Contents
Part I Parliament
1 Unicameral or Bicameral Parliaments........................................................... 3
Albrecht Weber
1.1 Overview of the External Organisational Structure
of Parliaments...................................................................................................
31.1.1 Historical Context and Function........................................... 3
1.1.2 Structural Approach............................................................. 4
1.2 Monocameral Parliaments.................................................................... 4
1.3 Bicameral Parliaments.......................................................................... 8
1.4 Remarks.............................................................................................. 12
References....................................................................................................... 18
2 The Deputy................................................................................................... 21
Wolfgang Babeck
2.1 Status of a Deputy: The Free Mandate, Its Limitation and
Protection....................................................................................................... 21
2.1.1 Overview over the Status of a Deputy............................ 21
2.1.1.1 Free Mandate, Incompatibility, Loss of
Mandate................................................................................................................. 22
2.1.1.2 Purpose and Function of the Rules................. 22
2.1.1.3 Historical Context........................................... 23
2.1.1.4 Related Topics................................................. 24
2.1.1.5 Structural Approach and Guiding
Questions...............................................................................................................
252.1.2 Details of the Clause....................................................... 25
2.1.2.1 Is the Mandate Free or Imperative?............. 25
2.1.2.2 Is the Mandate (In)compatible with Other
Occupations?........................................................................................................ 28
2.1.2.3 Does the Constitution Provide for the
Deputy’s Salary?................................................................................................... 31
2.1.2.4 Does the Constitution List Causes That
Lead to a Loss of the Mandate?............................................................................. 32
2.1.2.5 Are the Rules Regulated in the Constitution or by National Laws?... 35
2.2 The Deputy: Immunity and Indemnity............................................... 36
2.2.1 Overview over Immunity and Indemnity............................ 36
2.2.1.1 Definition......................................................... 37
2.2.1.2 Purpose and Function of Immunity and
Indemnity............................................................................................................... 37
2.2.1.3 Legal Nature/Character.................................... 38
2.2.1.4 Historical Context............................................ 38
2.2.1.5 Structural Approach and Guiding
Questions............................................................................................................... 38
2.2.2 Details of the Clause........................................................... 38
2.2.2.1 Is Indemnity Guaranteed at All?..................... 38
2.2.2.2 What Is the Scope of Indemnity?..................... 39
2.2.2.3 Are There Exceptions for Certain
Crimes?.................................................................................................................. 42
2.2.2.4 Is There a Temporal Limit of
Indemnity?............................................................................................................
432.2.2.5 Is Immunity Guaranteed at All?....................... 44
2.2.2.6 What Is the Scope of Immunity?..................... 45
2.2.2.7 Is There a Temporal Limit to
Immunity?............................................................................................................. 48
2.2.2.8 Can Immunity/Indemnity Be Lifted?.... 49
2.2.2.9 Can a Court Review the Decision?.............. 53
References....................................................................................................... 54
3 Political Parties and Thresholds............................................................... 55
Wolfgang Babeck
3.1 Rules Around Political Parties............................................................ 55
3.1.1 Overview of the Clauses Referring to Political
Parties.................................................................................................................... 55
3.1.1.1 Definition, Purpose and Function of
Political Parties...................................................................................................... 56
3.1.1.2 Historical Context............................................ 56
3.1.1.3 Procedural Questions...................................... 57
3.1.1.4 Structural Approach and Guiding
Questions.............................................................................................................. 57
3.1.2 Details of the Clauses Concerning Political Parties... 57
3.1.2.1 Qualification as Political Party........................ 58
3.1.2.2 Protection of Political Parties.......................... 59
3.1.2.3 Ban and Dissolution....................................... 63
3.1.2.4 Party Financing................................................ 65
3.1.2.5 Necessity of a Constitutional Rule
Concerning Political Parties................................................................................... 66
3.2 Election Thresholds Including Allocation of Non-counting
Votes..............................................................................................................
693.2.1 Overview of the Threshold Clause...................................... 69
3.2.1.1 Definition......................................................... 69
3.2.1.2 Historical Context and Purpose of a
Threshold Clause................................................................................................... 69
3.2.1.3 Disadvantages of a Threshold Clause.... 69
3.2.1.4 Structural Approach and Guiding
Questions............................................................................................................... 70
3.2.2 Details of a Threshold Clause in a Constitutional
System................................................................................................................... 70
3.2.2.1 Majority System....................................... 70
3.2.2.2 Proportional System................................ 71
3.2.2.3 Level of the Threshold.............................. 72
3.2.2.4 Does the Threshold Apply to Parties or Party
Coalitions?..................................................................................................... 73
3.2.2.5 Exemptions to Support Regionally Strong
Parties................................................................................................................... 74
3.2.2.5.1 Option 1: (Alternative)
Threshold on District Level.. 74
3.2.2.5.2 Option 2: No Application of Threshold if Party Wins Several Seats in
a Constituency....................................................................................................... 75
3.2.2.6 Allocation of “Wasted” (i.e. Unallocated)
Votes...................................................................................................................... 78
3.2.2.7 Regulation on Constitutional Level or by
Ordinary Law?....................................................................................................... 80
Electoral Laws Referred to in This Chapter 81
References.......................................................................................................
