List of Illustrations

Candlelight vigils typically draw together people of different religious perspectives in times of sorrow as well as celebration.

William James defined religion as “the feelings, acts and experiences of individual men in their solitude.” This Orthodox Christian priest sits alone in the Amhara region of northwestern Ethiopia.

Religious affiliations of majority populations in the world today. Some countries have large populations of minority affiliations. In Germany, for example, there are nearly as many Catholics as Protestants.

At sites like this Confucian temple in Beijing, China, Confucius (Master K’ung) is honored for his enduring contributions to Chinese culture. Sound definitions of “religion” are flexible enough to include Confucianism as a religious tradition.

This painting, produced in 1810, depicts the Hindu deities Shiva and Parvati with their children, Ganesha and Kartikeya. Hindus believe in many gods and goddesses; these four —especially Shiva—are among the most popular.

Ka‘ba, Mecca.

Sixteenth-century triptych (altar painting) depicting the creation of Eve (center), the eating of the forbidden fruit (left), and the expulsion from the Garden of Eden (right). This story of humankind’s first sin sets forth basic biblical perspectives on the human condition.

Moses and the Burning Bush (1990), charcoal and pastel on paper by Hans Feibusch. In the drawing, God reveals himself to Moses in a bush that is on fire but not consumed by the flames. The event is described in Exodus, the second book of the Hebrew Bible (Old Testament).

Meditating Buddha, sixth century ce (Thai). Sculptures of the Buddha typically depict the serene calm of the enlightened state.

Devils Tower, located in northeastern Wyoming, is regarded as a sacred place by many Native Americans.

Bongeunsa Temple, founded in 794 ce, is surrounded by the ultramodern cityscape of Seoul, South Korea.

A miniature illustration from the “Automata of al-Jazari,” a Muslim scholar, inventor,

engineer, mathematician, and astronomer who lived from 1136 to 1206.

This photo from iqio shows several Cheyenne people gathered in preparation for a Sun Dance ceremony.

Indigenous peoples of North America that are discussed in this chapter.

This seventh- or eighth-century vase from Guatemala depicts scenes from the Popol Vuh.

Mount Shasta, in Northern California, is regarded as sacred by many tribes in the region.

The tipi, a typical structure of the peoples of the Great Plains, has a sacred blueprint. Each tipi can be understood as an image of the universe.

Navajo hogans are built to represent the Navajo lands and the cosmos.

Brian Melendez.

In Chichicastenango, Guatemala, Mayan men take part in a religious ceremony where saints are taken to the streets by members of religious brotherhoods.

A photograph of Wovoka (seated).

The Oceti Sakowin Camp at Cannon Ball, North Dakota, in January 2017. Campers were protesting the North Dakota Access Pipeline.

Maori man Kereama Òå Ua, who traveled from New Zealand to Standing Rock to perform this haka in solidarity with protesters.

Maori women performing a traditional haka at Standing Rock.

Navajo man preparing a sand painting.

Among Pueblo peoples such as the Hopi and Zuni, kachina dances are a type of renewal rite. When dancers wear the masks of the kachinas, they are thought to become imbued with the spirit of the kachinas. Kachinas have the power to bring rain and enhance fertility. This is a Hopi kachina doll, representing a kachina, from Arizona. The doll dates to before 1901 and is made of painted wood, feathers, and pine needles.

In North American religions from Mexico to Alaska, sweat lodge ceremonies ritually purify and cleanse the body. In these ceremonies, participants build an enclosed structure that is filled with heated stones.

The tipi, a typical structure of the tribes of the Great Plains, has religious significance.

This Hopi kachina doll from the twentieth century might be used to remind children of the qualities of the kachinas.

Competitive jumping can be part of the young Maasai warriors’ rite of passage ceremonies.

African peoples and cultures that are discussed in this chapter.

The prevalence of indigenous African religions today.

Sammy Letoole.

Festus Ogunbitan.

This picture of a Nuer homestead was taken by anthropologist E, E, Evans-Pritchard in the 19.30s.

A Benzedeira, or Brazilian traditional healer, tends to an altar in the temple that is also her home.

Among the Dogon, the dama is a rite of passage for young men, which also helps the recently deceased enter the state of being ancestors. The rite happens only once every several years, and masked participants dance to usher the recently deceased into the world of the spirits. The masks prepared for the dama are elaborately carved and represent animals and the mythical ancestors.

This early twentieth-century wooden tray is used to determine future events with the Ifa divination system, a part of Yoruba religion.

These nineteenth-century Yoruba sculptures from Nigeria commemorate twins who died. Twins are of great significance in many African religions, as among the Dogon, discussed in this chapter.

Palm nuts with a blue cloth bag, used by the Yoruba people for divination.

Two Orixas, or orishas, who possess the women, dance in their finery at a Candomble festival in Brazil held in their honor,

Bambuti woman and children in Uganda.

Maasai women often wear intricately beaded necklaces.

A Dogon masked dancer.

A Ganesha sculpture is about to be submerged at the seashore in Mumbai on the tenth and final day of Ganesh Chaturthi, a celebration of the elephant god’s birthday.

A photograph taken of a Hindu temple in Trinidad in 1931.

