Continuation in the East (ad 476-1453)
(1) The Eastern Empire
Although the Western Empire had fallen, the Eastern Empire continued. From this time onwards the Eastern Empire is often referred to as the Byzantine Empire, and indeed this was a very different place from what the Western Empire had been.
For one thing, the dominant language was Greek rather than Latin. For another, it was wealthier and more economically developed than the West, facts which probably help to explain the East's survival when the West fell. Nonetheless, the eastern emperors themselves claimed continuity with Rome.(2) Justinian
For legal history, by far the most important of the eastern emperors was Justinian
I, in whose reign and on whose instructions the great compilation of legal materiÂals known as the Corpus luris Civilis (‘Body of the Civil Law') was produced. The Corpus luris Civilis will be considered in detail in Chapter 3,[76] but something must be said about Justinian now.
Justinian was born at Tauresium (now Taor, a village in North Macedonia) in approximately AD 482. His was a provincial background, not connected to the elites of the society into which he was born. Unlike them, he was a native speaker of Latin rather than of Greek. His uncle, however, rose from the army to become emperor in 518, as Justin I. Justin adopted his nephew,[77] and declared him co-emperor in 527. When Justin died later that year, Justinian became sole emperor, and remained so until his death in 565.
Justinian was a man of enormous ambition for renovatio imperii (‘renewal of the Empire'), with the activity to match. As a religious reformer, he attempted to recÂoncile different factions in the Church. He also ordered the construction of the great cathedral of Constantinople, the Hagia Sophia. In the military sphere, his generals, Narses and Belisarius foremost among them, led his armies in reconÂquering much of the Western Empire, including Rome itself.
In Chapter 3,[78] we will meet Justinian's great administrator, Tribonian, who was responsible for managing the creation of the Corpus luris Civilis·.One thing that clearly emerges from Justinian's life is that he had a great talent for surrounding himself with able people, who could be trusted to carry out the tasks he gave them. Foremost among his circle, though, was his wife, Theodora. A former actress, she was his support during times of weakness. When major riots broke out in Constantinople in 532 (the Nika riots), it was Theodora who persuaded Justinian to stay in the city and be resolute in dealing with the situaÂtion, rather than fleeing as he had initially been minded to do. A great deal of the credit forJustinian’s achievements is due to her.
(3) Later History and Fall
The Eastern Empire was a major power for many centuries, but the overall story was one of decline, as it was gradually forced back on all sides. Justinian’s achievements turned out on the whole to be simply a temporary respite. By the middle of the seventh century, Byzantine power had been pushed back in the Balkans by Slavic settlement, and in the south by the Arabs. Although much was recovered between the ninth and eleventh centuries, this was only temporary. In 1204, Constantinople itself was sacked by crusaders, although it was later recovered. By the middle of the fifteenth century, the Empire consisted of little more than Constantinople itself. It finally fell to the Ottomans in 1453.
Chapter Summary
The Empire is itself divided into two periods. In the first, the Principate (27 BC—AD 284), attempts were made to preserve the appearance of Republican government, and the political dominance of the emperor was partially disguised by constitutional forms. Weaknesses in this system, and in particular with the issue of succession to the role of emperor, came to a head during the third century and brought about the transition to the Dominate in AD 284.
During this period, the Republican forms were dispensed with, and the emperor was openly proclaimed as master (dominus) of the Roman world. The Dominate continued until the fall of the Western Empire in AD 476. The Eastern Empire continued until 1453.Further Reading
Reading on Roman history is not difficult to come by. A very good general guide, with references to further reading, is L and R A Adkins, Handbook to Life in Ancient Rome (Oxford University Press 1994). Particularly recommended for their legal perspective are H F Jolowicz and B Nicholas, Historical Introduction to the Study of Roman Law 3rd edn (Cambridge University Press 1972), T G Watkin, An Historical Introduction to Modern Civil Law (Ashgate 1999) chapters 1—3, and G Mousourakis, The Historical and Institutional Context of Roman Law (Ashgate 2003).
An excellent way of learning more about Roman history is to listen to some of the many podcast series that are available in this area. As a sample of what is available, two very informative, accessible and entertaining podcast series on Roman history are the Partial Historians (https://partialhistorians.com/) and Totalus Rankium (https://totalusrankium.podbean.com/). The BBC Radio programme In Our Time also features Roman topics from time to time.