824 Internal Organisation of Parliament and Role of the Opposition... 85
Wolfgang Babeck
4.1 Overview of the Organisation of Parliament (Speaker,
Praesidium, Committees, Factions and the Opposition)................................. 85
4.1.1 Historical Context............................................................... 86
4.1.2 Purpose and Function of Parliament.................................. 87
4.1.3 Procedural Questions.......................................................... 88
4.1.4 Structural Approach and Guiding Questions...................... 89
4.2 Details of the Clauses..................................................................... 89
4.2.1 The Speaker........................................................................ 89
4.2.2 The Presidium..................................................................... 90
4.2.3 Committees......................................................................... 94
4.2.4 Faction................................................................................ 95
4.2.5 Opposition.......................................................................... 98
4.2.5.1 Constitutional Establishment of the Main
Principles............................................................................................................ 101
4.2.5.2 Status of Members of Parliament................... 101
4.2.5.3 Financial Resources of Factions..................... 102
4.2.5.4 Non-parliamentary Actors............................. 102
4.2.5.5 Allocation of Positions
of Responsibility.................................................................................................. 103
4.2.5.6 Procedural Decisions Within
Parliament............................................................................................................ 103
4.2.5.7 Allocation of Speaking Time......................... 104
4.2.5.8 Amendments by the Opposition
to Proposed Bills.................................................................................................
1044.2.5.9 Qualified Majorities for Bills......................... 104
4.2.5.9.1 Participation by the Opposition in the Appointment of Senior
Office Holders...................................................................................................... 105
4.2.6 Detail of Regulation......................................................... 106
References..................................................................................................... 107
5 Investigative Committees and Inquisitorial Rights..................................... 109
Wolfgang Babeck
5.1 Investigative Committees.................................................................. 109
5.1.1 Overview of the Investigative Committee......................... 109
5.1.1.1 Definition....................................................... 109
5.1.1.2 Historical Context.......................................... 110
5.1.1.3 Function......................................................... 110
5.1.1.4 Caveat: Limits of the Function......................... Ill
5.1.1.5 Procedural Questions.................................... 111
5.1.1.6 Structural Approach and Guiding
Questions............................................................................................................ 111
5.1.2 Details of the Clause Concerning Investigative
Committees......................................................................................................... 112
5.1.2.1 How Can the Parliament form an
Investigative Committee?..................................................................................... 112
5.1.2.1.1 What Organ Is Responsible
for the Formation?............................................................................................... 112
5.1.2.1.2 What Majority Is Required?.. 112
5.1.2.2 What Is the Subject and Scope of the
Investigation?....................................................................................................... 114
5.1.2.3 How Is the Committee Composed?............ 116
5.1.2.4 What Rights and Limits of Investigation or
Intervention Does the Committee Have?.. 117
5.1.2.4.1 General Powers.......................... 117
5.1.2.4.2 Exceptions and
Prerequisites........................................................................................................ 120
5.1.2.5 How Do the Findings Relate to the
Judiciary?............................................................................................................. 121
5.1.2.6 When and How Is the Committee
Dissolved?........................................................................................................... 123
5.1.2.7 Regulation on Constitutional Level or by
Ordinary Law?..................................................................................................... 124
5.2 Inquisitorial Rights........................................................................... 126
5.2.1 Overview of Inquisitorial Rights....................................... 126
5.2.1.1 Definition....................................................... 126
5.2.1.2 Historical Context......................................... 127
5.2.1.3 Function........................................................ 127
5.2.1.4 Structural Approach and Guiding
Questions Concerning Inquisitorial
Rights.................................................................................................................. 128
5.2.2 Details of the Clauses Concerning Parliament’s
Inquisitorial Rights.............................................................................................. 128
5.2.2.1 Right of Questioning...................................... 128
5.2.2.1.1 Overview................................... 128
5.2.2.1.2 Written Enquiries...................... 129
5.2.2.1.3 Institutionalized Regular
Question Time..................................................................................................... 129
5.2.2.1.4 Means of Enforcing the Right
of Questioning..................................................................................................... 130
5.2.2.2 Right of Interpellation.................................. 131
5.2.2.2.1 Overview.................................. 131
5.2.2.2.2 Initiation Threshold................... 132
5.2.2.2.3 Addressee.................................. 133
5.2.2.2.4 Duty to Personally Attend... 133
5.2.2.2.5 Obligation to Respond............ 134
5.2.2.3 Allowed Scope of Questions......................... 134
References..................................................................................................... 135
6 Legislation................................................................................................... 137
Albrecht Weber
6.1 Overview.......................................................................................... 137
6.2 Legislative Initiative........................................................................ 138
6.2.1 Detailed Provisions........................................................... 138