World Hindu population.

Shiva as Lord of the Dance fNataraja) performs his Five Activities: creation, represented by the drum in his upper right hand; preservation, signified by the positions of his lower right and left hands; destruction, symbolized by the fire in his upraised left hand; illusion, personified by the Demon of Forgetfulness crushed beneath his right leg; and liberation. offered by surrendering to his upraised left foot. Chola period, c. eleventh century. India, Tamil Nadu.

A Hindu devotee performs rituals as he takes a holy dip in Allahabad, India, at the confluence of the Ganges and Yamuna rivers, one of Hinduism’s important centers.

A sannyasi, or Hindu ascetic. His sectarian affiliation is indicated by his forehead marking, which demonstrates that he is a worshipper of Vishnu.

A Hindu ascetic sits in the lotus position, a prominent bodily posture for the practice of yoga.

The Hampi Bazaar in the southwestern Indian state of Karnataka. Hampi, home to an important archaeological site, is a sacred town where doorsteps and houses are decorated by ritual protective drawings.

Jayashree Venkatesan.

Hindu priests perform arati, waving a lamp of burning camphor before an image of Hanuman (the monkey god of the Ramayana 1 at a temple in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, during the festival of Diwali.

Rama and Lakshmana, with their army of monkeys and bears, are camped outside the palace of the demon-king Ravana on the isle of Lanka, while the demons try to rouse Kumbhakarna, the giant brother of Ravana. India, Mughal period, c. 1595-1605.

Krishna, in the guise of Arjuna’s charioteer, counsels the warrior on the verge of battle against his kinsmen. The battle scene in the Mahabharata is the setting of the Bhagavad Gita.

Accompanied by a legion of other goddesses and fierce creatures and riding a lion, Devi, in the form of the goddess Durga, protects the world by battling the buffalo demon Mahishasura.

A modem painting of the goddess Kali, whose name means both “Black” and “Time,” dancing on the body of Shiva. From the Indian state of Odisha.

Significant sites in the history of Hinduism.

The Proto-Shiva seal. The male figure, sometimes called the “Lord of the Animals,” is surrounded by various totemic animals, such as an elephant, a tiger, a rhinoceros, a water buffalo, and two antelopes or deer.

The great bath can be seen amid the mins of the ancient cityscape of Mohenjo-Daro, an important city of the Indus Valley Civilization. A towering granaiy can be viewed in the distance.

A yajna or fire sacrifice, one of the most archaic of Hindu rites, is performed by priests before an image of Durga during the Durga Puja festival in Kolkata, India.

Temple volunteers unveil a statue of Swami Vivekananda at the Hindu Temple of Greater Chicago, Saturday, July 11,1998, in Lemont, Illinois. The statue honors Vivekananda as “the first man to bring Hindu religion and the practice of yoga to America.”

Maharishi Mahesh Yogi.

In Hinduism, folding one’s hands and offering salutations by saying “Namaste” (nom-us- tay) is a simple way of giving a respectful greeting, as well as saying, “I bow to the divine in you.”

Hindu forehead markings: bindi, tripundra, and namam. Bindi (drop) is a decorative mark on the forehead signifying auspiciousness. An additional “dot” is often applied by married women to the top of the head where the hair is parted. The mark between the eyes signifies the “third eye” (perception beyond ordinary sight). Some forehead markings denote sectarian affiliation, such as the three horizontal lines worn by worshippers of Shiva and the vertical “V” of the worshippers of Vishnu. The red “drop” in the middle represents Lakshmi, the goddess of fortune.

The mandala (Sanskrit, “circle”) is a sacred device that varies in form and function: to map cosmology, to embody deities, to serve as talismans, or to facilitate meditative contemplation.

Clouds of incense billow from a censer as devotees pray before a multiarmed clay icon of Durga (upper center), Ganesha (lower left), and other deities. This is the final opportunity for darshan, as the icon is about to be dissolved by immersion into the Ganges River at the conclusion of the festival of Durga Puja. Kolkata, India.

The majestic gate of a Shiva temple in southern India is reflected in one of the two ritual bathing tanks found within its precincts. These towers are erected in the four directions and are often covered in sculptural imagery that refers to the sacred myths of the gods venerated within. Arunachaleswar Temple, Tiruvannamalai, India, eleventh century.

Hindu pilgrimage routes in India-

Fun and frolic characterize the spring festival of Holi, as participants mischievously smear colored powders or spray colored water on each other.

A performance in Mumbai, India, of Ram Lila, the very popular enactment of the Ramayana.

Buddhists offer alms to monks during a celebration of Vesak in Chiang Mai, Thailand. Significant sites of Early Buddhism.

Siddhartha cuts his hair. Mural depicting the life of Buddha, Jogyesa Temple, Seoul, South Korea,

“Calling the Earth to Witness.” According to tradition, the demon Mara afflicted the Buddha with powerful temptations to give up his quest for enlightenment. Ignoring them, the Buddha touched his right hand to the ground, thereby calling upon the earth to witness his unshakeable resolve. Immediately thereafter, he experienced nirvana.

