Tibetan Intergroup Strategies: Social Competition and Social Creativity
Tibetans, as a subordinate and less powerful group, have employed all three intergroup strategies: social mobility, social competition, and social creativity. While many Tibetans have used the social mobility strategy (prominent Tibetan communists leaders such as Ngapo Ngawang Jigme, Baba Phuntsog Wangyal, Chamdo Phagpa Lha, Jampa Phuntsok, and Pema Thinley), most Tibetans have employed social competition and social creative strategies to deal with the PRC.
Tibetan protests inside and outside Tibet (e.g., March 10, 1959, National Uprising, 2008 widespread protests across Tibet, a spate of recent selfimmolations inside Tibet, No Losar [Tibetan New Year] Protests) are clear expression of the social competition strategy for their voice to be heard. Recently, there have been many young Tibetans (monks, nuns, and lay people) who have burned themselves to call for the PRC’s and international attention to the Tibetan issues such as freedom in Tibet and return of the Dalai Lama to Tibet. These self-immolations may signify a new form of protest, given that the Sino-Tibetan conflict has continued more than five decades with no apparent end in sight. Presently, Tibetans inside Tibet have been under lockdown with heavy military presence and surveillance in response to a spate of the self-immolations (72+ self-immolated; 59 died to date, see www.tibet.net and www.phayul.com). These self-immolations possibly indicate both Tibetan desperation and determination to regain their freedom, rights, and return of the Dalai Lama to Tibet.These self-immolators have engaged in nonviolent resistance to challenge the PRC to change its repressive policies such as religious persecution and patriotic education to denounce the Dalai Lama. Critics may question if self-immolation is a nonviolent action, but from Buddhist point of view, these self- immolators did not intend to hurt or kill anyone, including Chinese soldiers, but make their ultimate sacrifice for their country, belief, and freedom.
Sopa Tulku, a well-known reincarnate Lama, is believed to have left a clear recorded message for his self-immolation: “I am giving away my body as an offering to chase away the darkness, to free all beings from suffering” (www.thedailybeast.com/articles/2012/03/26/ tibetan-buddhist-self-immolation-suicides-go- viral.html; March 26, 2012, para. 4, p. 2). At least, in his case, the motivation is to bring greater benefit to others and, therefore, his self-immolation is nonviolent (see Table 26.1). The Most Venerable Thich Quang Do, Vietnam’s Supreme Buddhist Patriarch, urging the world leaders to take urgent action, said in his open letter: “But there are moments when this ultimate gesture, that of offering one’s body as a torch of Compassion to dissipate darkness and ignorance is the only possible recourse” (see www.phayul.com, February 17, 2012, para. 6, p. 1).More than 50 years ago, Vietnamese Buddhist monks self-immolated themselves to protest against the Communist regime. Concerning this, in his open letter to Dr. King, dated June 1, 1965, Venerable Thich Nhat Hanh wrote,
The self-burning of Vietnamese Buddhist monks... is somewhat difficult for Western... conscience to understand. The Press (speaks) of suicide, but in the essence, it is not To burn oneself by fire is to prove
that what one is saying is of the utmost importance. There is nothing more painful than burning oneself. To say something while experiencing this kind of pain is to say it with the utmost of courage, frankness, determination and sincerity.......................................... The monk
who burns himself has lost neither courage nor hope; nor does he desire non-existence. On the contrary, he is very courageous and hopeful. (www.aavw.org/special_features/ letters_thich_abstract02.html, Letters, Thich Nhat Hanh, n.d., para. 1)
In contrast, Tibetan Youth Congress’s fight for Tibetan independence (not for genuine Tibetan autonomy) and burning PRC flag are hardcore social competition strategies.
However, the Dalai Lama and CTA’s MWA exemplifies social creativity strategy because it engages conflict parties to work with each other instead of against each other. Specifically, it involves recategorization and superordinate goals to address and resolve Sino-Tibetan issues (see below). Both social competition and social creative strategy represent group- oriented strategies because their outcomes affect status of conflict parties (e.g., Tibetan nationality and the PRC). Next section discusses MWA-D as social creativity strategy.