Notes

PROLOGUE

1 History 3: 14.67; trans. Whittaker 1969: 359

2 See Braund 1996: 77–80

3 Salway 1993: 291–312

4 Aldhouse-Green 2006a: 106, 132, 139; Dio Cassius Roman History 70, 6–7

5 Webster 2016

6 2000: 89–94

7 Hill et al.

8 Smith 2001: 40–44; King and Soffe 1994

9 Creighton 2000: 192–93.

10Mattingly 2006: 100

11Tomlin 2014: 54

CHAPTER ONE

1 Natural History 30.13; after de la Bedoyère 2002: 63

2 For instance, the author Minucius Felix (Octavius viii. 3-xii. 6) spoke, in the earlier 3rd century AD, against early Christians, accusing them of cannibalism. Athenagoras (Plea for the Christians ii. 7, 9; iii, 12–13) was a Christian who defended the new faith and, in his pro-Christian letter to the emperor Marcus Aurelius and his son Commodus, written in AD 177, he denounced those who spread stories of cannibalistic rites. Lewis and Reinhold (eds) 1966: 584–86

3 De Bello Gallico 6.16; trans. Wiseman and Wiseman 1980: 123

4 Cunliffe 1986: 161, fig. 90

5 Aldhouse-Green 2001a: 59

6 Stead et al. 1986; Aldhouse-Green 2015a: passim (see Index)

7 Niblett 1999: 83–88, 319–20, 414; Mays and Steele 1996: 155–61

8 Natural History 16.95; trans. Rackham 1945: 549–51

9 Annals 14.30; trans. Grant 1956: 317

10Macdonald 2007, passim

11Farley and Hunter 2015: 32, 104

12See, for example, Bradley 1990

13Strabo Geography 4.1.13

14Aldhouse-Green and Howell 2017: 35

15Christopher Williams pers. comm.

16Lavelle 1993

17Fermor 1966; 2013

18Aldhouse-Green 2015a: 190–91; Green 1996: 153

19Panegyricus Latinus 8.11.2; after Braund 1996: 22

20Aldhouse-Green 1999

21Aldhouse-Green 2010: 146–68.

22Aldhouse-Green 2015b: 166–67

23Parfitt 1995: frontispiece and 18–20, fig. 3.

24British Museum 1964: 62

25Aldhouse-Green and Aldhouse-Green 2005: 132–33

26Parfitt 1995: 105–6; fig.

27See Aldhouse-Green 2010, 162–64 for a fuller explanation of this practice

28De Divinatione 1.90; trans. Chadwick 1997: 104

29Caesar De Bello Gallico: 1.31

30De Bello Gallico 6: 13–18.

31Caesar De Bello Gallico 5.6; trans. Wiseman and Wiseman 1980: 90

32Natural History 30.4; after Chadwick 1997

33De Bello Gallico 6.13; trans Wiseman and Wiseman 1980: 121

34Pliny the Elder Natural History 30.4, after Chadwick 1997: 15

35See opening quote for this chapter

36Lucan Pharsalia 1, 422–65; trans. Graves 1956: 38

37Loc. Cit.: trans Graves 1956: 38

38Tacitus Annals 12.36

39Tacitus Histories 3.45

40Annals 14.30

41Tacitus Agricola 14

42Aurelianus 44.4–5; retranslated by the author (adapted from Magie 1932: 283)

43Chadwick 1997: 81 (where the problems concerning the Histories are explained); the quote is after Rand 1939: 598

44There are similar references to the accession of the emperors Numerian, Severus Alexander and Diocletian: see Green 1997: 97

45Tacitus Annals 14.30; trans. Grant 1956: 317

46Natural History 30.4

47Claudius 25: ‘Augustus had been content to prohibit any Roman citizen in Gaul from taking part in the savage and terrible Druidic cult; Claudius abolished it altogether’: trans. Graves 1962: 177

48Gordon, Joly and Van Andringa 2010; Joly, Van Andringa and Willerval 2010; Simon 2012

49De Bello Gallico 6.13; trans. Wiseman and Wiseman 1980: 121

50Sherratt 1991

51Creighton 1995: 295

52Holl 2002: 9

53Crummy 2007: 394–99

54De Bello Gallico 8.38

55Chadwick 1997: 38–39; Aldhouse-Green 2010: 52–53, fig. 16

56Chadwick 1997: 82

57De Bello Gallico 6.14; trans. Wiseman and Wiseman 1980: 121

58Tomlinson 1976: 64–71

59So graphically described by Julius Caesar (De Bello Gallico 6.16) and other Roman authors.