6.2.2 Remarks........................................................................... 139
6.3 Reading of Laws............................................................................... 147
6.3.1 Detailed Provisions........................................................... 147
6.3.2 Remarks.......................................................................... 147
6.4 Solution of Bicameral Conflicts........................................................ 151
6.4.1 Detailed Provisions........................................................... 151
6.4.2 Remarks.......................................................................... 151
6.5 Approval and Control of Legislative Acts....................................... 156
6.5.1 Detailed Provisions........................................................... 156
6.5.2 Remarks.......................................................................... 156
6.6 Parliamentary Reservation and Delegated Legislation................... 16 1
6.6.1 Overview....................................................................... 16 1
6.6.2 Parliamentary Reservation............................................. 162
6.6.3 Remarks......................................................................... 1 63
6.6.4 Delegated Legislation..................................................... 167
6.6.5 Remarks......................................................................... 1 68
References.................................................................................................. 174
Part II President
7 The Presidential Office: Qualification, Election and Term........................ 179
Wolfgang Babeck
7. 1 Qualification and Oath.......................................................................... 179
7.1.1 Overview of the Presidential Qualifications
and Oath.............................................................................................................. 179
7.1.1.1 Definitions..................................................... 179
7.1.1.2 Historical Context......................................... 180
7.1.1.3 Qualification Clause...................................... 180
7.1.1.4 Oath............................................................... 181
7.1.1.5 Potential of Misuse........................................ 181
7.1.2 Structural Approach and Guiding Questions and
Qualifications....................................................................................................... 182
7.1.2.1 Age Restrictions............................................ 182
7.1.2.2 Citizenship..................................................... 184
7.1.2.2.1 Citizenship Requirements... 184
7.1.2.2.2 Controversy “Natural-Born”.. 185
7.1.2.2.3 Term Citizenship
“By Origin”.......................................................................................................... 186
7.1.2.2.4 Citizenship Requirements for
Relatives............................................................................................................. 186
7.1.2.3 Residence...................................................... 187
7.1.2.4 Right to Vote and Eligibility.......................... 187
7.1.2.5 Education and Religion.................................. 189
7.1.2.5.1 An Issue in Poor and Religious
Countries............................................................................................................. 189
7.1.2.5.2 Recommendation for a
Democratic Society.............................................................................................. 191
7.1.2.6 Incompatibilities............................................ 192
7.1.2.6.1 Ineligibility................................ 192
7.1.2.6.2 Other Reasons for
Incompatibility.................................................................................................... 192
7.1.2.7 Possible Solutions to Prevent Misuse and
Negative List.............................................. 194
7.1.2.8 Clause to Restrict Amendments..................... 194
7.1.3 Oath.................................................................................. 194
7.2 Election of the President................................................................... 196
7.2.1 Overview.......................................................................... 196
7.2.1.1 Definition and Purpose of the Provision.. 196
7.2.1.2 Historical Context......................................... 196
7.2.1.3 Criteria for a “Good” Election Clause.... 197
7.2.2 Procedural Questions........................................................ 197
7.2.3 Structural Approach......................................................... 197
7.2.4 Details of the Election Clause....................................... 198
7.2.4.1 When Does the Election Take Place?.... 198
7.2.4.2 How Are the Candidates Pre-selected?... 199
7.2.4.3 Direct or Indirect Election?............................ 201
7.2.4.4 In Case of an Indirect Election, Which Body
Elects the President?............................................................................................ 202
7.2.5 Which Majority Is Required To Be Voted
into Office?.......................................................................................................... 203
7.2.6 Is There a Minimum Turnout Rate?.................................. 205
7.2.7 What Happens if the Candidate Does Not Obtain the
Required Majority?.............................................................................................. 206
7.2.8 Supplementing Provisions................................................ 207
7.3 Duration of Presidential Term.......................................................... 208
7.3.1 Overview.......................................................................... 208
7.3.1.1 Definition....................................................... 208
7.3.1.2 Purpose and Function of the Rule............ 208
7.3.1.3 Historical Context......................................... 208
7.3.2 Structural Approach and Guiding Questions.................... 210
7.3.3 Details of the Clause Concerning the Duration
of Office............................................................................................................... 210
7.3.3.1 Is a Limitation of the Duration of Office at
All Required?...................................................................................................... 210
7.3.3.2 Which Duration Is Advisable?....................... 210
7.3.3.3 Is a Limit of Possible Re-elections
Advisable?........................................................................................................... 212
7.3.3.4 Limited Number of Re-elections After
Regular Election into Office................................................................................. 213
7.3.3.5 Limited Number of Re-election After Not
Being Elected into Office...................................................................................... 215
7.3.3.6 How Many Re-elections Should Be
Possible?.............................................................................................................. 215
