Chinese Religions on Gender and Identity
It is indisputable that traditional China was patriarchal, paternalistic, sexist, and authoritarian, as were most other traditional civilizations and countries. The question is whether its religious beliefs and teachings were the cause.
In examining the teachings of Confucianism and Daoism, especially those articulated during the formative stage of the two traditions, one finds that the answer is no. It should be remembered that foundational to Chinese religions is the concept of yin-yang—the two qi that pervade all the myriad things. Yin and yang are understood to be symbiotic and mutually penetrative. Moreover, they are complementary instead of antagonistic or mutually exclusive. Gender identity, whether it is male, female, or LGBTQ, is understood to be the result of the variegated configurations of yin and yang in an individual. Male identity does not mean the sole and exclusive presence of yang, for yang does not, and cannot, exist in the absence of yin. Similarly, a female identity does not mean the sole and exclusive presence of yin either, for the exact reverse reason. And LBGTQ identities reflect the innumerable proportional combinations of yin and yang in the individuals involved. Hence the range of gender identities suggests no superiority or inferiority, conventional views of society notwithstanding.Chinese society has also long been nonegalitarian and oppressively hierarchical. Yet when the beliefs of its two indigenous religious traditions are examined—as we have done in this chapter—a strong sense of justice and equity can be detected. To be sure, the Confucian tradition does not assert equality in social status, as it is essentially elitist in its orientation. Yet this elitism is based on ethical worthiness, not on birth, wealth, or social-political standing. The emphasis is on equality of opportunity and personal improvement through moral education.
No one is deemed incapable of becoming ajunzi, or assured of being one automatically. Likewise, Daoism equally promises equity in the apprehension of the Dao and the achievement of spiritual and physical health, with no consideration given to gender or status.Furthermore, both traditions insist that there is an overarching authority that oversees human behavior to ensure ultimate justice. For the Confucians, Tian is an active will that calls on all to be personally righteous and to work toward the general improvement of the human community. For the Daoists, whether they are members of an organized movement or mere participants in communal rituals, the Dao in the form of an entire pantheon of deities rewards the just and metes out punishment to the wicked. Together, the two traditions inspire much proverbial wisdom among the Chinese, as shown in the following: “People will act, but Tian is watching,” “Tian casts its net wide; though the meshes seem big and loose, they let nothing slip through,” “People do not complain about the inadequacy of resources, they find fault with the inequity in their distribution,” and “There are gods and spirits hovering three feet above our heads [keeping watch over our thoughts and deeds].”
Ultimately, then, despite the many real and unjust features of traditional Chinese society, there is nothing in the basic teachings of Confucianism and Daoism that precludes gender equality and justice or prevents reforms in these areas.
Self-Assessment 8.3
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Chinese Religions in the Twenty-First Century
As we have argued in the preceding section, both Confucianism and Daoism have weathered serious challenges and threats to their very survival in the modern age. They have undergone soul-searching reflections on their core values and their relevance moving into the twenty-first century. They have rightfully reasserted their legitimate position in the family of world religions.
Yet they have displayed a uniquely nonsectarian posture toward each other, as well as toward other religions. It is not at all unusual to find Confucian-Daoists, or Daoist-Confucians, or, for that matter, Confucian-Daoist- Buddhists. Similarly, it is conceivable that one can be a Confucian-Christian or a Daoist- Jew. Neither Confucianism nor Daoism has initiation rites and member registers to reflect a reliable number of their respective adherents. For this very reason, any attempt to gauge even an approximate number of Confucians or Daoists can only be suggestive. Some world religions databases even fail to include Confucianism in their listing. Instead, they inexplicably refer to “Chinese ancestorism and folk religion” as a category, and give it a number of over 340 million adherents in a country of 1.3 billion people, a decidedly gross underestimate. Equally puzzling is the 2015 World Religion database figure of 8.7 million for Daoists. Nevertheless, no matter how imprecise the population figures for Confucianism and Daoism are, there is evidence that interest in Confucianism and Daoism, both as intellectual traditions and as practiced faiths, is growing. In this century and in centuries to come, both religions continue to be resilient and remain appealing to all who search for meaning and purpose in their spiritual lives.In this chapter, we have invited you to explore the religious world of the Chinese through a study of their two native religious traditions—Confucianism and Daoism. We have argued that Confucianism is not just a teaching of ethics and good government, but is in fact informed by a deep religious faith in an ultimate Absolute—Tian. Moreover, this faith mandates dedicated human effort to transform the individual and the world. Also documented is the historical unfolding of this tradition over the course of more than 2,000 years. At the same time, the ritual dimensions of this tradition have been described, ranging from the ornate and solemn state observations of the past to the simple familial ceremonies that are still practiced today.