60Gregory 1992; Aldhouse-Green 2006a: 160–64; Johns and Potter 1983.

61From an Irish Penitential, 7th century AD; after Green 1997: 134

62Guest 1927: 268; Owen 1962: 203

63Aldhouse-Green 2015b: 110

64Aldhouse-Green 2015b: 197–99

CHAPTER TWO

1 Act 1, Scene 3; Withers ed.

2 This lost triumphal arch once stood at the heart of Rome. It was erected by the emperor Claudius in about AD 50; Barrett 1991: 12

3 Saunders and Gray 1996: 804

4 Braund 1996: fig. 28; Aldhouse-Green 2006a: 44–48

5 Ferris 2000: 55

6 King and Soffe 1994; Smith 2018

7 Hughes 1996

8 Macdonald 2007; Aldhouse-Green 2012: 38–39

9 Coles 1990; 1998

10Juvenal Satire 13; trans. Creekmore 1963: 200

11Hart 2016; R.I.B. 108, 109

12Henig 1984: 88–89; de la Bedoyère 2002: 144–46

13See Duncan Fishwick’s discussion of the ambiguity involved in emperor-worship in the western Empire: Fishwick 1991

14The 1st-century author Diodorus Siculus mentions that Gaulish warriors stiffened their blond hair like this in order to make themselves appear taller and more intimidating; Library of History 5.28

15Images of lituus-like objects appear on late pre-Roman Iron Age coinage minted by the southern tribal leader Verica at the early temple on Hayling Island, Hampshire; some of the coins struck by the Catuvellaunian king Cunobelin also carry this curved staff. These coins were minted c. AD 20–40: Creighton 2000: 192–23, 205; 2006: 23

16Tacitus Annals 14.31; trans. Grant 1956: 318

17Armit 2012; see also this volume Chapter 7

18Armit 2012

19Dio Cassius Roman History 62.1; trans. Ireland 1996: 63

20Excavations near the Bank of England in London in May/June 2016 revealed startling new evidence for Roman London’s early prosperity as a financial centre. The material discovered consists of wooden writing tablets, preserved because of the anaerobic and watery conditions in which they were found, in the river Walbrook. Malvern 2016: 3

21Tacitus Annals 14.32

22Financial misdemeanours in today’s British Parliament, not least the MPs’ ‘expenses scandal’ of 2009, spring to mind as broad parallels to Seneca’s nefarious monetary dealings.

23Dio Cassius Roman History 62.2

24Annals 14.30; trans. Grant 1956: 317–18

25For the full story of the Boudican episode see Aldhouse-Green 2006a: 172–208

26Roman History 62, 6–7

27Aldhouse-Green 2010: 220–22.

28Tacitus Annals 14.38; trans. Grant 1956: 321

29Grasby and Tomlin 2002: 46

30Tacitus Annals 3.42

31Tomlin 2015: 384–86; Hayward, Henig and Tomlin 2017: 76–83

32Henig 1993a: 30, no. 89, pl. 25

33Neal and Cosh 2010: mosaic 421.45

34Henig 1993a: 32, no. 93, pl. 26

35Dio Cassius Roman History 60.20; trans. Ireland 1996: 45–46; Mattingly 2006: 98

36Creighton 2000: 32

37Juvenal Satires 8; trans. Creekmore 1963: 142

38Thomson 2016

39Genders 2016

40Aldhouse-Green 2003: 39; Webster 1995; 1997

41R.I.B. 91

42I have argued elsewhere that Lindow Man’s burial place, right on the route that Suetonius’s army would have taken to Anglesey, might just be associated with this event. Aldhouse-Green 2006a: 157

CHAPTER THREE

1 R.I.B. 450

2 Various suggestions have been proposed for the identity of these two emperors: Severus and Caracalla is the most likely pair.

