CONTENTS

Preface. A sourcebook on women and the law in the Roman Empire:

marriage, divorce, and widowhood                                                           xi

List of abbreviations                                                                                 xv

Glossary of Latin legal terms                                                                 xvii

Acknowledgments                                                                                  xxiii

Introduction: historical and legal background                                      1

I   The legal sources                                                                                     1

A The sources of clas sical law 1

B Sources oC icte Roman icw 4

II  Roman social structure and the legal system                                       6

III  Timetable of important events and laws                                              13

1     The status of women in Roman law                                                         16

I   Definitions                                                                                              16

A Gender cnd it iHiiiiacticss 16

B Women in the Ccmiiy 17

II  Forms of legal power                                                                            20

A Patriapotestas (“pcternci power”) 20

B Manus (mcritci subordinction) 21

C Tutela impuberum (gucrdicnship oC minors) 23

III  Tuteic muiierum (the guardianship of women)                                  23

A sources on tutela mulierum 24

1                The Institutes oC Gcius on tutela mulierum 25

2                Seiections from the Rules of Ulpian 11 29

3                The Ficvicn Municipci Lcw (lex Irnitana) 30

B Tutela mulierum in non-legal sources 31

C The guardianship of women in the Roman East 34

D The ius liberorum 37

E Tutela mulierum in late antiquity 43

IV   Legal stereotypes of women’s abilities and behavior                        46

A Legal assistance for women 47

B Women's modesty and the need for protection 48

C “Womanly weakness” 51

1                “Womanly weakness” in Roman legal sources 51

2                 “Womanly weakness” in the papyri 52

D The senatusconsultum Velleianum 55

V     Women in court: restrictions and rights                                            60

A Restrictions on womens rigbi to act legally 60

1                Prohibition on bringing a request on others’ behalf 60

2                 Prohibition on bringing criminal charges 63

3                 Prohibition on being an informer to the fiscus 64

B Right to act legally on behalf of oneself or one’s family 65

1                Right to act legally in civil cases 65

2                 Right to bring criminal charges 66

3       Right to bring an action over a family member’s freedom 68

4                 Right to bring an action for the public welfare 69

C A sister seeks to avenge her brother's murder 69

D Women as defendants or witnesses 70

VI   Women in public life: restrictions and responsibilities                     71

AThe importance of status 71

B Prohibitions on holding public office 74

C Wealthy women and munera 74

2     Marriage in Roman law and society                                                       81

I   Marriage and its consequences in classical Roman law                      81

AThe purpose and nature of marriage 81

1                What is marriage? 81

2                 What makes a marriage valid? 82

B The Augustan marriage legislation 83

C Preliminaries to marriage: age, betrothal, and consent 88

1                Age 88

2                 Betrothal 88

3                 Consent 89

D Dowry 91

1                Dotal pacts and the purpose of dowry 91

2                 Providing a dowry 92

3                 The dowry during marriage 95

4                 Recovery of dowry after marriage 97

E Gifts between spouses and a married woman's property 98

1                The ban on gifts between husband and wife 98

2                 Women’s property within marriage 101

II  Marriage and its consequences in late Roman law                            102

A Repeal of the Augustan penalties on ce linacy l.b3

B Paternal power and consent to marriage 104

C Pre-nuptial gifts, arrhae sponsaliciae, and dowry 110

III   Marriage contracts from Egypt and the Near East                          122

A Marriage contracts from Roman Egypt            1^12

1                A synkhoresis from Alexandria 123

2                 Abstract of an alimentary contract from Tebtunis 125

3                 A Latin marriage contract 126

4                 A mother gives her daughter in marriage 127

5                 The marriage of two embalmers 129

6                 A husband moves in with his wife and her father 129

B Marriage agreement from the “Cave of Letteas” 131

C Marriage contract from Dura Europos 133

3     Prohibited and non-legal unions                                                            136

I   Prohibited and non-marital unions in classical law                           136

A Jorobibion^ns based o n ninship ip6

1                Parent-child and sibling marriage 136

2                 Uncle-niece and aunt-nephew marriage 137

3                 Former slaves and incestuous marriage 138

4                 Legal consequences of incestuous marriage 139

5                 Diocletian’s edict against close-kin marriage 140

B Non-marital unions based on social status 143

1                Slave unions and slave-free unions 143

2                 The senatusconsultum Claudianum 145

3                 Unions between women and their freedmen 146

4                 Unions between senators and former slaves 148

5                 Concubinatus (concubinage) 150

C Other prohibitions 154

1                Unions between citizens and non-citizens 154

2                 Marriage between tutor and pupilla 156

3                 Marriage between imperial officials and locals 157

4                 Marriage of soldiers while in service 158

5                 Marriage to two women simultaneously 160

II  Prohibited and non-marital unions in late antiquity                         161

A Probibitions based o n ninship 161

B Prohibitions based on status 166

1                Expansion of the Augustan prohibitions 166

2                 Concubines 170

3                 Free men and slave women 173

4                 Free women and slave men 176

D Other prohibitions 184

4     Divorce and its consequences                                                                 187

I   Divorce in classical law                                                                      187

A Definition and causes of divorce 187

B Sending a notice of divorce 189

C Return of dowry after divorce 191

D Freedwomen and divorce 192

E Divorce and patria potestas 195

1                A father's right no break ep his child's marriage 195

2                 Children after divorce 198

II  Divorce in late Roman law                                                                  202

III   Divorce in Egypt and the Near East                                                  210

A Divorcé documents from Roman Egyp t 210

1                A synkhoresis from Alexandria 211

2                 A wife's complaint 212

3                 A divorce agreement from Tebtunis 212

4                 A grave-digger's divorce 213

5                 A late fourth-century divorce agreement 214

6                 A mother's complaint against her son-in-law 215

B A divorce from Dura Europos 217

5     Widows and their children                                                                    219

name=bookmark82>I   Remarriage in Roman law                                                                   220

A Legally imposed dcleys iai remarriage 220

B Remarriage and inheritance 223

II  Widows and the guardianship of fatherless children                        236

A lo-loHi^s and tutela (guardianship) in Roman law 236

1                The obligation to request a guardian 236

2                 Guarding the guardians 240

3                 Mothers as guardians 242

B Mothers and guardians in the Greek East 248

1                Appointment of guardians 248

2                 A mother brings suit against her son's guardians 250

3                 Mothers as guardians 254

4                 A guardian mother defends her children's interests 257

III  Pregnant widows                                                                               261

A Surveillance of pregnana widows 261

B Inheritance rights and the supposititious child 264

C Pregnant widows in the papyri 267

Summation. The condition of women:

rights and restrictions                                                                             270