7.3.3.7 Should There Be Exemptions from the Limit
of Re-elections?.................................................................................................... 216
7.3.4 Eternal Guarantee............................................................ 218
7.3.5 Conclusion........................................................................ 219
References..................................................................................................... 220
8 Presidential Powers and Veto Rights.......................................................... 223
Wolfgang Babeck and Albrecht Weber
8.1 Competencies of the President.......................................................... 223
8.1.1 Overview and Structural Approach.................................. 223
8.1.2 Various Functions of the President................................... 224
8.1.2.1 Guardian and Guarantee Functions............ 224
8.1.2.2 Control of Constitutionality of State
Action.................................................................................................................. 225
8.1.2.3 Remarks......................................................... 225
8.1.2.4 Guarantee Function in Times of Crisis... 227
8.1.2.5 Remarks........................................................ 228
8.1.2.6 Arbitral and Mediation Function................... 231
8.1.2.7 Executive Functions....................................... 232
8.1.2.8 Remarks........................................................ 232
8.2 Countersigning................................................................................. 235
8.2.1 Overview.......................................................................... 235
8.2.1.1 Definition....................................................... 235
8.2.1.2 Purpose.......................................................... 235
8.2.1.3 Historical Context......................................... 235
8.2.1.4 Structural Approach and Guiding
Questions............................................................................................................ 236
8.2.2 Details of the Clause......................................................... 236
8.2.2.1 Does the Article Feature a Positive or
Negative Nature?................................................................................................. 236
8.2.2.2 Who Is the Person to Countersign?............. 237
8.2.2.3 What Are the Consequences of No
Countersignature?................................................................................................ 238
8.2.2.4 What Are the Exceptions from
Countersignature?................................................................................................ 238
8.2.2.4.1 Ceremonial Prerogatives........... 238
8.2.2.4.2 Protector of the State and
Constitution......................................................................................................... 240
8.2.2.4.3 Organisation of Office............. 242
8.2.2.4.4 President as Mediator............. 242
8.2.2.5 Executive Powers........................................... 243
8.3 Veto Powers.................................................................................... 243
8.3.1 Overview of the Presidential Veto Powers....................... 243
8.3.1.1 Definition....................................................... 244
8.3.1.2 Purpose and Function of the Rule................. 244
8.3.1.3 Historical Context......................................... 245
8.3.1.4 Procedural Questions.................................... 246
8.3.1.5 Structural Approach and Guiding
Questions............................................................................................................ 246
8.3.2 Details of the Clause Relating to the Veto Right.............. 247
8.3.2.1 Absolute or Suspensive Veto Power............. 248
8.3.2.2 Limitations of the Veto Power...................... 248
8.3.2.3 Effects of the Exercise of the Veto.............. 249
8.3.2.4 Legislative Overriding Procedures................ 250
References..................................................................................................... 252
9 Dissolution of Parliament and Impeachment of President........................ 255
Wolfgang Babeck
9.1 Dissolution of Parliament................................................................. 255
9.1.1 Overview of the Dissolution of Parliament....................... 255
9.1.1.1 Definition....................................................... 256
9.1.1.2 Purpose and Function of the Rule............... 256
9.1.1.3 Historical Context.......................................... 257
9.1.1.4 Procedural Questions..................................... 257
9.1.2 Details of the Dissolution Clause...................................... 258
9.1.2.1 Should Parliament be Immune from
Dissolution by the Executive?.............................................................................. 258
9.1.2.2 Which Organ Should Be Able to Dissolve
Parliament?.......................................................................................................... 259
9.1.2.3 In What Circumstances Should the Right
of Dissolution Be Exercised?............................................................................... 260
9.1.2.4 Which Limitations and Restrictions
Should Be Provided?.......................................................................................... 262
9.1.2.5 Which Constitutional Organ(s) Should
Be Involved in the Dissolution?........................................................................... 263
9.2 Impeachment.................................................................................... 266
9.2.1 Overview of the Impeachment Clause............................... 266
9.2.1.1 No Anti-impeachment Clause........................ 266
9.2.1.2 Historical Context and the Unsuitable
Example of the US Constitution.......................................................................... 267
9.2.1.3 Additional Considerations for Presidential
Systems................................................................................................................ 268
9.2.1.4 Procedural Questions..................................... 268
9.2.1.5 Structural Approach and Guiding
Questions............................................................................................................ 268
9.2.2 Details of the Impeachment Clause................................... 269
9.2.2.1 Which Officials Aside from the President
Can Be Impeached?............................................................................................. 269
9.2.2.2 Organ and Majority to Initiate
Impeachment Process........................................................................................... 270
9.2.2.3 No Immediate Substitution of the
President.............................................................................................................. 272
9.2.2.4 What Constitutes the Misconduct?............. 272
9.2.2.4.1 What Right of Defence Is
Vested in the Constitution?.. 274
9.2.2.4.2 Does a Court Review the