3 Coulston and Phillips 1988: no. 152, pl. 43

4 This trio of hooded figures enjoyed its greatest popularity in the Cotswolds, centred on the Dobunnic tribal capital Corinium (Cirencester). Their cult is considered in more detail in Chapter 7, this volume.

5 2003: 139

6 But we must be careful in making assumptions about voids in evidence. Until very recently, the same was thought to be true of Pembrokeshire, a region seemingly untouched by conquest or colonization, but here evidence is gradually accumulating, as a result of ever more technologically sophisticated methods of discovery and increased focus on archaeological investigation in West Wales. Edward Besly pers. comm.

7 Creighton 2006: 93–107

8 Stewart and Shaw (eds) 1994

9 R.I.B. 274

10Collingwood and Richmond 1969: 220–21; de la Bedoyère 2003: 125

11Aldhouse-Green 2004: 5, fig. 1.2, 122

12R.I.B. 837, 838

13Breeze 1997: 80

14Nick Griffiths, pers. comm.; Holder 1982: 113. The 1st Cohort of Baetasians received a block grant of Roman citizenship sometime after AD 135, perhaps under the governor Lollius Urbicus during the advance of the army into Scotland, whence the Cohort came south to be stationed at Maryport in the later 2nd century, and later at Reculver in Kent.

15Anderson 1987: 95; Watson 1987: 81

16Ross 1967: 370–71; de la Bedoyère 2002: 147

17R.I.B. 986, 987; Ross 1967: 169–71

18Unusual silver or gilt-bronze plaques like this are known elsewhere in Britain, for instance at Stony Stratford in southeast England, which bear images of Mars and inscribed dedications to him. Green 1976: 179; R.I.B. 215–17. The Stony Stratford hoard of silver and bronze religious material also includes dedications to Vulcan, Jupiter and Minerva, all found concealed in a Roman pot, and probably once displayed in a shrine.

19Mattingly 2006: 33

20R.I.B. 1593; Coulston and Phillips 1988, nos 160, 161, pl. 45; Birley 1986: 77

21R.I.B. 1594

22King 1990: 170

23Birley 1986: 77, with references

24R.I.B. 309

25R.I.B. 310

26Wightman 1970: 211–14

27Green 1976: 174; Henig 1993a: 42, no. 126, pl. 32

28R.I.B. 317

29R.I.B. 323

30R.I.B. 445

31Tacitus Annals 14.32

32Manning 2001: col. pl. 5

33Manning 2001: 92

34What Jane Webster (2016) has termed ‘new technologies of worship’.

35R.I.B. 1598

36R.I.B. 1692

37For example at Housesteads: Coulston and Phillips 1988: nos 164–80

38For a detailed discussion of the Rhenish mother-goddesses, sometimes called the Aufaniae, see Green 1989: 194–98. One altar to the goddesses was dedicated by a quaestor (a financial officer) from Cologne. The Germanic iconography of the Matronae is singular: a young girl, with long flowing hair, is flanked by two austere older women with spectacularly large circular hats. Unlike the Cotswolds Matres (see Chapter 5), the Germanic goddesses do not appear with babies or children but only with baskets of produce.

39R.I.B. 1480

40R.I.B. 1481

41This tradition goes back to the late Iron Age in Celtiberia, as demonstrated by the presence of brooches, sceptres and stone images from sites like Numantia. Lorrio 1997: pls 3, 4; Martinez 1999: 7; Aldhouse-Green 2004: 141–42

42R.I.B. 827–29

43Jane Laskey, Senhouse Museum, Maryport pers.

44For a discussion of the different forms of Epona’s image see Green 1989

45R.I.B. 2177; soldiers at other military establishments in the north worshipped Epona too: a lost altar to the goddess is recorded at Carvoran. R.I.B. 1777; Coulston and Phillips 1988: no. 151; pl. 42

46Green 1989: 16–17, Map 4; Linduff 1979

47Epona with a key is depicted at Grand and at Allier in Gaul (Green 1989: 18). The bronze figure from southern England is from an unprovenanced site in Wiltshire: Johns 1971–72

48Green 1976: 208 and frontispiece

49Where naturalism is subordinate to stylization and apparent simplicity of line. This is a Gallo-British iconographic tradition where realism was less important than the message conveyed.