Rock-cut reclining statue of the Buddha preparing to enter parinirvana, in a cave shrine at Ajanta, Maharashtra State, India. Fifth century ce.

Katherine Sei.

One of many marble slabs containing text and commentary from the Tipitaka or Pali Canon, Kuthodaw Pagoda, Mandalay, Myanmar (Burma).

Mahayana Trikaya diagram.

Gilded bronze sitting Maitreya icon. Maitreya (“Loving-kindness”) is the future Buddha. Like Rodin’s Thinker, he is seated on his throne in deep contemplation with his hand touching his chin. Three Kingdoms period, seventh century. National Museum, Seoul, Korea.

“Manjushri, Bodhisattva of Wisdom” appearing with the flaming sword of discrimination and a copy of the Prajnaparamita Sutras in the blooming lotus of enlightenment. Kopan monastery, Kathmandu, Nepal.

“The Laughing Buddha.” This form of Maitreya is popular in China, where his fatness symbolizes prosperity and joy. It is customary for Buddhists to rub his belly for good luck. Here, people try to improve their luck by touching an image of Maitreya during the New Year fair at the Huayan Temple on the Laoshan Mountain in Qingdao, China.

Frontispiece of the Diamond Sutra of Dunhuang, 868 ce. This manuscript is the oldest known printed book in the world; it appeared 587 years before the Gutenberg Bible,

A Nichiren Buddhist performs her devotions.

The Dalai Lama,

The Potala Palace in Lhasa, Tibet, was the winter home of the Dalai Lamas from 1649 until 1959.

Diffusion of Buddhism across Asia.

The Angkor Wat temple complex, Cambodia.

Avalokiteshvara peers out in all directions from the temple towers at Angkor Wat.

Borobudur Temple, Java, Indonesia, c, 800 ce. Here, one of the hidden statues of the Buddha is revealed. In order to see others, pilgrims would have to peer through holes in bell-shaped stupas, such as those visible in the background.

The earliest known image of the Buddha appears on the reverse of a coin minted by the second-century Kushan king, Kanishka I. Previously, the Buddha was depicted more as an absence than a presence, symbolized with images such as footprints or an empty chair.

World Buddhist populations.

A Cambodian monk at work on his computer,

Perna Chodron is an American-born Buddhist nun whose books describe skillful ways of dealing with everyday suffering.

Members of the Sacramento Dharma Center participate in a group mediation session.

A large contemporaiy image of the Walking Buddha in Thailand. Thai images often stylistically craft his right arm to represent the graceful swaying trunk of an elephant. Buddhists visiting the site of the Bodhi tree under which the Buddha is said to have attained enlightenment. This tree is likely a descendant of the original Bodhi tree. Bodh Gaya, India.

The Great Stupa of Sanchi, India. Early Andhra Dynasty, first century bee.

Father and child bathe an image of the Buddha as a baby in a Taipei temple during the April 2001 celebration of the Buddha’s birth in Taiwan.

Buddhist nuns with their begging bowls.

Prime Minister Abhisit offers Kathina robes to monks at a 2010 Kathina ceremony in Bangkok, Thailand.

The Buddha achieved enlightenment while seated beneath a fig tree that came to be known as the Bodhi tree (“Enlightenment Tree”). Here, monks gather at Bodh Gaya in India, the site of the Buddha’s enlightenment.

Before the Buddha himself was first depicted in works of art, Buddhists venerated his footprints, which symbolized his path into nirvana. The convention of venerating his footprints continues today.

Buddhists of all sects demonstrate their reverence for the Buddha by bowing and prostrating themselves. Some show reverence while walking to a sacred site by bowing or prostrating themselves every step of the way.

As in Hinduism and Jainism, the lotus in Buddhism is a symbol of both purity and enlightenment.

In Vajrayana Buddhism, monks spend weeks constructing sand mandalas such as the Avalokiteshvara Mandala shown here. The sacred image will then be swept toward the center and destroyed as a reminder of the impermanence of all things.

Jains worship in a temple at Ranakpur, India. Splendid marble temples such as this are a common feature of the Jain tradition.

Significant sites in the development of Jainism.

Sculpture of Mahavira in the cave temples of Ellora, India,

Sandstone sculpture of Parshva, the tirthankara most commonly depicted in Jain art.

Countries with significant Jain populations (all figures are approximate, as estimates vary widely).

Members of Jains of America march in a parade in New York City.

Jain ascetics and impressive religious monuments, such as this nun on pilgrimage at Shravanabelagola, are common sights in India. Through its diaspora population of some 275,000 people, Jainism also has a significant presence outside of India.

Girish Shah.

Jain emblem. The emblem’s outline represents the loka, or universe. The swastika (a Sanskrit term implying “well-being”) is an ancient and common symbol in various religious traditions. Jainism among them; its four arms represent the four realms of life (heavens, human realm, animal realm, and hells). The hand represents ahimsa.

Tirthankara. Sculptures of tirthankaras, like this one of Rishabha, whom Jains revere as the first of the current world cycle, are objects of Jain worship.

Whisk. Shown here with a book of Jain scripture, the whisk is used by ascetics to clear away, and thus to protect, insect life. It symbolizes ahimsa.