Alleged Misconduct and Are
Those Findings Binding?.... 275
9.2.2.5 Decision Making: What Organ(s) and
Majorities Are Required to Impeach the President?............................................. 276
9.2.2.6 Who Replaces the Impeached Person?... 280
9.2.2.7 Timeframe Between Procedural Steps and
Limitations to Impeachment................................................................................ 281
References.................................................................................................... 282
Part III Government
10 Government................................................................................................ 287
Wolfgang Babeck and Albrecht Weber
10.1 Role and Function of Government.................................................... 287
10.2 Governmental Leadership and Organisation.................................... 289
10.2.1 Prime Minister/Minister-President/Chancellor............... 290
10.2.2 Principles of Organisation: Departmental-Collegiate
Principle.............................................................................................................. 291
10.3 Appointment and Dismissal of Government.................................... 294
10.3.1 Overview.......................................................................... 294
10.3.1.1 Historical Context.......................................... 295
10.3.1.2 Structural Approach and Guiding
Questions............................................................................................................. 296
10.3.2 Details of the Clauses....................................................... 296
10.3.2.1 Appointment of the Head
of Government..................................................................................................... 296
10.3.2.2 Dismissal of the Head of Government
and of Individual Ministers.................................................................................. 298
10.3.2.3 Separation of Appointment from Selection
of Candidate........................................................................................................ 301
10.3.2.4 Forming Government in Case of Uncertain
Majorities............................................................................................................ 302
10.3.2.5 Timeframes When Forming
Government........................................................................................................ 305
10.3.2.6 Detail of Appointment/Dismissal
Clauses................................................................................................................ 305
10.4 Vote of Confidence Clause............................................................ 308
10.4.1 Overview of the Vote of Confidence Clause..................... 308
10.4.1.1 Definition....................................................... 308
10.4.1.2 Purpose and Function of the Rule............... 308
10.4.1.3 Norm Addressee............................................ 309
10.4.1.4 Legal Nature/Character.................................. 309
10.4.1.5 Historical Context.......................................... 309
10.4.1.6 Procedural Questions.................................... 311
10.4.1.7 Structural Approach and Guiding
Questions............................................................................................................ 311
10.4.2 Details of the Vote of Confidence Clause......................... 311
10.4.2.1 Why Do Many Parliamentary Democracies
Have a Vote of Confidence?............................................................................... 311
10.4.2.2 Who Has the Power to Initiate a Vote of
Confidence?......................................................................................................... 313
10.4.2.3 What Organ(s) Are Required to Initiate the
Vote?................................................................................................................... 313
10.4.2.4 What Are the Prerequisites for Invoking a
Vote of Confidence?............................................................................................ 314
10.4.2.5 What Majority Is Needed?............................. 315
10.4.2.6 What Are the Time Limits of the Vote?.. 316
10.4.2.7 What Are the Legal Consequences of
a Vote of Confidence?.......................................................................................... 317
10.4.2.7.1 A. Resignation
of Government..................................................................................................... 318
10.4.2.7.2 B. Dissolution
of Parliament....................................................................................................... 318
10.4.2.7.3 C. New Elections....................... 319
10.5 Vote of No Confidence Clause.......................................................... 319
10.5.1 Overview of the Vote of No Confidence Clause............... 319
10.5.1.1 Definition....................................................... 319
10.5.1.2 Purpose and Function of the Rule............... 319
10.5.1.3 Norm Addressee............................................. 321
10.5.1.4 Legal Nature/Character.................................. 321
10.5.1.5 Historical Context.......................................... 321
10.5.1.6 Procedural Questions..................................... 322
10.5.1.7 Structural Approach and Guiding
Questions............................................................................................................ 322
10.5.2 Details of the Clause......................................................... 323
10.5.2.1 How Is the Vote of No Confidence
Initiated?.............................................................................................................. 323
10.5.2.2 Who Is Subject to the Vote of No
Confidence?........................................................................................................ 323
10.5.2.2.1 A. Government as a Whole or
the Head of Government.... 323
10.5.2.2.2 B. Individual Ministers........... 324
10.5.2.2.3 C. Other Subjects....................... 326
10.5.2.3 What Are the Procedural Criteria of the
Vote?................................................................................................................... 326
10.5.2.3.1 A. Formal Requirements
of the Vote........................................................................................................... 326
10.5.2.3.2 B. Majority Required for the
Vote of No Confidence...................................................................................... 327
10.5.2.3.3 C. Further Procedural Requirements of the Vote/
Exclusion Criteria............................................................................................... 328
10.5.2.4 What Are the Time Limits of the Vote?.. 330
10.5.2.5 How Does Third Power Intervention
Verify the Vote of No Confidence?................................................................... 331
10.5.2.6 What Are the Consequences of a Vote of
No Confidence?................................................................................................... 332