50Green 1976: 167, pl. IIIa. These samples – from Peterborough and Margidunum – are just two of a number of images depicting divine cavalrymen.

51Wilkinson and Wilkinson (eds) 1952: 275

52de la Bedoyère 2002: 151, fig. 98; Phillips 1977: 81–83, nos 230–32, pls 60, 61; R.I.B 1327–29

53Phillips 1977: 83

54de la Bedoyère 2002: 151; Ross 1967: 163–64

552016. Webster argues that the absence of evidence for these British divinities in pre-Roman contexts might mean that Roman soldiers were deliberately inventing local gods, being careful to ascribe to them British names, in order to ensure their well-being in an alien and hostile environment. Personally, I find this argument suspect simply because the absence of an epigraphic tradition in the British Iron Age means that, even if these gods existed then, there could be no record of their worship. Another counter-argument to Webster’s interpretation is the firm assertion made by the Roman author Cicero (de Legibus 2.8) that it was forbidden to create new gods: see Chapter 4, p. 78.

56R.I.B. 2091

57Henig 1984, 103

58R.I.B. 1131

59Ferguson 1970: 216

CHAPTER FOUR

1 Pliny’s Letters no. 39; trans. Radice 1963: 258

2 Cicero De Legibus 2.8; trans. Keyes 1928: 393

3 Pharsalia III 417–23

4 Annals 14.30

5 Roman History 62.6–7

6 Pliny the Younger’s uncle, who died in the Vesuvian disaster of AD 79: Natural History 16.95

7 Aldhouse-Green 1999, passim but see particularly 61–63, 111–13 and Gray, in Aldhouse-Green 1999: 101–10

8 Examples include the temple of Claudius at Colchester and the late shrine to Nodens at Lydney.

9 For the seminal discussion of the Romano-Celtic temple form see Lewis 1966

102006: 70–92

11Niblett 2001: 29–31

12The women were of different ages: one was between 20 and 30, the second between 35 and 45 and the third between 30 and 50 years old. Niblett 1999: 20, 394 and frontispiece (for reconstruction painting of the chieftain’s burial)

13Mays and Steele in Niblett 1999: 314–21

14Creighton 2006: 80

15Henig 1993a: nos 103, 166; Holbrook 1998: 225, fig. 154

16Holbrook 2016

17Henig 1993a: nos 96, 116, 117, 120; R.I.B. 105

182016

19Henig 1993a: no. 81

20Henig 1993a: nos 63–65, 68–71.

21Bauchhenss 1976; Bauchhenss & Noelke 1981

22R.I.B. 103

23Mattingly 2006: 227–29, fig. 9. The provinces were named Britannia Prima, Maxima Caesariensis, Flavia Caesariensis and Britannia Secunda.

24Henig 1993a: nos 137, 138

25Medlycott 2011: xiii, 14

26Roman towns in Britain were allowed walls only after their inhabitants’ loyalty to Rome was beyond question. Towns such as Great Chesterford, on sensitive tribal boundaries and close to the principal region in which the Boudican revolt took place, were rarely granted walls until comparatively late, for reasons of security – there was always a fear that a town might fortify itself against the Roman government.

27Medlycott 2011: 75

28Caesar De Bello Gallico 6.13

29Medlycott 2011: 75–94

30Medlycott 2011: 82

31Bauchhenss 1976

32Medlycott, 2011: 92, fig. 92

33Phrase from a speech delivered by Thomas Kielinger OBE at the conferment upon him on an Honorary Fellowship of Cardiff University, 14 July 2016

34Wedlake 1982

35de la Bedoyère 2002: 110

36Wedlake 1982: 1–111; altar: 53, and pl. XXXIV

37Wedlake 1982: frontispiece and fig. 61

38Tomlinson 1976: 96–101; Ferguson 1970: 110

39Anne Ross is convinced that pins as offerings were closely associated with childbirth. That may be so but the evidence is not proven. Ross 1967: 176

40Cheesman 1994: 31–32

41O’Connell and Bird 1994: 100–5

42For a discussion of the Gallo-British solar cult see Green 1991

43Bird in O’Connell 1994: 97

44R.I.B. no. 306

45Aldhouse-Green 2015b: 64–67

46Mees 2009. For a discussion of curse tablets from Bath see Chapter 6, this volume

47Such as the 4th-century temple within Maiden Castle, Dorset.

