with the NKVD, the public and secret police organization of the Soviet Union. Between 1943 and 1950 the UPA was headed by the Nationalist Roman Shukhevych (alias Taras Chuprynka). Being suported by the local population UPA soldiers waged the guerrilla warfare against the Communists and the Poles in the Western lands [3; 5; 9; 11; 17; 28; 29; 37; 38].

The operation "Vistula". In 1947 the Soviet Union and the Comm­unists of Poland arranged for making the operation, which was codenamed "Vistula". The operation was going to leave the UPA without its supporting by the Ukrainian minorities of the southeastern territories of Poland. It suggested the deportation of these minorities into western and northern regions of Poland.

On March 28, 1947, in Lemkivshchyna (now the Lesko County, in

Poland) the sotnia (unit of a hundred soldiers) led by the officer alias Khrin assassinated the Polish Communist General Karol Swierczewski. This incident was used by the Government of the People's Republic of Poland as the direct pretext for the Operation "Vistula". Between April 28 and July 31, 1947, 20 000 Polish soldiers and officers under command of General Stefan Mossor had deported about 140 000 or 150 000 of the Ukrainians from their historical regions Nadsiannia (in modern Przemysl County, in south-eastern Poland), Lemkowszczyzna (in the Subcarpathian region of Poland, between rivers Poprad and Uzh), Kholmshchyna (south-eastern territory of Poland, southward from the middle of the Buh River), Pidliashshia (in the eastern part of Poland and western Belarus).

During the deportation deportees suffered a lot of inconveniences. Before being deported they had only a few hours to prepare and get the limited possessions they were allowed to take. They were transported in crowded boxcars, in very bad sanitary conditions, without any regular food 124

supply. During the transition many Ukrainians died. In order that deportees were unable to flee into the Soviet Ukraine, the NKVD blocked the borders of the Soviet Ukraine [3; 5; 9; 11; 17; 28; 29].

The end of the Ukrainian Insurgent Army (UPA). The notorious ope­ration "Vistula" left the Ukrainian Insurgent Army (UPA) without its local supporting. On March 5, 1950, the Commander UPA Roman Shukhevych was killed in fighting with NKVD nearby Lviv. Some detachments of UPA heroically continued fighting until about the middle of 1950s and then were finally overcome by the Soviets [3; 5; 9; 11; 17; 28; 29].

The Cold War. By the end of 1940s the world had been split into two camps: the capitalist one led by the United States and the Communist one headed by the Soviet Union. The sustained state of political and military tension between them is considered to be called the Cold War. It was reflected in the domestic policy of the Soviet Union, the government of which tried to isolate the Soviet people from the infuence of western ideas on freedom of speech, private property rights, advantages of a market economy, and etc. [3; 5; 9; 11; 17; 28; 29; 37; 38].

The Zhdanovism. In 1946 the Soviet Central Committee secretary Andrei Zhdanov in 1946 proposed the so-called Zhdanov cultural doctrine, also called as the Zhdanovism or the Zhdanovshchina. According to it, from 1946 to 1952 a lot of writers, artists, intelectuals and other persons of intelligentsia, who did not conform to the party ideological line in their creative works, were persecuted by the NKVD. The guilties were charged by the officials in the "ideological errors", "a hostility against Soviet system", "a cosmopolitanism", "a kowtowing" before the Western European and the American States, "nationalism", and etc.

The Lysenkoism. In 1949 in the Soviet Union the compaign called the Lysenkoism was started against the "idealistic science" Genetics. The Lysenkoism led to the destroying of this science in the Soviet Union by way of repressions against soviet geneticists.

This year agronomist Trofym Lysenko, the director of the Soviet Lenin All-Union Academy of Agricultural Sciences, called the Genetics "a bourgeois pseudoscience", citing the words of Yosyp Stalin, the Premier of the Soviet Union.

From 1930s Trofym Lysenko proposed the vernalization as the best way on developing of the Soviet agrarian sector. The vernalization is the technique of enhance crop yield by exposing wheat seed to high humidity and low temperatures. The vernalization, as T. Lysenko thought, would attract masses of rural population to soaked wheat seeds and grow crop in frozen fields covered by snow. T. Lysenko believed the mass and large-scale practical experiment led to the good results. The Soviet politicians, including Yosyp Stalin, accepted the idea of T. Lysenko because they believed it would make Soviet farmers happy with the Collectivization.