10.5.2.6.1 A. Consequences of a
Successful Vote of No Confidence Against an
Individual Minister.............................................................................................. 332
10.5.2.6.2 B. Overview of Consequences
After a Successful Vote of No Confidence Against the Government as a Whole or the
Head of Government......................................................................................... 333
10.5.2.6.3 C. Resignation or Removal of
the Government................................................................................................... 333
10.5.2.6.4 D. Dissolution of Parliament
and Re-Elections.................................................................................................. 336
10.5.2.6.5 E. Constructive Vote of No
Confidence........................................................................................................... 337
10.5.2.6.6 F. Timeframe for
Consequences...................................................................................................... 338
References.................................................................................................... 339
Part IV Judiciary
11 Constitutional Courts: Supreme Courts................................................. 343
Albrecht Weber
11.1 Overview of Constitutional Jurisdiction and Judges.......................... 343
11.1.1 Introduction...................................................................... 343
11.1.2 Normative Status.............................................................. 345
11.1.3 Nomination of Judges: Organs and Election...................... 346
11.1.4 Remarks............................................................................ 346
11.1.5 Independence of Judges..................................................... 350
11.1.5.1 Duration of Office.......................................... 352
11.1.5.2 Remarks......................................................... 352
11.1.5.3 Irrevocability................................................. 356
11.1.5.4 Remarks......................................................... 359
11.1.5.5 Indemnities/Immunities.................................. 360
11.1.5.6 Remarks........................................................ 360
11.1.5.7 Incompatibilities............................................ 360
11.1.5.8 Remarks......................................................... 362
11.2 Competences of Constitutional/Supreme Courts............................. 362
11.2.1 Abstract Control of Norms.............................................. 363
11.2.1.1 Retroactive Control (“a posteriori”).............. 364
11.2.1.2 Preventive Control (“a priori”)...................... 364
1 1.2.2 Diffuse and Centralized Judicial Review of Norms... 364
1 1.2.2. 1 Historical Context and Definition............... 364
11.2.2.2 Centralized Judicial Review........................... 369
11.2.2.3 Mixed Models................................................ 369
11.2.2.4 Remarks......................................................... 372
11.2.2.5 Decentralized Judicial Review (“Diffuse
Review”).............................................................................................................. 373
11.2.2.6 Remarks......................................................... 373
11.2.3 Individual Complaints: Popular Complaints (“Actio
Popularis”).......................................................................................................... 375
11.2.3.1 Overview....................................................... 375
11.2.3.2 Remarks......................................................... 376
11.2.4 Conflict of Competences................................................... 380
11.2.4.1 Introduction................................................... 380
11.2.4.2 Remarks......................................................... 381
11.2.5 Control of Elections, Mandates, Referenda...................... 381
11.2.5.1 Overview....................................................... 381
11.2.5.2 Remarks......................................................... 385
11.2.6 Protecting the Constitution............................................... 385
11.2.6.1 Overview....................................................... 385
11.2.6.2 Remarks........................................................ 388
References.................................................................................................... 390
12 General and Special Jurisdictions and Public Prosecution....................... 393
Albrecht Weber
12.1 Overview of General and Special Jurisdictions................................ 393
12.1.1 Definition.......................................................................... 394
12.1.2 Establishment of Courts and Appointment
of Judges............................................................................................................. 394
12.1.2.1 Establishment of Courts............................... 395
12.1.2.2 Remarks........................................................ 395
12.1.2.3 Appointment of Judges.................................. 402
12.1.2.4 System of Appointment................................. 402
12.1.2.5 Remarks........................................................ 403
12.1.2.6 Relevance of Political Forms of State
on the Appointment............................................................................................ 406
12.1.2.7 The Role of Self-Governing Bodies
(“High Councils of Judges”)................................................................................ 406
12.1.2.8 Independence of Judges................................. 409
12.1.2.9 Budget of the Judiciary.................................. 410
12.1.2.10 Remarks......................................................... 410
12.2 Public Prosecution Service................................................................ 416
12.2.1 Overview.......................................................................... 416
12.2.2 Remarks.......................................................................... 417
References.................................................................................................... 422
Part V Territorial Structure
13 Territorial Structure................................................................................... 427
Albrecht Weber
13.1 Overview: Terms and Definitions..................................................... 427
13.1.1 Typology.......................................................................... 428
13.1.2 Structural Approach Relating to Territorial
Structures............................................................................................................ 429
13.2 Details of the Territorial Structures.............................................. 434
13.2.1 Unitary Systems............................................................... 434
13.2.2 Remarks Relating to Unitary Systems........................... 444
13.2.3 Regionalised Systems....................................................... 446