48One of the Lydney model picks was a pick-head, with a hole for a separate shaft: Wheeler and Wheeler 1932: 92; the second is unpublished, and was a complete miniature implement, with integral head and handle (information from Lydney Park Estate).

49Green 1975: 54–70

50R.I.B. 305, 307

51Wheeler and Wheeler 1932: pl. XXVI (the group of dog-images), pl. XXV (the deerhound)

52Wheeler and Wheeler 1932: 90–91, pls XXX, XXVII

53For an explanation of the Severn Bore phenomenon see Smith 2006: 68–69

54Henig 1984: 135–36

55Wheeler and Wheeler 1932: pl. XXVI, no. 119

56Vitebsky 1995; Aldhouse-Green and Aldhouse-Green 2005

57R.I.B. 305, 307

CHAPTER FIVE

1 Pliny the Elder Natural History 16.95; adapted by author from trans. Rackham 1945: 549–51

2 In Roman religion colour was important in terms of the selection of sacrificial animals. For instance, black beasts were deemed appropriate as offerings to Proserpina, goddess of the underworld: ‘Before anything else, you must give the body proper burial and make sacrifice of black sheep…Aeneas sacrificed a black-fleeced lamb to Night, the mother of the Furies, and her great sister Earth, and a barren heifer to Proserpina’. Virgil Aeneid 6, lines 152–54, 248–50; trans. Day Lewis, in Chisholm and Ferguson (eds) 1981: 225–47

3 The earliest find, made in 1826, was a highly decorated copper-alloy shield facing, the most striking ornament being the outline of an attenuated figure of a wild boar that has been riveted onto the shield’s surface. Megaw and Megaw 1989: 198

4The timbers were not seasoned after the trees were cut down, which indicates only a small margin of time between the tree-felling and their erection: Field and Parker Pearson 2003: xi; Chamberlain 2003: 136–37. Lunar eclipses are regular events and so possible to predict with a fair degree of accuracy from observation alone rather than requiring detailed astronomical calculation.

5 Field and Parker Pearson 2003: 45–46; 158–59

6 Field and Parker Pearson 2003: 125–26, fig. 7.2

7 Fitzpatrick 1996

8 Aldhouse-Green 2010: 109, fig. 31

9De Bello Gallico 6.18

10Information from Mark Lodwick, National Museum Wales, who also provided the picture. Analysis of the metal indicates its antiquity. It has a superficial resemblance to two figurines found many years ago at Aust on the Severn in Gloucestershire: British Museum 1925: 148, fig. 173; but these have – probably correctly – been identified as Iberian imports: op. cit. fig. 73. While the crescent headdress is common to the images from Culver and from Aust, the treatment of the face and body on the Welsh statuette are markedly different from those from Aust.

11Cunliffe 1995: 56–58, fig. 43

12Cunliffe (ed) 1988: 6–7, fig. 4.1

13Pharsalia 1, lines 445–46; trans Duff 1977: 35–37

14From the text of an early medieval Swiss commentator on Lucan’s poem: Zwicker 1934: 50; trans. Marilynne Raybould for the author: Aldhouse-Green 2001a: 85

15See Aldhouse-Green 2010: 68 for details, with references. Esus is unknown in Britannia but Teutates’s name appears on a sprinkling of Romano-British inscribed dedications, including one of a bronze plaque to ‘Mars Toutatis’ at Barkway (Hertfordshire): Toynbee 1964: 328–30; Green 1976: 209 and another scratched on a sherd of pottery at Kelvedon (Essex). It has been suggested that this sherd might have come from the same pot as the one depicting the mounted warrior: information from Paul Sealey, Castle Museum, Colchester.