As for Daoism, we have also shown that it is not confined to the metaphysical discussions of the Daodejing and the Zhuangzi, but rather is richly informed by an elaborate belief in the cosmological importance of the human body, a salvational message of communal redemption, and an abiding yearning for physical transformation and perfection. Moreover, we have examined the historical progression of this tradition as it meandered through the different periods in China. We have also documented the colorful ritual performance of Daoism in the community.
Both Confucianism and Daoism (along with a Chinese version of Buddhism and a syncretized amalgamation of the three teachings in the form of folk religion) have contributed to the shaping of the Chinese religious mindset. Both have experienced ups and downs in their respective history, at times being the dominant ideology of the realm and at times being eclipsed by other traditions in influence. Nevertheless, both have maintained their central importance to the Chinese people. Despite suffering a brutal critique and rejection in the twentieth century by the modern Chinese intellectual elite in the name of rationalism and egalitarianism, both have remained resilient among the common people. In fact, there are clear signs of their revival and rejuvenation at the dawn of the twenty-first century. Confucian values continue to inform Chinese familial ethics and social and political behavior, and Daoist concerns for the well-being of the human body and harmonious relationship with the spiritual world shape contemporary Chinese attitudes toward health, medicine, cuisine, and the environment. Indeed, these values and concerns have gone beyond the Chinese world to attain worldwide relevance.
As a final point, we have attempted to justify the inclusion of both Confucianism and Daoism in the study of world religions. Confucianism treats the fulfillment of the human potential as an ultimate aspiration. The tenacity with which Confucianism exhorts people to strive for human perfection in our mundane lives as a form of divine calling—thereby making the
secular sacred—demonstrates an interesting type of religiosity.
In addition, its assertion of human coequality with the divine offers an intriguing contrast with other religious traditions. Daoism is similarly a significant world religion. Its perception of the divine Absolute as a lifegenerating, feminine entity; its call for a harmonious coexistence between humans and nature; its emphasis on healthy improvement of the human body as a religious mission; and its promotion of communal cohesiveness through ritual participation make it all the more relevant in a postindustrial world. Both traditions fit the definition of religion suggested by Bruce Lincoln and discussed in Chapter 1 of this text. Both possess the four “domains” of discourse, practice, community, and institution.SEEKING ANSWERS
What Is Ultimate Reality?
Confucianism and Daoism share the same cosmological myth, inherited from ancient China. The natural world is not in a fallen state. There is no almighty creator, nor is there a demonic counterpart. There is no definite beginning of the world, and there is no predicted end. Instead, the world unfolds cyclically and operates like a pendulum, arcing between two extremes and alternating between two polar but complementing opposites. Human beings are not caught in a tug of war between good and evil, and the side they choose does not result in a permanent fate in paradise or hell. Emphasis is placed on balance, coexistence, and harmony.
How Should We Live in This World?
Both Confucianism and Daoism have inherited the ancient Chinese religious view regarding the human condition: human beings, like everything else in the cosmos, are the product of the interaction between yin and yang. There is no notion of any alienation from or disobedience of an almighty god; thus, there is an absence of sin. However, this does not mean that human beings are already perfect and need no improvement from their current state. A yawning gap still exists between human beings as they are and human beings as they should or can become.
For the Confucians, the right way to live is to live ethically, in accordance with the moral dictates of Tian. In concentric circles extending outward from the individual, moral behavior will transform the family, the community, and the world at large. “Do not do unto others what you do not want done to you” is the minimal moral guide for correct living in Confucianism. For the Daoists, the right way to live is to live healthily. To be sure, ethical behavior is part of desirable living, but Daoists also emphasize the human body as a microcosm reflecting perfectly the macrocosm of the cosmos. Thus, taking care of one’s body through both internal and external “alchemical” means is a way of living life properly in accordance with the Dao— indeed, it is the way of approaching the holy.What Is Our Ultimate Purpose?
Confucians and Daoists differ in their answers to this question. For the Confucians, humans are potentially perfect and inclined toward the good. Yet this potentiality and inclination need to be rigorously nurtured and developed through scholastic learning, moral introspection, and ethical behavior. Learning to be authentically human, to enact the “way” of Tian, is the way to improve the human condition and to perfect it. The highest achievement of human endeavor is to become the coequal of the divine ultimate —Tian.
