Communication as a Process
Research that adopts a process perspective focuses on the development of interrelated patterns of communication and conflict over time. Thus, communication shapes the very nature of conflict through the evolution of social interaction.
Rather than examining message categories as variables that shape outcomes, scholars investigate the relationships among these messages, the patterns derived from these relationships, and the role of communication in constituting conflict. Research that embraces a process approach falls into four arenas: (1) serial arguing, (2) sequential patterns, (3) phase and stage research, and (4) issue development.Serial Arguing. A growing body of literature examines the nature of serial arguments in interpersonal relationships. Serial arguments are repetitive conflicts on a single topic over a period of time without resolution. These patterns become predictable and dysfunctional, typically resorting to a demand/withdrawal pattern of communication (Roloff & Reznik, 2008). Demand/withdrawal occurs when one party nags or demands and the other withdraws or avoids the conflict (Caughlin, 2002; Caughlin & Scott, 2010). Both serial arguing and demand-withdrawal patterns influence relational quality and increase stress after conflict episodes (Malis & Roloff, 2006).
Sequential Patterns. Serial arguments and demand-withdrawal patterns operate from a focus on action-reaction patterns or cueresponse sequences that become predictable over time and define the nature of a conflict (Putnam, 1985). Three major types of patterns surface in these relationships: (1) reciprocal, (2) opposite, and (3) complementary (Olekalns & Smith, 2000). Reciprocal patterns stem from matching the other person’s tactics, potentially leading to a lengthy cycle; thus, a threat would follow a threat, a rejection would follow a rejection statement, and so on.
This pattern fosters the development of selfperpetuating cycles or serial arguments that can spiral out of control as a conflict gains momentum. Research across a wide array of contexts demonstrates that stalemates, noagreement situations, and distressed interactions arise from reciprocity in contentious communication patterns that evolve into conflict cycles (Donohue et al., 1984; Gottman, 1979; Krueger & Smith, 1982; Putnam & Jones, 1982a; Sillars, 1980b). Studies have replicated this important finding that reciprocity in contentious or competitive communication escalates conflict (Brett, Shapiro, & Lytle, 1998; Olekalns & Smith, 2000; Weingart, Prietula, Hyder, & Genovese, 1999).
In contrast, disputants also develop reciprocity in cooperative, problem-solving communication that fosters productive conflict. Specifically, couples who match each other’s use of metacommunication, statements of concern, supportive messages, or multi-issue offers developed constructive patterns of communication and conflict (Krueger & Smith, 1982; Olekalns & Smith, 2000). Scholars observe that these patterns are hard to sustain; however, they are more likely to occur when disputants display knowledge of effective conflict management tactics or when negotiators have a cooperative orientation (Weingart et al., 1999).
Responding to the other party with an opposite move alters the development of a tight reciprocal pattern, especially an escalating one. For example, giving information or making a procedural comment in response to the other party’s use of a contentious tactic may reduce the development of a conflict cycle (Donohue et al., 1984; Olekalns & Smith, 2000; Putnam & Jones, 1982a). Research on marital conflicts also reveals that normal couples as opposed to distressed ones respond in a variety of ways to contentious situations (Donohue, 1991; Krueger & Smith, 1982).
Two other patterns that deter the development of escalating conflict cycles are the use of complementary tactics and linguistic style matching.
A complementary tactic balances a partner’s typical response. For example, marital couples develop complementary tactics when one of the pair asserts dominance and the other responds with a submissive reaction (Bavelas et al., 1985; Ting-Toomey, 1983). Labor-management negotiators engage in a complementary dance through balancing each other’s offensive-defensive approaches (Donohue et al., 1984; Putnam & Jones, 1982a). These complementary patterns parallel a concept known as linguistic style matching, which refers to the way that negotiators coordinate their word use throughout conflict interaction. High degrees of linguistic style matching sustain rapport development and foster coordination, which, in turn, results in successful outcomes in hostage negotiations (Taylor & Thomas, 2008).In effect, research on sequential interaction patterns reveals that communication influences the nature of conflict. That is, reciprocal interactions take conflict in either a constructive or a destructive direction, while using an opposite tactic de-escalates a conflict spiral. Relying on complementary patterns and linguistic style matching also buffers against conflict escalation and fosters satisfactory agreements.