On the contrary, the Genetics proposed to make crop yield higher by way of researching wheat seed in the laboratory conditions by scholars, but no using farmer masses in real fields. The Genetics was opposed to the mass experiments in real fields, as T. Lysenko proposed. The methods of Genetics decreased greatly the financial expenses and labour costs in the agrarian sector, but they were not so popular as the tecnique of vernalization. Hence, in 1949 all Genetics researches was folded in the Soviet Union for a long time. A lot of geneticists were dismissed from their jobs and persecuted by the NKVD. In Kharkiv prominent geneticists I. Poliakov, S. Delone, M. Gryshko and others also lost their jobs due to the Lysenkoism, the official domestic policy of the State [3; 5; 9; 11; 17; 28; 29; 37].

The death of Yosyp Stalin and struggle for power in the Party. On March 5, 1953, Yosyp Stalin, the Great Premier of the Soviet Union, died. It led to a lot of changes in the life of the soviet society. After the death of Y. Stalin the head Minister of Internal Affairs (former NKVD, now Ministerstvo vnutrennikh del, abbr. MVD) Lavrentiy Beria initiated the Ukrainian Oleh Kyrychenko was elected the First Secretary of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of Ukraine. O. Kyrychenko replaced on this post Leonid Melnykov, who had been the First Secretary of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of Ukraine since 1949.

At the same time Lavrentiy Beria was appointed the First Deputy Premier of the Soviet Union (vice-head of government). In his struggle for the rule he based on the State power structures. That was the reason why he reinforced them by way of merging the Ministry of State Security (Ministerstvo Gosudarstvennoy bezopastnosti, abbr. MGB) into the Minister of Internal Affairs (MVD).

Lavrentiy Beria's opposition led by Mykyta Khrushchov mainly consisted of the members of Central Commitee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (Russian: Kommunisticheskaya Partiya Sovetskogo Soyuza; for short: KPSS).

In July 1953 after being reported by the former guerrilla Tymofii Strokach L. Beria was arrested under accusation of treason and in winter of this year he was shot together with five of his close associates [3; 5; 9; 11; 17; 28; 29; 37].

Mykyta Khrushchov. In September of 1953 Mykyta Khrushchov was elected the First Secretary of the Central Commitee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. Before it, in 1938 - 1949, he headed the Central Committee of the Communist Party of Ukraine. Since those times Mykyta Khrushchov had strong links with the Ukrainian Communists, who made a strong support for him. In return, he welcomed the Ukrainians to occupy the high State and Party offices of the Soviet Union. Taken this policy, the Ukrainian party elite was formed [3; 5; 9; 11; 17; 28; 29; 37; 38].

The transferring of Crimea to Ukraine. In 1954 in the Soviet Union peoples celebrated the Anniversary of 300 years from the time, when Ukraine and Russia had united. On 19 February 1954 in honour of this celebration the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union announced the transferring of Crimean Oblast from the RSFS Russia to the Ukrainian SSR [3; 5; 9; 11; 17; 28; 29; 37; 38].

The policy of Liberalization. In the struggle against adherents of Stalin (stalinists), one of which was considered to be L. Beria, M. Khrushchov and his supporters began policy against the Stalin's Cult of Personality. It led to changes in the most of sphears in the living of Soviet society. The so-called Liberalization (the part of general de-Stalinization) emerged, a relaxation of previous Stalin regime restrictions. Since 1953 the Soviet Government had been implementing general amnesty and rehabilitation of those, who were condemned in 1930s, the years of the cruel Stalin repressions. In 1953 the military tribunals of MVD (former NKVD) were banned [3; 5; 9; 11; 17; 28; 29; 37; 38].

The XX Party Congress and the secret speech of M. Khrushchov. In February of 1956 at a closed meeting of the XX Party Congress, M. Khrushchov read out so-called the secret speech named "On the Cult of Personality of Yosyp Stalin and its Consequences". In 1956 an incomplete version of it was published under name "On Overcoming the Cult of Personality and its Consequences". Although soon after the secret speech M. Khrushchov remarked that Y. Stalin was "the great Marxist-Leninist", all over the country Communist activists began destroying the monuments and pictures devoted to Y. Stalin. The eastern Ukrainian great coal-mining town Stalino was renamed Donetsk [3; 5; 9; 11; 17; 28; 29; 37; 38].

