Preferred Outcome

A major contribution of co-cultural theory to existing theoretical work on culture and communication is the recognition that not all traditionally marginalized group mem­bers strive toward assimilation into dominant group norms; other alternatives like accommo­dation and separation also exist (Orbe, 1996).

A contact hypothesis suggests that increased exposure to diverse groups will, over time, lead to better intergroup relations (Stephan & Stephan, 2001). Several conditions are nec­essary for this to occur, however, including equal-status interactions, common goals, and commitment to humanity. Given this, it is no surprise that existing research has established that when individuals have contact without these conditions, the result is increased nega­tive perceptions of those from different racial and ethnic groups (Tzeng & Jackson, 1994). Co-cultural theory suggests that preferred out­come is informed by past experiences, direct or indirect, with those who are racially/ethni- cally different (Orbe, 1998a). Future research can explore the sense-making processes that result in rigid or flexible preferred outcomes for various contexts of interracial/interethnic conflict.

Conclusion

Given current and future demographic shifts of racially and ethnically diverse groups in the United States, the topic of interracial/intereth- nic conflict undoubtedly will continue to gain importance for both researchers and practitio­ners. While such conflict managed effectively can have positive effects on long-term inter­racial and interethnic relations (e.g., Hoffman, 1990), this is not the case when issues regard­ing race are not adequately addressed (Allen, 1995; Donahue, 1985). According to Waters (1992), “race-based conflicts undermine orga­nizational unity, sap energy and motivation, create tensions, and, if not handled properly, lead to further feelings of hostility and resent­ment” (p. 439). Successfully negotiating racial and ethnic conflict and establishing peace in interracial encounters can be very challenging (Ross, 2000). This is especially the case when educational training approaches do not meet the needs of the population that is being served (see Stephan & Stephan, 2001, for a con­ceptualization of programmatic approaches). Within this final section, we discuss how this challenge can best be met by understanding the inseparable overlap between research and practice.

The most effective research informs, and is informed by, everyday practice (Orbe, 2003/2004). To avoid privileging research over practice, we must also acknowledge that the most effective everyday practices inform, and are informed by, research. In this regard, an important implication for the future of studies on race, ethnicity, and conflict revolves around the creation, implementation, and evaluation

of projects that make a difference in com­munities outside of the academy.

In truth, the worlds of the practitioner-scholar and the research-scholar mutually reinforce and sustain each other” (p. 3).

The most effective means to address con­flict steeped in racial and ethnic tensions is at the grassroots level (Ross, 2000). Research consistently reveals that a sure avenue toward reducing interracial/interethnic conflict is through continuous, meaningful contact (Habke & Sept, 1993). This contact can lead to the breakdown of negative images and ste­reotypes that may be held by different racial and ethnic groups (Ross, 2000). Once authen­tic relationships can be formed, both parties need to be flexible in their communication along with realizing and acknowledging that there are differences, as well as similarities, between racial groups (Habke & Sept, 1993; Orbe, 2004). Recognizing that you might not understand characteristics of a certain group, resisting the tendency to impose your stan­dards on another racial/ethnic group, respect­ing how others may interpret things, and not overemphasizing differences are all ways to improve interracial interaction (Houston & Wood, 1996).

In closing, we acknowledge that many indi­viduals may regard the challenges inherent in both interracial/interethnic conflict and existing tensions between scholars and practitioners as insurmountable (Trujillo, 2002/2003). While we recognize such is the case for some of the barriers that must be overcome in the work that we advocate for within this chapter, we do so with three points in mind. First, conflict situated within racial and ethnic tensions will increase unless proactive, informed efforts are introduced at the community level. Second, the most effective means to address the issue of interracial and interethnic conflict is through the collaborative efforts of scholars and practi­tioners. Third, the base of knowledge cultivated through the field of human communication holds significant potential to assist in the trans­formation of our society. To meet our potential, we must recognize and address limitations within our own work, and in doing so, we gen­erate tremendous opportunities for all.