Appendix D: Instrumental variables for non-Solow growth determinants
| Variable | Instrument Study |
| Capital market imperfections Capital controls Capital controls Corruption | Degree of insider trading Bekaert, Harvey and Lundblad (2001) Lagged values McKenzie (2001) Lagged values Grilli and Milesi-Ferretii (1995) Ethnolinguistic Mauro (1995) fractionalization |
| Coups Defense variables | All variables (some lagged) Londregan and Poole (1990) Initial levels of investment, Guaresma and Reitschuler (2003) openness, military expenditure and GDP per capita |
| Democracy Demography - Urban concentration Economic freedom Education Male and female level Changes in attainment and female/male ratio | Various Tavares and Wacziarg (2001) Lagged values Henderson (2000) Lagged values Lundstrom (2002) Religion and civil Dollar and Gatti (1999) liberty measures Change in total Klasen (2002) fertility rate, educational spend/GDP, initial fertility level |
| Change and level Enterprise size | Kyriacou schooling data Krueger and Lindahl (2001) Legal origin, resource Beck, Demirguc-Kunt and Levine (2003) endowments, religious composition, ethnic diversity, and others |
| Finance Development | Legal origins and initial Demetriades and Law (2004) income |
| Competition Various indicators Depth | Legal origin Claessens and Laeven (2003) Initial values of same King and Levine (1993) “Legal origin” and lagged Levine, Loayza and Beck (2000) versions of all explanatory variables |
| Depth Depth | Consumption, GDP, and others Levine and Zervos (1998) Lagged versions of all Loayza and Ranciere (2002) explanatory variables |
| Various “factors” | Wide variety of initial values Rousseau and Sylla (2001) of regressors and initial inflation |
| Depth | Initial values of inflation and Rousseau and Wachtel (2002) financial depth |
| Variable | Instrument | Study |
| Gini coefficient | Number of municipal | Alesina and La Ferrara (2002) |
| Government change | townships in 1962, share of labor force in manufacturing in 1990, percentage of revenue from intergovernmental transfers in 1962 Lagged government change | Alesina et al. (1996) |
| Government expenditure | and variable reflecting composition change in the executive without a government change Various | Agell, Ohlsson and Thoursie (2003) |
| and taxation Health | ||
| Change in | Six variables for % | Gallup, Mellinger and Sachs (2000) |
| malaria | land coverage of type | |
| infection rate | of forest and desert | |
| Expenditure | Physicians, visits, dialysis, | Rivera and Currais (1999) |
| Inflation | insurance coverage, alcohol, over 65, beds Lagged explanatory variables | Li and Zou (2002) |
| Inflation | Initial values of inflation and | Rousseau and Wachtel (2002) |
| Infrastructure | financial depth Lagged values | Esfahani and Ramirez (2003) |
| Institutions | ||
| Various | Settler mortality rate | Acemoglu, Johnson and Robinson (2002) |
| Various | Historically determined | Acemoglu et al. (2003) |
| Various | component of current institutional quality Geographically determined | Alcala and Ciccone (2004) |
| Various and trust | component of trade as fraction of GDP and linguistic origins Lagged values | Keefer and Knack (1997) |
| Quality | Mortality rates and initial | Demetriades and Law (2004) |
| Manufacturing exports | income Lagged values | Calderon, Chong and Zanforlin (2001) |
| Religiosity | Presence of state religion, | Barro and McCleary (2003) |
| Social infrastructure | regulation of religion, indicator of religious pluralism, and others State antiquity | Bockstette, Chanda and Putterman (2003) |
| Social infrastructure | Distance from equator, fraction | Hall and Jones (1999) |
| Stock markets | speaking primary European language, fraction speaking English, Frankel and Romer’s log predicted trade share Lagged stock market activity | Harris (1997) |
| Variable | Instrument | Study |
| Technology gap (first difference) Trade | Lagged (second difference) | Hultberg, Nadiri and Sickles (2003) |
| As share of GDP | Geographically determined component of trade as fraction of GDP and linguistic origins | Alcala and Ciccone (2004) |
| Policy indices | Lagged values and others unreported by author | Edwards (1998) |
| Policy indices | Lagged values Geographically determined component of trade as fraction of GDP | Amable (2000) Frankel and Romer (1996, 1999) |
| Various - Log initial GDP, broad money to GDP, gov. expenditure to GDP | Lagged values | Rousseau (2002) |
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