A Jain monk wearing the muhpatti in order to prevent unnecessary harm to airborne insects.

The Dilwara Temple on Mount Abu in the state of Rajasthan is famous for its exquisite, delicate carvings and architectural design.

Shatrunjaya, a hill near the town of Palitana, India, and for centuries an important Jain pilgrimage site, features 865 temples of various sizes and styles.

The five Sikh men who participate in the Amrit Sanchar represent the original “Beloved Five” in commemoration of the founding of the Khalsa.

Significant sites in the history of Sikhism.

Sikhs pay homage to Guru Nanak, the founder of Sikhism, in a crowded room in Lahore, Pakistan.

A Sikh reads from Sri Guru Granth Sahib, here occupying its customary place on a cushion within a gurdwara.

Gurbaj Singh Multani (right) wears a ceremonial dagger, known as a kirpan, after a news conference on Parliament Hill in Ottawa on March 2, 2006. Multiculturalism and religious freedom trumped safety concerns in a Canadian Supreme Court decision that allows orthodox Sikh students to carry traditional daggers to school.

A woman prays at the Golden Temple in Amritsar, India.

Manmohan Singh, who served as India’s Prime Minister from 2004 to 2014, the first Sikh to do so, joins a celebration of the 350th birth anniversary of Guru Gobind Singh on

December 24, 2017, in Ananadpur, India.

Countries with significant Sikh populations (all figures are approximate, as estimates vary widely).

The langar meal is shared at the conclusion of the twenty-first annual Sikh Day Parade in New York City.

Sikhs celebrate Baisakhi Day on April 14, 2018, in Srinagar, India

Qnkar Singh.

Ik Onkar. Literally meaning “one God,” Ik Onkar is the primary Sikh symbol of monotheism. The Mui Mantra, recited daily by most Sikhs, begins with these words.

Five Ks. Objects symbolizing membership in the Khalsa: kes, uncut hair; kangha, a small comb worn in the hair; kara, a steel wristlet; kirpan, a sword; kachh, a pair of shorts tied with a drawstring.

Golden Temple. Located in Amritsar in the Punjab, the Darbar Sahib (“Court of the Lord”) or Golden Temple, was built by Guru Arjan in about 1600 ce, providing Sikhs to this day with a geographical center.

Composed (from the center outward) of a double-edged sword, the circular Chakar, and two kirpans, the khanda symbolizes the balanced unity of Sikh spiritual and worldly life.

Volunteers prepare food for the langar meal at the Golden Temple in Amritsar. Many thousands of people share meals together here daily, at no cost to the visitor.

Woman making offerings in front of her ancestor’s tomb-

important Confucian and Daoist sites in China.

The yin-yang symbol best represents the Chinese religious mentality. This worldview recognizes differences but also harmony among the differences.

Laozi riding on the back of a water buffalo as he retires into the realm of the immortals.

A Daoist immortal flying through the clouds, 1750. Portrayed is the sage mother of Dongling, who studied the Way and could cure illnesses. One day, amid a throng wishing to thank her, she ascended to the clouds.

A Daoist view of the vital points in the human body through which the qi flows.

Figurine of Lord Guan as seen in many Chinese restaurants.

Xiwangmu (Queen Mother of the West) is one of the most prominent female Daoist deities. She rewards her devout followers with immortality by feasting them with magical peaches.

A Chinese oracle bone made of tortoise shell.

Statue of Confucius at the entrance to the Confucian Academy in Beijing, China.

The Apricot Platform (Xingtan) is traditionally identified to be the location where Confucius lectured to his students.

Ancestral worship at the Naganeupseong Folk Village museum. South Korea.

The Xuankong (Hanging) Temple near the City of Datong in China’s Shaanxi Province. Built more than 1,400 years ago, it hangs on a mountain cliff hundreds of feet above the ground through the use of crossbeams inserted deep into the vertical rock surface. Honoring Confucius, Laozi, and the Shakyamuni Buddha, the Temple exemplifies the harmonious coexistence of the three prominent religions of China: Confucianism, Daoism, and Buddhism.

Confucian influence in East Asia.

This painting. Wind among the Trees on the Riverbank by Ni Zan (1306-1374), is best known for the quietude and balance in nature it expresses. China, Yuan Dynasty (1271- 1368), dated 1363.

A Hong Kong building with a hole to allow the smooth flow of qi.

In Paris, France, people gather to practice qigong and taiji exercises.

This painting of the poet Li Bo (Li Bai, 701-762) shows him as a Daoist immortal.

The Temple of Tian (Tiantan ), where the Chinese emperor prayed to Tian on behalf of his subjects and in his capacity as “Son of Tian,” is now a popular park in Beijing.

The Hall of Praying for an Abundant Harvest (Qi’nian dian), Temple of Tian (Tiantan ), Beijing. The whole complex was built in 1420 under Emperor Yongle and restored in 1530 and 1751. Here the emperor celebrated the sacrifice to Tian for a good harvest. The decorated ramp between the two stairways was reserved for the emperor’s palanquin, Jason Ch’ui-hsiao Tseng.

Confucius serves as an object of veneration and commemoration. He is the “Utmost Sage and Late Teacher,” as the tablet in front of his statue declares.