Daoists regard humans on the same level as all the myriad things—they are all concrete expressions of the Dao, the ultimate Absolute. With no meddling from humans, the Dao maintains a spontaneous and perfect order. However, through their ignorance or negligence, humans meddle with nature and dissipate their primordial endowment of the vital energy, the qi, resulting in disharmony with nature and their vulnerability to disease and death. Consequently, the Daoist prescription for improving the human condition is to engage in exercises and rituals designed to replenish the body and the spirit, restoring its harmony with nature and making it once again as immortal as the Dao. Confucians and Daoists also diverge in their beliefs about what happens at the end of life. Confucius himself famously brushed aside a student’s inquiry on death. He just did not consider it an issue worthy of exploration. His priority was to pay exclusive attention to life and how to improve it. This “prejudice” has affected all subsequent Confucians, none of whom showed any strong interest in addressing death or its religious meaning. Even the Confucian practice of ancestor worship and respecting the dead can be explained as a way of bypassing the issue, as dead ancestors are treated very much as living members of the lineage and the family. Daoists, in contrast, confront the topic of mortality by emphasizing the possibility and desirability of immortality. Even with the appearance of death as inevitable, Daoists explain it as a stage of transformation to a higher plane of existence, a way of attaining true immortality. Thus, Daoists equally ignore the deeper meaning of death.
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REVIEW QUESTIONS
For Review
1. Why should the term Confucianism be used with caution? In what way may it be a misnomer?
2. How do Confucianism and Daoism define such terms as Tian, Dao, and de differently?
3. Why is Daoism more than the teachings of the Daodejing and the Zhuangzi?
4. Why is Confucianism a religious tradition despite its lack of concern for the afterlife?
For Further Reflection
1. In what ways do Confucianism and Daoism complement each other, and in what ways do they oppose each other?
2. Compare and contrast the Confucian notion of Tian with the Christian concept of God.
3. Compare and contrast the Daoist notion of Dao with the Hindu concept of Brahman.
4. Having examined Confucianism and Daoism, have you arrived at any conclusion regarding Chinese religiosity? How does it differ from that of other religious traditions?
Chapter 8 Self-Quiz
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x.
Chapter 8 Flashcards
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SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER READING
de Bary, William Theodore. The Trouble with Confucianism. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1991. A thought-provoking discussion of the “prophetic voice” in Confucianism.
Fingarette, Herbert. Confucius: The Secular as Sacred. New York: Harper Torchbooks, 1972. A creative interpretation of the Confucian notion of li as holy rites.
Gardner, Daniel K., trans. The Four Books: The Basic Teachings of the Later Confucian Tradition. Indianapolis, IN: Hackett, 2007. A handy translation of important excerpts from the scriptural corpus of Confucianism.
Gardner, Daniel K. Confucianism: A Very Short Introduction. New York: Oxford University Press, 2014. A pocket-size introduction to the Confucian tradition for beginners.
Kirkland, Russell. Taoism: The Enduring Tradition. London: Routledge, 2004. An impassioned monograph by a specialist to correct many of the misconceptions regarding Daoism and its history.
Kohn, Livia, ed. Daoism Handbook. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2000. A magisterial and encyclopedic collection of essays on various aspects of Daoism, ranging from history to schools to texts.
Schipper, Kristofer. The Taoist Body. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993. An authoritative discourse by an ordained Daoist priest on the rituals and practices of Daoism as they relate to the texts and teachings.
Sun, Anna. Confucianism as a World Religion. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2013. An authoritative monograph on the issue of Confucianism’s religious content and labeling.
Taylor, Rodney L. The Religious Dimensions of Confucianism. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1986. A convenient collection of mostly previously published essays by the author to argue for the religiousness of Confucianism.
Yao, Xinzhong. An Introduction to Confucianism. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2000. An authoritative basic text on the entire Confucian tradition.
Click here for more suggested readings, weblinks, and other media for this chapter.
ONLINE RESOURCES
Research Centre for Confucian Studies
cuhk.edu.hk/rih/confucian
This useful website for Confucian studies is maintained by the Research Center for Confucian Studies, Chinese University of Hong Kong. It contains a rich resource guide for Confucian studies.
The Daoist Foundation
daoistfoundation.org
The Daoist Foundation was created by two American academics who, having studied and practiced Daoism for many years, “are committed to fostering the flourishing of authentic and tradition-based Daoist practice, community, and culture with attentiveness to the needs and concerns of Western students.”
Center for Daoist Studies
daoistcenter.org
This useful website is the education and research branch of the Daoist Foundation.
Click here for web links to sacred texts.
LIST OF KEY TERMS
dan
dantian
Dao
Daodejing
Daozang
de
fangshi
Five Classics
Four Books
gui
jiao
iunzi
li
minq
neidan
neisheng waiwang gi ren
Ru
Shangdi
shen
shengren
shi
Tian
Tianming
Tianshi
waidan wuwei wuxing xian xiao xinzhai yang yangsheng
Ó²Ï zhai ziran zuowang