16R.I.B. 452. Green 1982: pl. 1a

17From Hispania Tarraconensis. A princeps of a legion was a centurion second in seniority after the primus pilus (the highest centurion in a legion); there were five centurial ranks in each legion. Green 1982: 38

18Susini 1973: 39–42

19Green 1984a; 1991

20British Museum 1964: 60; Gilbert 1978

21As at Obernburg in Bavaria: Green 1984a: 338, fig. 1 and Meaux (Seine-et-Marne) in France: Green 1984a: 336, fig. 23

22Green 1979: 350, pl. LXXXII, fig. 64; Goodchild 1938. The figure with the hammer may represent the Gaulish hammer-god Sucellus: Green 1989: 46–54. He is rarely present in Britain but a silver ring from York is inscribed with his name: Royal Commission on Historical Monuments: Roman York 1962: no. 140, pl. 65; a relief from East Stoke, Nottinghamshire depicts a divine couple possibly identifiable as Sucellus and his Gallic consort Nantosuelta: Green 1989: 53; Toynbee 1964: 176. Sucellus’s name means ‘the good striker’; Nantosuelta may be translated as a ‘winding brook’, though this is uncertain.

23Alfoldi 1949; Green 1979: figs. 61–62

24Green 1976: pl. 15e

25The emphasis on the human head is discussed in Chapter 7.

26Wright and Phillips 1975: 73, no. 196

27Aldhouse-Green 2001b

28See Aldhouse-Green 2015b for a concise overview of Irish myths

29Green 1989: 50, figs 19, 20

30Green 1989: 58, fig. 22; Henig 1993a: no. 78, pl. 22

31R.I.B. 140

32Thevenot 1968: 46–71

33Koch 2007, Map 15.5; Ross 1967: 37. For discussion of linguistic evidence for ancient place-names (for examples in Ptolemy’s Geography), see Koch 2007: 20–22

34Cunliffe and Fulford 1982: no. 38

35A thyroid condition caused by iodine deficiency.

36R.I.B. 105, 106

37R.I.B. 151

38Henig 1993a: nos 116, 118 (from Ashcroft and the Leauses)

39Henig 1993a: no. 117

40The sculpture was found at Lemington but is almost certainly from Chedworth originally: Henig 1993a: no. 94

41Given the assumption that, as at present, 90 per cent of people are right-handed.

42Geography 4.1.13; trans. Tierney 1959–60: 262

43Aldhouse-Green 2015b: 162; Mac Cana 1983: 32

44O’Faolain 1986: 132

45Toynbee 1962: no. 29, pl. 35

46Toynbee 1964: 86–87, pl. XIX

47Ross 1967: 217, pl. 68a

48Koch 2007: map 15.4

49Koch 2007: map 15.6

50Stead 1985 (Battersea Shield); Garrow 2008: 18, fig. 2.1 (Waterloo Helmet)

51Bradley 1990: 180–81; Isserlin 1997: 91–100; Aldhouse-Green 2001a: 105

52Solinus Collectanea rerum memorabilium; trans. after Cunliffe 1995: 16, adapted by the present author

53Such as the 2nd-century AD geographer Ptolemy. For a concise history of Roman Bath see Cunliffe 1995: 16–29

54Cunliffe 1995: 20, fig. 6

55This came to me as I was preparing a talk on fire rituals to the ‘Great Fire 350’ event in the City of London, September 2016, at which a scale model of 17th-century London was ceremoniously set on fire.

56A handful of coins: Sellwood 1988: 279–80

57Cunliffe and Fulford 1982: no. 26, pl. 7

58R.I.B. 143–50

59Tomlin 1988: no. 94

60Cunliffe and Fulford 1982: no. 25, pl. 7

61The gorgoneion was a device to deflect evil.

62Cunliffe and Fulford 1982: no. 38, pl. 11

63An interesting local twist on the Minerva-cult in Britain is provided by the site of Baldock, Hertfordshire, where a cache of nineteen votive plaques and a silver figurine depict Minerva in traditional Classical form but the epigraphy names the goddess by the British name Senuna. David Mattingly (2006: 484) cites this as an example of the adoption of Roman physical imagery by a local British deity. If the three little female figures on the schist plaque at Bath do represent Sulis Minerva, the reverse seems to be occurring, with local iconography replacing Classical representational custom.