Confucius’s tombstone boldly declares that he is the “Ultimate Sage of Greatest Accomplishment, King of Manifest Culture.”

This is an iconic image of Confucius as a learned scholar and an exemplar of human moral accomplishment. Traditionally, the Chinese did not see religion as a separate realm of activity. Hence, the pursuit of scholarship and the enactment of moral behavior within the family and community were very much part of their religious experience.

This yin-yang symbol surrounded by the eight trigrams reflects the Chinese belief in the complementarity of opposites and the harmonious unity of the cosmos. More than any other visual symbol, it represents Chinese religiousness.

Family cohesion and respect for elders are central Confucian values. A daughter and her husband pay a visit to her parents on Chinese New Year’s Day to renew her kinship tie with her natal family.

Statue of Laozi carved out of a huge rock in Fujian Province, China. This legendary founder of Daoism symbolizes wisdom and irreverence for conventional thinking. He is understood as the yin to Confucius’s yang, and the image of passive acceptance of what nature has ordained to Confucius’s active attempt at improving society.

Chinese taiji (commonly spelled “tai chi”) exercise is perhaps the most representative expression of Daoist beliefs in the human body as a microcosm of the universe. Through harnessing the qi of nature and bringing it into the body for attaining balance and improving health, the taiji master demonstrates the intimate relationship between humans and the cosmos.

Acupuncture is a good expression of the Daoist belief in the circulation of qi in the human body. By inserting the needles into critical nodal points in the qi circuitry, pain can be diverted and the rejuvenating energy of the body can heal the sick parts,

A group of Daoist priests perform a ritual service for a member of the community.

Throngs of portable shrine carriers: Throngs of portable shrine carriers with their respective mikoshi outside the Asakusa Shrine in Tokyo.

Significant sites in the history of Shinto.

The Meoto-iwa (Husband and Wife rocks) in Mie Prefecture is an iconic landmark in Japan that symbolizes the union between Izanagi and Izanami.

The Nachi Waterfall in Kumano, Japan. Like Mount Fuji, the Nachi Fall is an iconic Shinto symbol long revered in Japan, Also considered a kami, it is a popular site for Shinto pilgrims who appreciate not only its magic power but also its scenic beauty.

The legendary Empress Jingo, center, leading a military campaign. Japanese silk painting, Edo period.

The Dainichi, or “Great Sun,” Buddha at Todaiji temple in Nara, Japan.

Japanese lawmakers from several political parties visit the war-linked Yasukuni Shrine in April 2017.

A woman dresses as Princess Mononoke, a character from Hayao Miyazaki’s film that draws on Shinto beliefs and legends, at the 2017 MCM Comic Con in London,

A participant in the annual Sakura Matsuri festival in Washington, DC, dressed as an anime character.

Entry of the bridal procession at a Shinto wedding, walking through the shrine gate, led by mikos. Yasaka Shrine, Maruyama Park, Kyoto, Japan.

A family’s new car receives a blessing from a Shinto priest at Minatogawa Shrine in Kobe,

Japan.

The Fushimi Inari-taisha Shrine in Kyoto, Japan, is dedicated to the god of rice and sake. Here, a tunnel of torii arches is guarded by a pair of foxes.

Top: The shimenawa marks off a sacred space at a Shinto shrine. Bottom: These prayer plaques express the hopes, aspirations, and requests for blessing of the shrine visitors. The inner shrine of Amaterasu at Ise.

A household Shinto shrine in the backyard of a restaurant in Kawagoe, Japan, includes a kamidana (god shelf), kitsune (fox) statues; torii (gates'), and offerings to the gods.

This image contains three major aspects of Japanese religiosity—the sun, the Shinto torii, and cherry blossoms. The sun is the chief deity responsible for the rise of the Japanese state, the torii (lit, “bird dwelling,” hence the bird atop the arch) marks the sacred space of the Shinto shrine ground, and cherry blossoms convey the Japanese sense of fragile beauty and transience.

A most widely recognized and universally appreciated woodblock print of a giant wave towering over a dwarfed Mt. Fuji by the artist Hokusai, produced in 1832.

The shimenawa in front of a Shinto shrine. A giant rope made of rice stalk, the shimenawa marks off the sacred space within the shrine complex. Worshipers believe that beyond the line resides the spirit of the kami.

A Shinto priest at the Itsukushima Shrine in Miyajima, Japan. The priest acts as a bridge between the worshipers and the kami housed at the shrine. He makes presentation to the deity on behalf of the community, purifies the shrine visitors with prescribed rituals, and presides over community events.

Photo of a torii framing Mt, Fuji, This is a fitting illustration of the Japanese belief in Mt. Fuji as a kami, and the function of the torii as archway leading the faithful into the sacred ground where the kami is honored.

Prayer plaques offered to anime heroines at a Shinto shrine in Tokyo.

Her kusti cord tied around her wrist, a young girl beams during her Navjote ceremony in Mumbai, India, as her proud parents look on.

Significant sites in the development of Zoroastrianism.