The reform of decentralization of the State economy managing. In July of 1957 M. Khrushchov, having purpose to stop a departmentalism of ministries, launched reform of decentralization of the State economy mana­ging. For this he replaced the central ministries by the Regional Economic Councils (Sovety Narodnogo Hozyaistva, abbr. Sovnarkhozy). Each of these Regional Economic Councils managed a separate economic region. The territory of the Ukrainian SSR was divided into 11 separate economic regions [3; 5; 9; 11; 17; 28; 29; 37; 38].

The development of the heavy industry. The liberalization and decen­tralization led to the rise of personal initiative in the economy. Given it, in the Soviet Union at the begginning of 1960s the automobile production emerged (in Zaporizhzhia). At that time in Kyiv and Zaporizhzhia the production of the turbojet passenger airliner TU-124 started. On the whole, between 1959 and 1965 in the Soviet Union 5 200 designs of new machines had been

introduced into production. Although to compare with the economies of Western states the progress of economy of the Soviet Union was slow, the development of steel industry of Soviet Ukraine left behind the steel industries of European and American countries [3; 5; 9; 11; 17; 28; 37; 38].

The decline of agricultural sector of economy. The agricultural sec­tor of economy, however, had some difficulties. M. Khrushchov is also known for his three adventurous campaigns in the agricultural sector of the Soviet State economy. This compaigns pretended to be popular and were gone under ideological slogans in order to enhance the prestige of the Soviet farming [3; 5; 9; 11; 17; 28; 37; 38].

The Virgin Lands Campaign. In 1955 - 1960 M. Khrushchov initiated the so-called Virgin Lands Campaign (in Russian: Osvoenie Tseliny) in order to boost the Soviet Union's agricultural production and alleviate the food shortages for Soviet peoples. During compaign 13 million hectares of virgin lands were cultivated by the Soviets, including the Ukrainians, in Kazakhstan, Altai, and Northern Caucasus. Due to this campaign, Ukraine lost many young specialists (nearly 75 000 - 80 000 persons) and machines (grain harvester combines and tractors), which were transported to Central Asia. Many Ukrainian young persons left there for living. Unfortunately, the Virgin Lands Campaign did not give the expended yield, although it was very expensive project. The planting with cereal monoculture led to erosion of unstable Asian soils [3; 5; 9; 11; 17; 28; 37; 38].

The disastrous Corn campaign. The collective farms and state farms were unefficient, because of which the Soviet republics had shortage of food.

Given this, M. Khrushchov and his attendants look for new sources of food supplies. In 1959 N. Khrushchov with delegation visited the United States. There he saw a broad plants of corn, which, he knew, gave a very high yield, even sometimes higher than wheat. On his returning home, M. Khrushchov started the Corn campaign. He enthusiastically named the corn "the Queen of the fields". Although good american farmer specialist Roswell Garst recommended to grow the corn in the southern part of the Soviet Union, the Soviet officials, trying to please M. Khrushchov, planted it everywhere, even within the Far North. M. Khrushchov sought to plant corn in Siberia. 20 per cent of the Ukrainian territories was planted by the corn. The corn cultivation in the Soviet Union lacked necessary chemicals.

To free fields for corn the Soviet officials often removed grain and when the corn gave a little yield, the food supplies of the Soviet republics came to strong shortage, much stronger than it was until the Corn campaign. In 1963, when there was a bad harvest, the Union of the Soviet Socialist Republics, including the Soviet Ukraine, started importing grain in large quantities [3; 5; 9; 11; 17; 28; 37; 38].

The Livestock campaign. The third agricultural campaign of M. Khru­shchov was implemented under his slogan: "If we catch up with the United States in per-capita production of meat, butter and milk, we will fire the most powerful torpedo against the foundations of capitalism". It was the beginning of the Livestock campaign. In 1959 the First Secretary of CC KPSS M. Khru­shchov and his attendants tripled the five-year plan of food procurement [3; 5; 9; 11; 17; 28; 37; 38].