64Lydney and its presiding deity Nodens were discussed in Chapter 4, present volume. Gaul possessed a large number of these sanctuaries: perhaps the most noteworthy, because of the wealth of images and artefacts that have survived, are Fontes Sequanae in Burgundy (Deyts 1983; 1994) and Chamalières near Clermont-Ferrand in the Auvergne (Romeuf 2000).

65As suggested by Martin Henig (1988: 5)

66Allason-Jones 1989: 156

67For detail of the offerings see Henig et al. 1988: 5–53

68Cunliffe 1995: 100

69Cunliffe 1995: 101

70R.I.B. 1524, 1526

71For the comprehensive study of Coventina’s Well see Allason-Jones and McKay 1985

72R.I.B. 1531

73Allason-Jones and McKay 1985: stones 4 and 1 (pls VI and V), respectively

CHAPTER SIX

1 From the Biblical New Testament Gospel according to Saint Luke 13: vv10–11

2 Vitebsky 1995: 98–103

3 See Beith 1995: 45–75 for a discussion of medieval physicians and traditional medicine in the highlands and islands of Scotland

4 Crummy et al. 2007: 1

5 Crummy et al. 2007: 201–53

6 Jackson in Crummy et al. 2007: 236–52

7 Dr Alison Brookes pers. comm.; British Museum 1922: 34

8 Wiltshire 2007

9 Beith 1995: 229, 251; Wiltshire 2007: 397–98

10Schultes et al. 1992: 98

11R.I.B. 1530; Allason-Jones and McKay 1985: no. 142

12Sherratt 1991; Aldhouse-Green and Aldhouse-Green 2005: 122–26

13A game of some antiquity. Jane Austen was a keen player: https://www.janeausten.co.uk/spillikins

14Crummy et al.2007: 209, fig. 105

15Crummy et al. 2007: 224–26

16Germania 10

17Crummy et al. 2007: 209

18Crummy et al. 2007: 186

19Crummy 2007: 352, 357. See also Schädler 2007: 359–75

20Schädler 2007: 375

21Davies 2007: 86

22Cunliffe 1995: 37

23R.I.B. 155

24For the significance of dreams, portents and omens see Wildfang and Isager (eds) 2000, and in particular Hansen’s essay: Hansen 2000: 57–66

25Wheeler and Wheeler 1932: 44–57

26Diodorus Siculus Library of History 5.31; trans Tierney 1959–60: 251

27Entitled The Dreamwalker BBC Radio 3, 21 August 2016. Keenan began his talk by quoting the words of a 13th-century Sufi mystic, who – contrary to some mainstream Islamic doctrine – proclaimed music as being ‘the perfume breath of God’. Sufism is a branch of Islam, and it has attracted particular attention by its whirling dances, ‘dervish dances’ that occur when the souls of followers are intoxicated by their suffusion with spirit energy and express their joy at liberation from selfhood by their dancing: Chittick 2000: 89–96

28Raftery 1994: pl. 58

29Macdonald 2007: no. 31, colour pl. 1b

30Steven Birch pers. comm.

31Aldhouse-Green 2010: 195–98, with refs

32Henig 1993a: no. 103, pl. 27

33Pentikäinen 1998: 26–48

34Pentikäinen 1998: 39

35For an in-depth discussion of shamanism in ancient Europe see Aldhouse-Green and Aldhouse-Green 2005

36Tomlin 1988: 166, no. 45

37Bath: Cunliffe 1995: 107; Lydney: Wheeler and Wheeler 1932: 102, fig. 28

38The Lydney stamp is interesting: the inscription gives instructions as to how the healing drug collyrium was to be administered: ‘in drops, as an ointment mixed with honey, to be applied as a tincture with a brush’. Wheeler and Wheeler 1932: 102

39Aldhouse-Green 1999: 37–40; Deyts 1983; 1994

40R.I.B. 153

41Tomlin 1988: 118, no. 8

42Green 1975; 1981

43The author noted these votive items on a visit to the museum at Epidaurus in the 1990s.