Integration of the dualism of spirit/matter and the dualism of order (good)/chaos (evil). The spirit of asha, personified in the yazatas (“ones worthy of worship”), is embodied in the physical world; so too is the spirit of druj, personified as the daevas, embodied in the physical world—the stage on which the cosmic struggle between good and evil is played out.

The best-known symbol of Zoroastrianism, the Faravahar is believed to represent the fravashis. This example is from Yazd, Iran.

This wall carving features a Faravahar, thought to represent the fravashis. The wall is located in Persepolis, the ancient ceremonial center of the Achaemenid Empire.

The tauroctony (bull-slaying) was the universal symbol of Mithraism. The symbol includes several features drawn from ancient Iranian religion, including the slaying of a primordial bull and the figure of Mithras himself, known in Zoroastrianism as Mithra, one of the yazatas (“ones worthy of worship”).

Detail from The School of Athens by Raphael. The bearded figure in the center depicts Zarathushtra holding an astral globe, suggestive of the common association of Zoroastrians, especially the priestly Magi, with astrology. Raphael supposedly depicted himself as the man to Zarathushtra’s left who looks to the viewer,

A float pays tribute to Zarathushtra (Zoroaster) and the Zoroastrian motto, “good thoughts, good words, good deeds,” at the Persian Day Parade in New York City.

Rustom Ghadiali.

A Parsi priest tends the sacred fire within a temple in India.

The dakhma, or “Tower of Silence,” provides a space for exposure of the dead body to vultures and to the sun. This dakhma is located in Yazd, Iran.

Zarathushtra, Copies of this painting of Zarathushtra are found in fire temples and Zoroastrian homes throughout the world. The original is found in the fire temple in Yazd, Iran.

Zoroastrian symbols—the sun, a fire, the moon, and the Faravahar—thought to represent the fravashis. These symbols adorn a Parsi temple in Ahmadabad in the state of Gujarat, India.

Ateshkadeh Fire Temple. The Ateshkadeh Fire Temple in Yazd, in central Iran, is perhaps the most famous of the fire temples found worldwide in Zoroastrian communities. Although the structure itself was built in the twentieth century, the sacred flame inside is said to have burned continuously since 470 ce. Zoroastrians believe that fire is symbolic of purity and of Ahura Mazda.

Zoroastrian Centre in London. With 5,000 Zoroastrians, the United Kingdom is one of several countries across the world with sizable communities.

Countries with significant Zoroastrian populations (all figures are approximate, as estimates vary widely).

The Bar Mitzvah stands behind a lectern, facing an open Torah scroll, preparing to read his scriptural passage in Hebrew.

Total number of Jews presently living in the world.

The traditional arrangement of the Sephirot is designed to evoke either the tree of life or the human body.

Ancient Israel.

Masada was the last stronghold the Zealots held before taking their lives rather than yielding to the Roman army (73 ce ).

The Touro Synagogue, built in Newport, Rhode Island, in 1759, is the oldest synagogue in the United States.

A young Israeli Hasid with curled sidebums, commonly worn by men in his community.

The entrance gate at Auschwitz.

This painting of Herzl is one of many that appear on Israeli currency.

Mourners gathered at Rabin’s funeral.

In 2012, New Delhi hosted the first Jewish Indian wedding in fifty years. Here, the bride and groom exchange rings as they are married in the Bene Israel tradition.

The Torah scroll is placed on a table where the reader will use a yad (a pointer) to read each word aloud.

The palm branch, the willow, and the myrtle make up the lulav; the citron and the lulav are held together during Sukkot prayers.

The Passover plate is prepared for the Seder, with an egg, a shank bone, parsley, chives, and bitter herbs.

The Star of David is a medieval symbol of Jewish identity placed in the center of the flag of Israel.

Covered in a large tallit, this Yemenite Jew blows the shofar on Rosh Hashanah.

A decorated sukkah, ready for a midday meal.

On the final night of Hanukkah, all the candles are lit while children play with the dreidel, a game with toy coins.

A Jewish mother and daughter light the Sabbath candles.

Avigayil Halpern.

A table set for Shabbat: Challah, candlesticks, and wine.

The bride and groom will stand under this chuppah during the wedding ceremony.

Holding a prayer book and wearing a tallit, tefillin, and a kipah, a young man prepares to recite morning prayers.

A priest baptizes a baby girl as her family looks on.

World Christian population.

Mass baptism of Christians at Yardenit, the site on the Jordan River in northern Israel where Christian tradition says Jesus was baptized by John the Baptist.

Palestine during the time of Jesus,

Andrei Rublev’s icon of the Holy Trinity (1411) is considered a masterpiece of Orthodox religious art. It depicts (from left to right) God the Father, God the Son, and God the Holy Spirit. On one level, the three figures are the “angels” through whom God appeared to Abraham in the Old Testament. On a higher level, they represent the Trinity in a way that uses color, light, and imagery to give the viewer a glimpse into its unfathomable mystery.

Adam and Eve Banished from Paradise. In this fresco, the Renaissance painter Tommaso Masaccio (1401-1428) captured both the shame of Adam and Eve and the fear they felt as they were expelled from the Garden of Eden and separated from God.