In order to fulfill the State plan collective farms and state farms had to buy lacking food from private owners. This secret operations were very expensive for these farms. Very soon they lacked money to purchase fertilizing and new machines. In addition, they falsely reported to the Government that all food they supplied was their own products. Hence, the Government knew nothing about the real situation in the agrarian sector. As a result of all the above-mentioned, next 1960 year the farming pro-duction substantially decreased in the Soviet Union, including the Soviet Ukraine [3; 5; 9; 11; 17; 28; 37; 38].

The retirement of Mykyta Khrushchov. The Government had to increase investments for the agricultural sector. On October 14, 1964, the plenum of central committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union freed M. Khrushchov from his post of the first secretary of the Soviet Union

and party responsibilities, ostensibly at his own request, on account of his deteriorating health [3; 5; 9; 11; 17; 28; 37; 38].

The development of the Ukrainian culture, "the Sixties". Among the positive results of M. Khrushchov’s ruling was changes in the Soviet intelectual life. Due to the liberalization intellectuals experienced a period that came to be called, after a novella published Llia Ehrenburg in early 1954, the "Thraw". By the mid-1950s many of the old restrictions were lifted, and every component of Soviet culture benefited. Works produced by writers and film directors reasserted the significance of the individual, the reality of emotional life, and thereby extended the private sphere. The cinema and literature were becoming freer. In Ukraine a number of new writers started their creative working. Among them V. Symonenko, L. Kostenko, Y. Sverstiuk, I. Dziuba, I. Drach, D. Pavlychko and others were writing fiction literature about the Ukrainian real life and culture. It was the second revival of the Ukrainian culture. All the prominent intelectuals of that period are known as "the Sixties", after the time, when most of them began their creative working, in the late 1950s and 1960s [3; 5; 11; 17; 28; 38].

The Dissidents. The intelectual movement paved way for the political opposition to the Soviet State. These oppositionists got name Dissidents (litterelly from Latin: those, who set at the contrary side, who are disagree). Among the dissidents were intellectuals as well as workers and peasants. They non-violently demanded the Soviet State government to respect the human rights and private property of Soviet citizens. Dissidents published their demands in an illegal editions "Samizdat" (literally, that is edited by itself). Individuals reproduced censored publications of works, which were forbidden by the State. After reproducing dissidents passed the documents from reader to reader. Also dissidents inspired the national celebrations and meetings devoted to heroes of the history of Ukraine. State police and the Committee for State Security (Komitet Gosudarstvennoy bezopastnosti, abbr. KGB) persecuted dissidents as the "enemies of the Soviet Power". Being arrested dissidents got to a prison for a long terms.

While pursuing dissidents, the State government declared that there were not any political prisoners in the Soviet Union. In reality, in August- September 1965, Soviet police arrested about 20 dissidents [3; 5; 11; 17; 28; 38].

Leonid Brezhnev, the First Secretary of the Soviet Union. In 1965 the plenum of central committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union elected Leonid Brezhnev the First Secretary of the Soviet Union. Under L. Brezhnev the nomenklatura (the party apparatus, the group of top-leaders of the Soviet Union, party elite) became the close association, the members of which had the best apartments, motels, hospitals, ration, and etc. [3; 5; 11; 17; 28; 9; 29; 37; 38].

The economical reforms of Alexey Kosygin. In March of 1965 the plenum of the Central Committee voted to start reforms of economy, which were initiated by Aleksey Kosygin, the chairman of the Coucil of ministres. The reforms established firm plans of purchasing agricultural products for several years. Also an incentive payments for an overplan production were introduced in order to motivate workers and farmers to make good results of their work. The regional economic Councils were replaced by the Central Ministries and by this way the Soviet economy was again centralized.

The reforms gave some positive results. The Eighth five-year plan (1966 - 1970) was even named "golden". The industrial output grew in 1.5 times and the general national income added 30 per cent. Unfortunately, in the early 1970s a decline in output began, that was caused by an extensive character of the economy and the lack of private intiative of citizens [3; 5; 11; 17; 28].