13.2.4 Remarks Relating to Regional Systems......................... 446
13.2.5 Federal Systems................................................................ 447
13.2.6 Remarks Relating to Federal Systems........................... 447
13.2.7 Local Government............................................................ 450
13.2.8 Remarks Relating to Local Government........................ 450
References.................................................................................................... 452
Part VI State of Emergency
14 State of Emergency..................................................................................... 457
Wolfgang Babeck
14.1 Overview of the State of Emergency................................................. 457
14.1.1 Definition.......................................................................... 457
14.1.2 Purpose and Function of the Rule..................................... 458
14.1.3 Norm Addressee............................................................... 459
14.1.4 Historical Context and Corona Virus Responses.......... 459
14.1.5 Structural Approach......................................................... 462
14.2 Details of the State of Emergency Clauses.................................... 463
14.2.1 Types of Emergency Rule................................................. 463
14.2.2 Procedure for Declaring the State of Emergency............ 464
14.2.3 Substantive Requirements................................................ 467
14.2.3.1 Shift of Competencies During
Emergency.......................................................................................................... 467
14.2.3.2 Protection and Limitation of Human
Rights.................................................................................................................. 469
14.2.3.3 Important Restrictions................................... 469
14.2.3.4 Effective Period of the State
of Emergency...................................................................................................... 473
14.2.4 Legal Consequences.......................................................... 474
14.2.5 Legislative Control............................................................ 475
14.2.6 Judicial Review................................................................. 476
14.3 Remarks........................................................................................... 477
14.3.1 Specification of the Emergency........................................ 477
14.3.2 Notification....................................................................... 479
14.3.3 The Principle of Non-derogation or Limitation of
Fundamental Rights............................................................................................. 479
14.3.4 The Principle of Proportionality....................................... 481
14.3.5 Supervision....................................................................... 482
14.3.6 Conclusion........................................................................ 482
References.................................................................................................... 483
Part VII Defence
15 Defence........................................................................................................ 489
Albrecht Weber
15.1 Military Forces: National Security Institutions................................. 489
15.2 Remarks to Status and Role of Military Functions........................ 490
15.3 Power of Military Command........................................................ 504
15.4 Power to Declare War or Emergency............................................. 505
15.4.1 Power to Declare War....................................................... 505
15.4.2 Emergency Powers........................................................... 505
15.4.2.1 Parliamentary Control of Emergency
and War Powers.................................................................................................. 506
15.4.2.2 Emergency Powers......................................... 507
15.5 Oversight of War Powers................................................................. 507
15.6 Remarks........................................................................................... 508
References.................................................................................................... 510
Part VIII Budget, Finance and Central Banks
16 Budget, Finance and Central Banks.......................................................... 513
Wolfgang Babeck
16.1 Budget Clause and Control Chamber............................................... 513
16.1.1 Overview of the Budget Clause........................................ 513
16.1.1.1 Definition....................................................... 513
16.1.1.2 Purpose and Function.................................... 514
16.1.1.3 Legal Nature/Character.................................. 514
16.1.1.4 Historical Context.......................................... 514
16.1.1.5 Procedural Questions..................................... 515
16.1.1.6 Structural Approach and Guiding
Questions............................................................................................................ 516
16.1.2 Details of the Budget Clause............................................. 516
16.1.2.1 Who Has the Right to Propose
the Budget?.......................................................................................................... 516
16.1.2.2 Who Needs to Approve of the Budget?... 517
16.1.2.3 Can Another Institution Amend the
Proposed Bill?..................................................................................................... 518
16.1.2.4 Absence of a Budget Before the New Fiscal
Term. Can an Emergency Budget Be
Enacted?.............................................................................................................. 521
1 6. 1.2.5 What Can Be Done If the Expenses
Exceed the Budget?............................................................................................. 523
16.2 Taxes................................................................................................ 524
16.2.1 Overview of the Financial Constitution............................ 524
16.2.1.1 Definition....................................................... 524
16.2.1.2 Purpose and Function of the Rules............. 524
16.2.1.3 Ways to Generate Income.............................. 525
16.2.1.4 Sovereignties Regarding Taxes...................... 525
16.2.1.5 Supervision.................................................... 526
16.2.1.6 Historical Context.......................................... 526
16.2.1.7 Procedural Questions..................................... 526
16.2.1.8 Structural Approach and Guiding
Questions............................................................................................................ 526
16.2.2 Details of the Income Clause............................................ 527
16.2.2.1 Limitation of Public Debt............................... 527
