The Central Role of Education for Democracy
An important - and preliminary - issue to discuss involves the goal of education, in particular, whether this should be [136] directed towards enhancing economic growth or democracy.
Education is certainly important for growth[137] - and we focused on this objective in a number of points earlier - but this is not its only possible relevant effect.Remaining within this objective of education, it must be realised that a whole range of institutions can perform the role of enhancing growth. To be sure, Lucas' explanation of comparative growth focuses on differential patterns of learning by doing and human capital accumulation together with openness of the country (Lucas 1993). However, comparing the growth paths of Korea and the Philippines in the last fifty years, as initially done by Lucas, Acemoglu and Robinson (2015b), shows that education should be complemented by cohesive social relations and an effective role of the state. In any event, education can play an important role (Acemoglu, Johnson and Robinson 2005).[138]
With reference to the more general issue of the goals of education, growth or other ends, Lauder (1991) has criticised the diffusion of education concerned with providing notions that ensure economic efficiency as opposed to an education system tending to offer the grid references of a democratic (while economically sophisticated) society. The Bologna Declaration on higher education, dated 1999, tends to pursue as its main end an objective suitable for the Lisbon Strategy of making Europe the most competitive area in the world, which was launched the year after. This contradicts the Universal Declaration of Human Rights of 1948 (see United Nations General Assembly 1948) as well as the UNESCO Declaration of 1998 (UNESCO 1998) and the project launched by the European Council itself in 1999 for making the universities sites of citizenship with the aim to educate for democracy and to promote citizenship (Council of Europe, Committee of Ministers 1999).
Contrary to the pragmatic orientation of the Bologna Declaration, some authors underline the need to consider a more general target for education. Zgaga (2009) asks for recognition of the full range of the educational purposes. Attention for less-endowed pupils in basic education and other features of the education system can be important for innovation and growth, as well as for the democratic development of a society. From this point of view, the Finnish public comprehensive system is exemplary. It is able not only to offer high-quality education that can be used by firms and other organisations for innovation and growth (Finland is at the top of innovative systems) but also to increase the development of human capabilities and the flexibility of the society (Miettinen 2013).
Englund (2002), Rajapakse (2016) and many other authors emphasise the democratic potential of the university system. From this point of view, one should first reflect on the fact that the true limit of democracy is the initial inequality in the distribution of income and wealth and, more generally, in the status of different persons. These can shape people's orientation in political attitudes, limit their aspirations and make the poor and other disadvantaged groups accept their status and limit their aspirations. In this way, the dominant sections of the population ensure continuation of injustices and inequalities, even in an apparently ‘democratic' environment.
Education can play an important role in the process of breaking the perpetuation of the initial state and empowering the democratic process. In fact, according to Sen, it is central to the capability approach, being crucial to well-being. As Walker and Unterhalter (2007) underline, Nussbaum - whose interest in education dates back at least to 1997 - identifies three key capabilities associated with education: critical thinking, the ideal of world citizenship and the development of narrative imagination.
Nussbaum (2010) is clear on the role that education can play in forming students as responsible citizens, able to think and choose with respect to issues relevant to the country they live in and the entire world.
In particular, they should be able to understand the motivation of power groups and contrast them in a way that democracy can prevail over hierarchy. In order to do this, the roots of the struggle - inner to each person - between respect, compassion and the need for equity across different people, gender, religion and race, on the one hand, and greed and aggressiveness, on the other, should be understood. Thus, education, far from being some kind of indoctrination, should instead open people's minds towards both their inner qualities and inclinations and respect for other people.[139]This requires nourishing the ability of students to look at different points of view to develop their sense of responsibility as well as their sensitivity to others, together with critical knowledge, the more so the more open and composite the society is. In order to accomplish this task, educating the population to reason is essential, not superfluous, as if the mission of education was to maximise economic growth. The latter, in fact, could require a completely different approach, of a pragmatic type.
There is a long tradition in both Western and Oriental philosophy that argues in favour of education promoting critical learning by students and respect for others. In the Western tradition, it can be dated back first to Socrates, then to Rousseau and, more recently, to Dewey and many other philosophers and pedagogues. In the Indian tradition, Tagore's school has been famous for following a very similar track.
Walker (2003) supports Nussbaum's position but favours an approach where the reality of today's education is taken into account. The theory of desirable changes as suggested by the capability approach should enlighten the changes to introduce in due time almost as an effect of a dialectic ‘rolling’ of theory and practice. The outcomes of empirical research are not univocal on the relationship between education and democracy. However, in most cases, a positive correlation has been found.
14
7.5