The Period of Stagnation. After reforms of 1965 - 1971 Leonid Brezhnev and his attendants had no attempts to change the economic situation for the better. Given this undoing of L. Brezhnev, later on, the next First Secretary of the Soviet Union Mikhail Gorbachev called the times of L. Brezhnev "the Period of Stagnation" [3; 5; 11; 17; 28; 9; 29; 37; 38].

The "Mature Socialism". After the failure of reforms L. Brezhnev’s government more often announced that in the Soviet Union the society of the "Mature Socialism" had been already built by the Soviet people. Ostensibly the "Mature Socialism" was the transition link to communism, the "the paradise on the Earth". Of course, it was the Party announcement, which had no real ground. The Communist Party hoped to calm those people, who were waiting for the finishing of the communism building [3; 5; 11; 17; 28; 9; 29; 37; 38].

The crisis of the Soviet economy. Actually, the economy of the Soviet Union was in a deep crisis, and there were a little hope for the economical raising because of an industrial disbalance. The heavy industry left far behind the light industry. The Soviet Union wasted great money for armament in order to wage the Cold War (the sustained state of political and military tension) with the United States. In addition, as we said above, the Soviet Union had great difficulties in the food supplies.

By 1980s in the Soviet Ukraine only 20 per cent of enterprises had produced consumer goods. The rest Ukrainian enterprises made half-finished products and other means of production, which were commonly finished by enterprises of other Soviet republics [3; 5; 11; 17; 28; 9; 29; 37; 38].

The new Constitution of the Soviet Union. In 1977 the Communist Party adopted the new Constitution of the Soviet Union. The sovereignty of the Soviet republics was formally proclaimed. The sixth article of the Constitution declared the Communist Party the only leading force of society [3; 5; 11; 17; 28; 9; 29; 37; 38].

Volodymyr Shcherbytskyi. By the time of adopting the Constitution, the Communist Party of the Soviet Ukraine had been headed by Volodymyr Shcherbytskyi, a fellow countryman of L. Brezhnev. They both were born in the village near Dnipropetrovsk, the south-eastern Ukrainian town [3; 5; 11; 17; 28].

The Dissident movement. Despite the greate proclamations about the human rights in reality the State power structures (KGB and Police) persecuted all citizens, who advocated the democratic rights and religious rights. The Dissidents were opposed to the state control over all spheres of social living.

Sometimes dissidents hung out blue and yellow flags, the colours of Ukraine, as it was in 1972 in Lviv (Liubomyr Starosolskyi, Roman Klopach) and in 1973 in Ternopil outskirts (V. Marmus, M. Marmus, and S. Sapeliak).

In 1972 the Police arrested more than 100 dissidents, among which were such intelectuals as Volodymyr Chornovil, Yevhen Sverstiuk, Ivan Svitlychnyi, Ivan Dziuba, Vasyl Stus and others. Those dissidents, which guilt was unprovable, were falsely called psychotics and detained in hospitals [3; 5; 11; 17; 28; 9; 29; 37; 38].

The Ukrainian Helsinki Union. In 1975 the Union of the Soviet Soci­alist Republics and 34 States signed the Agreement in Helsinki, the capital of the Republic of Finland. Signing the agreement the Soviet Union obliged to defend democracy and human rights. In reality the government of Soviet Union continued persecution dissidents and violation the human rights. In return, in 1976 dissidents created the Ukrainian Helsinki Union, a legal group of 35 members aimed at supporting of the Helsinki Agreements. The group was headed by the Ukrainian dissidents Mykola Rudenko and Oleksa Tykhyi.

In the early 1980s the Police and KGB made large operation on catching a lot of dissidents. Most of dissidents were imprisoned. Some of them, later on, died in the corrective labour camps and mental hospitals [3; 5; 11; 17; 28; 9; 29; 37; 38].

Mikhail Gorbachev, the First Secretary of the State. In 1982 Leonid Brezhnev died. In 1982 - 1985 the post of the first Secretary of the Soviet Union was occupied by Yurii Andropov, and after him, Konstantin Cher-nenko. In March of 1985 the plenum of central committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union elected Mikhail Gorbachev the First Secretary of the State [3; 5; 11; 17; 28; 9; 29; 37; 38].