16.2.2.2 Limitation on Burdening Citizens............... 530
16.2.2.3 Duration of Taxation..................................... 530
16.2.2.4 What Provisions Need to Be in the
Constitution?....................................................................................................... 531
16.2.3 Details of the Control Chamber Clause........................... 531
16.2.3.1 Control and Revision of Expenses.............. 531
16.2.3.2 Scope of Review........................................... 532
16.2.3.3 Composition of the Control Chamber.......... 533
16.3 Central Banks................................................................................... 535
16.3.1 Overview.......................................................................... 535
16.3.1.1 Definition....................................................... 535
16.3.1.2 Historical Context......................................... 536
16.3.1.3 Structural Approach and Guiding
Question.............................................................................................................. 537
16.3.2 Details of the Central Bank Clause.................................. 538
16.3.2.1 National Bank as a Mandatory Part of the
Constitution......................................................................................................... 538
16.3.2.2 Scope of Provisions....................................... 538
16.3.2.3 Establishment Clause..................................... 539
16.3.2.4 Allocation of Powers..................................... 539
16.3.2.5 Executive Body.............................................. 539
16.3.2.6 Term of Office................................................ 542
16.3.2.7 Personal Qualification.................................... 542
16.3.2.8 Appointment of Board Members................... 543
16.3.2.9 Appointment of a Chairperson...................... 544
16.3.2.10 Accountability............................................... 547
16.3.2.11 Sublegal Reference......................................... 547
References.................................................................................................... 548
Part IX Referendum
17 The Referendum......................................................................................... 553
Wolfgang Babeck
17.1 Overview of the Referendum Clause................................................. 553
17.1.1 Definition.......................................................................... 555
17.1.2 Historical Context............................................................. 556
17.1.3 Purpose and Function of Referendums............................. 557
17.1.4 Procedural Questions........................................................ 558
17.1.5 Structural Approach and Guiding Questions.................... 559
17.2 Details of the Referendum Clause..................................................... 559
17.2.1 Is a Referendum Clause Required?.................................. 559
17.2.2 What Body Is Competent to Initiate a Referendum?.. 561
17.2.3 Which Body Has the Power to Determine the Scope
and Subject of the Referendum?.......................................................................... 565
17.2.4 What Topics Can Be the Subject of a Referendum?.. 566
17.2.5 What Are the Procedural Specifications for a
Referendum?....................................................................................................... 569
17.2.6 What Is the Regional Scope of a Referendum?.............. 572
17.2.7 What Are the Temporal Requirements of
a Referendum?.................................................................................................... 573
17.2.8 What Quorum Is Required for a Successful
Referendum?....................................................................................................... 575
17.2.9 Is a Referendum’s Outcome Binding?............................... 576
17.2.10 Is a Referendum’s Outcome Subject to Judicial
Review?.............................................................................................................. 578
References.................................................................................................... 580
Part X Amending the Constitution
18 Amendment Power..................................................................................... 585
Wolfgang Babeck
18.1 Overview of the Rule on Constitutional Amendments................. 585
18.1.1 Definition: Distinction Between Constitution-Making,
Constitutional Amendment and Transformation.............................................. 585
18.1.2 Chances and Risks of Rigid and Flexible
Constitutions....................................................................................................... 586
18.1.3 The Rules on Constitutional Amendment: Overview
of the Requirements............................................................................................. 587
18.2 Details of the Clause: Structural Approach and Guiding
Questions.................................................................................................... 588
18.2.1 Formal Requirements........................................................ 588
18.2.1.1 Organs and Majorities Required to Initiate
the Amendment................................................................................................... 589
18.2.1.2 What Organs and Majorities Are
Required to Adopt the Amendment?.................................................................. 591
18.2.1.3 Electoral System............................................ 594
18.2.1.4 Constitutional Development.......................... 594
18.2.1.5 Constitutional Referendum and
Alternatives........................................................................................................ 594
18.2.1.6 Timeframe for the Legislative Advice
and Adoption...................................................................................................... 595
18.2.1.7 Approval by (Mandatory/Optional)
Referendum......................................................................................................... 597
18.2.1.8 Method of the Textual Revision..................... 599
18.2.2 Substantive Requirements................................................ 600
18.2.2.1 Which Sections of a Constitution Are
Immutable?.......................................................................................................... 600
18.2.2.2 Amendment of the Rules on Constitutional
Amendments....................................................................................................... 605
18.2.2.3 Moratorium.................................................... 605
18.2.3 Involvement of the Constitutional Court......................... 606
18.3 Remarks....................................................................................... 608
References.................................................................................................... 609
Index................................................................................................................... 611