Conclusions
In conclusion, the petrographic examination and observations on craftsmanship of the altars provide important aspects of the small Levantine incense altars during the late eighth century BCE.
The petrographic analysis indicates the existence of two different sources of raw material. The presence of the imported limestone is possibly direct evidence for trade activity resulting in the transportation of raw material. The geographical location of Tell Halif, the source location of the imported raw material, and similar incense altars from other neighboring sites but from a somewhat later period, may point to the fact that the small incense altar phenomenon could have circulated through the broader southern Levantine trade network. The same network could have been responsible for transportation of the raw material for Obj. 3139 from the Maresha environs to Tell Halif.Importing raw material to Tell Halif supports production of incense altars at the site. The presence of the unfinished altars and/or the possibly discarded fragments substantiate very strongly this possibility. The local artisans at Tell Halif most likely produced the decorated incense altar with the locally available material and the unfinished one with the imported material. If the altars were locally produced, the existence of various levels of skill may suggest that multiple artisans or multiple workshops were responsible for local production of the incense altars. It seems that artisans with different levels of skill would have been familiar with general conventions and manufacturing processes of incense altars of the time. Since the Tell Halif incense altars are from the destruction layer attributed to Sennacherib’s invasion at the end of the eighth century BCE, they could be, therefore, precursors of other similar incense altars found in neighboring sites. We may consider that Tell Halif might have been one of the earliest sites to produce and use small rectangular incense altars.
To produce an incense altar following the convention, an entry-level artisan might have practiced individually or was trained by a master artisan.The points made above, along with the site's identification as a Judahite town, strongly suggest that Judahites at Tell Halif were responsible for manufacturing the incense altars found at the site. The local production of incense altars at Tell Halif is most likely related to domestic use. The proveniences of the incense altars and fragments in Field V may suggest their roles in personal or small group piety and/or ritual related to domestic production activities. That is to say, some cultic paraphernalia were produced at the site by the inhabitants in order to use them in various domestic cults.
All in all, despite the presence of minor variations, a specific and established conventional design of incense altars as well as manufacturing techniques strongly suggest that the incense altars were popular for domestic use. Since no other incense altars from other sites have gone through provenience analysis, we cannot discuss the places of origin of the raw materials for those incense altars or their production places. This petrographic analysis and the examination of the craftsmanship of the altars suggest that other altars should be subjected to the same analysis to determine their place of origin and production. The results would provide a better picture of the incense altar phenomenon in the southern Levant.