The policy of "Reconstruction". In April of 1985, at the Central Committee plenum, M. Gorbachev proposed a course for accelerating economic of the Soviet Union, the so-called policy of "Reconstruction" (Perestroyka). Making reforms he and his supporters planned for three five- year plans to get the production equal that had been made for all the previous years of the Soviet Union, since 1922. First of all, the campaign against alcoholism was started, because it was suggested that alcoholism of workers and collective farmers strongly harmed the process of Soviet production. In practice the anti-alcoholism campaign was accompanied by cutting down vineyards in great quantities, especially in southern Ukraine and Crimea. The cutting was caused by orders of those Communist officials, who wanted to make please for Mikhail Gorbachev and get from him some sinecures. Some varieties of grapes were lost forever. The damage from the anti-alcoholism campaign was appreciated ten billion rubles [3; 5; 11; 17; 28; 9; 29; 37; 38].

The nuclear explosion at Chornobyl Nuclear Power Plant. On April 26, 1986, the accelerating of the working process occured the great disaster, the nuclear explosion at Chornobyl Nuclear Power Plant. A lot of people died. For some days the Government had been suppressing the fact of nuclear accident, while the explosions and fire had been releasing large quantities of radioactive contamination into the atmosphere. The radiation spread over much of Europe [3; 5; 11; 17; 28; 9; 29; 37; 38].

The policy of "Glasnost". Two months before the nuclear accident M. Gorbachev and party started policy of "Glasnost' (publicity), allowing people publically to discuss little defects of the Soviet system for finding the ways of correcting these defects. After the nuclear accident of 26 April 1986 wide public discussions got out of the State control. The process of rethinking the history of the Soviet Union began. Very soon among the Soviet people the Soviet Union became known as the barrack and semi-feudal State mainly due to its previous repressions and Holodomor of 1932 - 1933. The Communist Party rapidly had been losing its reputation.

At that time, Mikhail Gorbachev and his attendants initiated the releasing political prisoners in order to calm people. However, till 1988 the released victims were not rehabilitated by the State [3; 5; 11; 17; 28; 9; 29; 37; 38].

The liberalization of economic management. In order to made new officials of liberal views, who would provide the "reconstruction", M. Gorba­chev initiated the local elections of deputies to local Soviet councils, the election of directors and middle managers in plants, factories, collective farms, and etc. In addition, M. Gorbachev passed the law, which allowed the free co-operation in trade, food and service enterprises. Actually both these measures led to financial strengthening of local directors, among which were persons embezzling the State propriety. Of course, these local directors tried to influence the government in order to secure their own states, often grounded on an illegal embezzling.

In 1987 M. Gorbachev made "cleansing" of the Part-aparatus, retiring old conservatives, who could prevent the reforms [3; 5; 11; 17; 28; 9; 29; 37; 38].

The crisis of the Soviet economy. While M. Gorbachev carried on the reforms of "Reconstruction", which included "Glasnost", the social and economic situation became worse. There were strong shortage of food and consumer goods in the Soviet markets, including the Ukrainian ones. The illegal trade, so called "black market", flourished. It caused the growing of criminal activities. Soviet currency (rubles) depreciated rapidly, because of an inflation that was caused by total crisis of the Soviet economy [3; 5; 11; 17; 28; 9; 29; 37; 38].

The national intelectual movements. The crisis and impoverishment of masses were the background for a development of national intelectual movements against the Soviet tyranny. In Ukraine the informal associations of citizens began their working for organization anti-Communist meetings of many thousands of people all over the cities of Ukraine. Also these informal associations made conferences, which revewed the history of the Soviet Union. The informal groups were the Culturologist (Cultural and Educational) Club (from 1987, in Kyiv), the second "Ukrainian Helsinki Union" (from 1988, in Kyiv), the Tovarystvo Leva (Lion Society) (from 1987, in Lviv), the Hromada (from 1988, in Kyiv), and etc. In 1989, historical and educational society "Memorial" and the "Taras Shevchenko Ukrainian Language Comradeship" began to call for the rehabilitation of all victims of Stalinist repression and reviewing the history [3; 5; 11; 17; 28; 38].