Father Art and Terrie M,

The first Christian emperor of Rome, Constantine the Great promoted the spread of Christianity throughout the Roman Empire and founded a new capital at Constantinople (modern Istanbul) in 330. He is represented here with his mother, Helena.

Completed c. 1250, the height and soaring towers of the Gothic cathedral at Chartres in France express the medieval yearning for God. For centuries, pilgrims and secular tourists have come to experience its exquisite, light-filled interior and to see its famous relic, the tunic of the Virgin Mary.

The interior of the Cathedral of Hagia Sophia, Dedicated to the “holy wisdom” embodied by Christ, this sixth-century church is the supreme achievement of Byzantine architecture. After the capture of Constantinople by the Turks in 1453. the city was renamed Istanbul and the church first became a mosque, then a museum.

In this fresco by Giovanni Sodoma (1477-1549), Benedictine monks of the Monte Oliveto monastery in Italy eat their meal together—just as they worked and worshiped together in accordance with the Rule of St. Benedict. Note that one of the monks reads to the others from the Bible or some other holy book as they eat.

On April 29, the feast day of St. Catherine of Siena, four citizens of Siena, Italy, dress in medieval costumes and cany a casket holding the saint’s relics in a procession.

Portrait of Martin Luther by Lucas Cranach the Elder (1529). It was Luther who set the Protestant Reformation in motion by posting his Ninety-Five Theses on the door of the All Saints’ Church in Wittenberg, Germany.

The Reformation was brought to England by King Henry VIII, depicted here in a famous portrait by the sixteenth-century painter Hans Holbein the Younger.

Distribution of major branches of Christianity throughout the world.

This mosaic of the Virgin Mary and Christ Child is from the Annunciation Basilica in Nazareth, Israel, It is a wonderful example of the desire of Christians all over the world to understand Jesus in relation to themselves and their own cultures.

In this wood carving from West Africa, an anonymous twentieth-century artist portrays Jesus as African and manages to capture the sorrow and suffering of the savior, who was about to face crucifixion.

Bishops gathered at the Second Vatican Council (1962-1965) in St. Peter’s Basilica.

Pope Francis washed the feet of a dozen inmates, including women and Muslims, at a juvenile detention center in a Holy Thursday ritual during the first year of his papacy. Francis’s boldly inclusive gesture just two weeks after his election helped define his papacy.

Pentecostal worship at the Catedral Evangelica de Chile in Santiago, Chile.

Kimbanguists holding bowls of money intended as an offering to Simon Kimbangu Kiangani, the current leader of the Kimbanguist Church, in Nkamba, Democratic Republic of Congo, the birthplace of Simon Kimbangu (May 2017).

Early Christians used the “sign of the fish” as a secret symbol to identify themselves during times of persecution. The letters of the Greek word for “fish” (ΙΧΘΥΣ) are the first letters in the words that make up the phrase “Jesus Christ, Son of God, and Savior.”

The cross has served as a Christian symbol since ancient times and appears in many forms. With its longer vertical and shorter horizontal arms, the Latin cross is the form favored by the Roman Catholic and Protestant churches. This one stands atop Monte Crocione in northern Italy.

Orthodox Christians use many different forms of the cross. The most common is a simple figure formed by four arms of equal length. This one decorates a small convent on the island of Mykonos, Greece.

The Celtic cross. According to legend, the Celtic cross on the left originated with St. Patrick, who brought Christianity to Ireland. This one serves as a grave marker in a cemetery in Dublin, Ireland.

A crucifix is a cross with an image of the crucified Christ. It is used extensively in the Roman Catholic, Orthodox, Anglican, and Lutheran traditions. A vivid reminder of Christ’s suffering on behalf of humanity, it is usually displayed prominently in church interiors.

The custom of using alpha and omega, the first and last letters of the Greek alphabet, to symbolize the eternality of God is based on a verse from the book of Revelation in the New Testament (1:8): “I am the Alpha and the Omega,” says the Lord God, “who is, and who was, and who is to come, the Almighty.”

The Chi-Rho is a symbol of Christ. Its name is based on the Greek letters chi and rho, the first two letters in the Greek word Christos, or “Christ.” According to legend, the Chi-Rho was revealed in a dream to the Emperor Constantine, who won a military victory after marking it on the shields of his soldiers. Today, the Chi-Rho appears on altars, plaques, vestments, and other items. It is shown here on a Christian stele from Spain, c. 600.

The “sign of the cross” is a ritual hand motion in which the shape of the cross of Christ is traced across the forehead and chest. It is used in both public worship and private prayer. The practice of “signing” oneself as an act of devotion goes back to ancient times. Writing c. 200, the North African theologian Tertullian noted that the Christians of his time “wore out their foreheads” making the sign of the cross.

This baptistery basin was built in the sixth centmy as part of the Basilica of St. Vitalis in what is now Sbeitla, Tunisia. Candidates for baptism were led down the steps and then baptized by full immersion in water.

In this celebration of the Eucharist, a Roman Catholic priest prays over a wafer of bread and chalices of wine, which are believed to become the body and blood of Christ.

The design and decor of this small Protestant church are simple. The attention of the congregation is directed toward the pulpit, from which the pastor delivers a sermon based on the scriptures.