Phase and Stage Development. An extension of the work on sequential message patterns is the research on phases and stages of conflict development. Phases are lengthy constellations of sequential patterns that form coherent structures (Holmes, 1992). Studies of conflict phases reveal that particular communication patterns cluster into stages that develop over time. Research in this area initially embraces linear models of development in which the disputants pass through one stage before moving into the next one. Other studies suggest that conflict is characterized by multiple, cyclical phases and that dyads and groups often skip particular phases or cycle through them multiple times (Holmes, 1992).
Phase development in negotiation initially posited separate stages of conflict activity, often testing a three-phase (Douglas, 1962) or an eight-stage model (Gulliver, 1979).
Theorists believed that distributive and integrative processes in negotiation occurred in distinct stages, often related to labor-management or buyer-seller role specializations (Putnam, 1990; Putnam, Wilson, & Turner, 1990). Current research, however, suggests that bargainers moved back and forth through distributive and integrative processes and that dyads who keep both processes distinct are less likely to reach agreements than are the ones who mix them (Olekalns, Brett, & Weingart, 2003; Olekalns, Smith, & Walsh, 1996). Specifically, the use of reciprocal sequences during the second half of an employment negotiation was more predictive of joint profits (Liu, 2011). Overall, alignment and adjustment of negotiator’s strategies across phases, especially during process shifts, influence the quality of agreements (Olekalns & Weingart, 2008). These patterns depict a negotiation dance in which influence sequences and reciprocal information-sharing sequences lay the groundwork for mutual gains, especially in the first two stages of negotiation (Adair & Brett, 2005). As a metaphor, negotiation dance refers to the alignment of positions, concession making, and empathy as parties engage in tactical interactions and in the rhythm and flow of conflict (Young & Schlie, 2011). In effect, adaptation in negotiation, especially for cross- cultural interactions, is an emergent process in which negotiators discover each other’s approaches, interpret each other’s goals, and gradually move in sync.Research on phase development in crisis negotiations employs phase mapping to examine simulated and authentic hostage negotiations. While simulated negotiations develop in patterns that resembled Gulliver’s eight stages, authentic cases are less orderly and unorganized (Holmes & Sykes, 1993). Events outside of the negotiation, such as changing negotiators or talking with family members, influence negotiation development in actual hostage situations.
Rogan and Hammer (1995) reported that message affect increases during the initial contact stage and decreases as the interaction moves into a relational development stage. In suicide and domestic cases, however, message affect becomes increasingly negative and erratic as the negotiation progresses.In mediation sessions, phase patterns distinguish between successful and unsuccessful sessions. Specifically, in successful interactions, mediators excel in eliciting information by using extensive summaries, reframing the disputants’ defensive arguments, maintaining control of the process, and generating proposals, especially during Phases 2 and 3. In the latter stages of the mediation, successful mediators employ fewer structuring statements and rule enforcement behaviors, while mediators in no-agreement sessions increase their use of these tactics and make more process comments when they should have concentrated on solutions and agreements (Donohue, 1991; Donohue, Weider-Hatfield, Hamilton, & Diez, 1985; Jones, 1988).
Overall, communication scholars have made substantial contributions to deciphering the patterns of conflict development over time. Different studies reveal similar patterns, even across contexts, particularly as to the way reciprocal contentious tactics lead to conflict cycles and the use of opposite, complementary, and linguistic matching styles to de-escalate these patterns. Even though phase research is primarily descriptive, it also demonstrates important findings as to the types of tactics that disputants employ early as opposed to later in a conflict’s development.
Process research has extended our knowledge of the microprocesses that escalate or de-escalate a conflict. Prior to this work, conflict scholars viewed escalation as primarily a perceptual concept linked to in-group/out-group relationships, stereotyping, and distortion (Pruitt, Rubin, & Kim, 1994). Communication scholars have demonstrated how reciprocity of contentious microbehaviors leads to conflict spirals and how using the opposite or a complementary tactic potentially buffers the development of this cycle. Studies of conflict development over time also yield important findings about the linearity and dimensionality of these patterns.