The Law "On Languages in the Ukrainian SSR". In 1989 under pre­assure of the national movement the Communist party launched Verkhovna Rada (Parliament) of the Soviet Ukraine. No sooner had been formed Ver­khovna Rada adopted the Law "On Languages in the Ukrainian SSR", which proclaimed the Ukrainian language the official one [3; 5; 11; 17; 28; 38].

The Ukrainian Autocephalous Orthodox Church. Between 1987 and 1990 the Ukrainian Autocephalous Orthodox Church and the Greek Catholic (Uniat) Church were revived [3; 5; 11; 17; 28; 38].

The great strike of miners. In July of 1989 the economic crisis caused the great strike of miners of 193 Donbas mines. The miners mostly demanded the ruling Communist party to make higher wages and better working conditions, and to resign the government [3; 5; 11; 17; 28; 38].

The People's Movement of Ukraine for the "Reconstruction". In September of 1989 in Kyiv the People's Movement of Ukraine for the "Reconstruction" (Perestroyka) was founded. This civil-political movement was headed by Ivan Drach, the intelectual and former dissident. The movement advocated democracy and humanity. On January 21, 1991, before the 71st anniversary of the Act of Uniting Ukraine, the People's Movement of Ukraine and other democratic forces organized the so-called "human chain" (the "Ukrainian Wave") between Kyiv and Lviv, performing the unity of Ukraine [3; 5; 11; 17; 28; 38].

The non-Communist political parties. Since 1989 in the Soviet Ukraine new non-Communist parties appeared. There were the Ukrainian Na­tional Party, the Ukrainian Republican Party, the Democratic Party of Ukraine, the Green Party of Ukraine, and etc. On the whole at the beginning of 1991 in Ukraine 13 non-Communist parties, which included nearly 30 000 people, were officially acting [3; 5; 11; 17; 28; 38].

The first alternative elections to Verkhovna Rada. In March of 1990 the first alternative elections to Verkhovna Rada and local councils were provided by the state. In the elections the new political forces also took part.

Meanwhile, M. Gorbachev lost his power. Even in Moscow, the capital of the Soviet Union, the democratic parliament was created [3; 5; 11; 17; 28; 38].

The Declaration on State Sovereignty of Ukraine. On July 16, 1990, the Verkhovna Rada of the Ukrainian SSR adopted the Declaration on State Sovereignty of Ukraine, which declared the independence, completeness and indivisibility of the republic authorities of Ukraine within its territory, independence and equality in foreign relations [3; 5; 11; 17; 28; 38].

The Act of Declaration of Independence of Ukraine. At last, on August 24, 1991, the extraordinary session of Verkhovna Rada voted the Act of Declaration of Independence of Ukraine. The Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic was renamed into Ukraine [3; 5; 11; 17; 28; 38].

The collapse of the Soviet Union. On December 7 - 8, 1991, in

Belovezhskaya Puscha near Minsk the recently elected president of Ukraine Leonid Kravchuk, a chairman of the Belarussian Parliament S. Shushkevych, and the Russian president Boris Yeltsin declared the collapse of the Union of the Soviet Socilalist Repulics [3; 5; 11; 17; 28; 37; 38].

Questions

1. What foreign policy did the Soviet Ukraine pursue after the Great Patriotic War?

2. What territorial changes were in Ukraine in the middle 1940s and the early 1950s?

3. How was the Soviet economy rebuilt during the post-war period?

4. What were the reasons and consequences of the Great famine of 1946 and 1947?

5. How had the Sovietization of the Western Ukrainian lands been going during the post-war period?

6. What were the reasons of the military struggle of the Ukrainian Insurgent Army against the Soviet regime in the first half of the 1940s and the early 1950s?

7. What reasons and results did the Zhdanovism and the Lysenkoism have?

8. Describe the period of "Thraw" and its consequences for the late history.

9. What were the reasons of the establishment of the political regime of Leonid Brezhnev? Describe its features in Ukraine.

10. Why did the period of Stagnation begin?

11. What were the backgrounds for the political and economical democratization of the Ukrainian society?

12. Through what stages had the process of Reconstruction gone?

13. What consequences did the policy of Reconstruction have for the Soviet Union and independent Ukraine?

14. What were the reasons, which led to the defeat of Reconstruction policy?

15. What were the reasons and results of the "Glasnost" policy?