Like all Roman Catholic churches, this church in St. Maarten in the Netherlands Antilles gives the most prominent place to the altar, where the Eucharist is celebrated. The priest’s homily, or sermon, is delivered from a pulpit set to the side. Images of the saints that Catholics venerate can be seen along the walls.

The interior of an Orthodox church in Odessa, Ukraine. Note the iconostasis, or “icon screen” at the far end of the aisle. In Orthodox churches, the altar is always located behind the iconostasis. Images of Christ and the saints on the interior of the dome remind worshippers of their spiritual communion with heavenly personalities.

The liturgical year is an annual cycle of holy days and seasons that re-create events and times during the life of Jesus.

This Greek icon depicts Christ holding the scriptures and raising his right hand in a sign of blessing. The Greek letters outside his halo identify him as Jesus Christ. The letters inside the halo identify him as God.

Pilgrims circumambulate the Ka‘ba in Mecca, Saudi Arabia. The pilgrimage to Mecca, known as the hajj, is a once-in-a-lifetime duty for devout Muslims.

Significant sites in the history of Islam.

World Muslim population.

This illuminated Qur’an is from the thirteenth century.

Ablution fountains outside of a mosque.

The beautiful Shah Mosque, in Isfahan, Iran, was built in the 1600s during the Safavid period.

This attractive small mosque in rural Zanzibar, Tanzania, is built in an architectural style that is similar to houses in the area.

Muslim men pray together at a mosque.

This open-air market in Sumbawa Besar, Indonesia, is very popular during Ramadan, when people buy special foods to break the fast.

Muslim pilgrims prepare for prayer at the Haram mosque in Mecca.

The Sultan Ahmed Mosque in Istanbul, Turkey, was built in the 1600s and is a fine example of Ottoman architecture. It is also known as the Blue Mosque because of the blue tiling inside.

The Taj Mahal, in Agra, India, was built in the 1600s by the Mughal emperor Shah Jahan as a memorial and mausoleum for his beloved wife, Mumtaz Mahal.

World Sunni and Shi‘a distribution.

An Iraqi soldier stands guard as Shi‘i pilgrims approach the holy city of Karbala.

An American Muslim soldier praying.

In 2015, several hundred members of the Muslim community of Hamtramck, Michigan, rallied at City Hall to condemn terrorism and ISIS.

Taslima S. (left) and Dola K.

This building in Zanzibar, Tanzania, houses both Islamic and secular primary courts, as well as government offices.

Case files from an Islamic court in East Africa.

The Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem.

Mevlevi dhikr; Mevlevis are sometimes known as Whirling Dervishes.

Pilgrims at the shrine of Hazrat Mu‘in ud-Din Chishti in Ajmer (Rajasthan), India,

A Muslim bride signs her marriage contract,

Muslim family in modest attire.

Three young Palestinian students in modest dress.

Calligraphy developed as an important art form in Islam because of a widespread understanding that imagery is prohibited by the sacred sources of Islam. This example is the word Allah. Beautiful calligraphy decorates pages of the Qur’an, mosques, and other items.

Throughout the daily prayer, the believer faces the Ka‘ba in Mecca and stands, kneels, and bows his head to the floor. These cycles of movements, along with the proper recitation, are called raka and vary in number according to the prayer.

The direction of prayer, known as the qibla, is marked in a mosque by a niche called a mihrab, which is sometimes highly decorated with designs or Our’anic verses, like this mihrab at a mosque in Cairo, Egypt.

The Ka‘ba, a cubical building in Mecca that measures about thirty feet by thirty feet. Many Muslims believe it was built and dedicated to the one God by Abraham and Ishmael,

An offering of wine to the earth spirits is a common feature of Wiccan ceremonies.

The Angel Moroni delivering the plates of the Book of Mormon to Joseph Smith.

The Salt Lake Temple in Salt Lake City, Utah.

The Accra Ghana Temple, dedicated in 2004, was the second LDS temple to be built in Africa.

Mary Baker Eddy was the founder of the Church of Christ, Scientist (Christian Science).

The Reverend Sun Myung Moon blessing a mass wedding ceremony in Madison Square Garden, New York.

A simple Rastafarian food shop named Lion House in Stony Hill, Jamaica, features paintings of Rasta heroes Marcus Garvey, Haile Selassie, and Bob Marley.

Madame Helena Blavatsky, founder of the theosophy movement.

Members of a Hare Krishna community dancing on a London street.

Falun Gong devotees in New York City protest the Chinese government’s repression of their movement.

Dr. Xinyu David Zhang.

Aum Shinrikyo founder Shoko Asahara.

In the weeks after the 1995 deadly sarin gas attack on a Tokyo commuter train, Japanese police raided an Aum Shinrikyo compound near Mount Fuji and confiscated chemical and biological weapons as well as explosives.

Rael is seated in front of a model of a double helix as he announces the supposed cloning of a human child.

An E-meter and a display of Hubbard’s Dianetics.

Wiccan wheel of the year.

Referred to as the Lotus Temple, this structure borrows its design from Hindu iconography.

Members of Findhorn Foundation engaged in Sacred Dance.