441988: 152; Aristides Hieroi Logoi II, 7. Aelius Aristides was born in AD 118, and spent some years living at the Pergamum shrine.

45Johns 1982: 57–59, pl. on 58; Potter 1985; Gosden 2003: 168–69

461982: 59

47Aldhouse-Green 2001c

48Henig 1984: 153, fig. 75. As well as the model gold eyes, dozens of eye-shaped pieces of Roman wall-plaster have been found at Wroxeter, an indication of the one-time presence there of a shrine to a divine healer of eyes. www.english-heritage.org.uk/learn/story-of-england/romans/votive-body-parts

49Badger 1838: 286–87

50Re¸dzioch 1996

51Tacitus Annals 2. 68: trans. Grant 1956: 109

52Gager (ed.) 1992; Mees 2009

53Tomlin 1993

54Henig 1993b: 131–33. Note the presence of full-size weapons from the shrine as well as miniature ones.

55Tomlin 1988: 114, no. 5

56Tomlin 1988: 163, no. 44

57Hamilton 2016

CHAPTER SEVEN

1 The Acts of the Apostles 8:27

2 MacGregor 2010: 225

3 Diodorus Siculus 5.29, 4–5; trans. Tierney 1959–60: 250

4 The Saluvii were a powerful tribe in the Lower Rhône Valley (see Armit 2012)

5 Armit 2006

6 For full discussion of the ‘head habit’ see Armit 2012. For references earlier in this volume see Chapter 2

7 Aldhouse-Green 2012; Boon 1976

8 Aldhouse-Green 2012: fig. 1

9 Yew is a highly poisonous evergreen, its blood-red berries appearing in winter, so it may be that the symbols are indicative of death and rebirth.

10Brewer 1986: 13, no. 14

11It is tempting to interpret this scenario as that in which the Christian householder allowed one of his staff, perhaps a bailiff or slave, to retain his/her pagan identity, as signified by the carved head, as long as it was kept out of sight.

12Virgil Aeneid Book 6; trans. C. Day Lewis, in Chisholm and Ferguson (eds) 1981: 226–27

13From the Fourth Branch of the Mabinogi; trans. (from the Welsh) Jones and Jones 1976: 61

14‘At that time Math son of Mathonwy might not live save while his two feet were in the fold of a maiden’s lap, unless the turmoil of war prevented him’: from the Fourth Branch; trans. Jones and Jones 1976: 55

15Aldhouse-Green 2015b: 110–12

16Ross 1967: 127–67

17Henig 1993a: no. 93, pl. 26. Henig reads the motifs by the snakes’ mouths as rosettes but, based on analogy with Gaulish sculptures, I think that their interpretation as open bags makes more sense.

18Aldhouse-Green 2000: 82, fig. 7.2

19Esperandieu 1911: no. 3133

20Kaul 1991: 21, pl. 15; Aldhouse-Green 2004: 154, fig. 6.2

21Aldhouse-Green 2004: 157, fig. 6.6

22Aldhouse-Green 2000: 86, fig. 7.8

23Stokes 1897: 384

24Boon 1984; Aldhouse-Green 2004: 172, fig. 6.13

25Aldhouse-Green 2015b: 48–57

26Religious practitioners who might have had shamanic powers are discussed in Chapter 6, this volume.

27From the Tain Bo Cuailnge; trans. Kinsella 1970: 60

28For detailed discussions of shamans and animal-personae see Price (ed.) 2001; Aldhouse-Green and Aldhouse-Green 2005; Vitebsky 1995; Willis (ed.) 1994

29Stead 1971: 260

30A technique in which sheets of metal were placed on a firm but giving surface, such as pitch, and decorative motifs moulded into the inner side of the bronze in negative impressions, to produce positive decoration on the outer surface.

31Green 1996: 40 and colour plate opposite; Aldhouse-Green 2004: 166, fig. 6.9

32Arnold 2001

33Bewley 1994: 38–40; Smith 1992: fig. 7.4

34Aldhouse-Green 2000: 85, 87, fig. 7.9

35From The Destruction of Da Derga’s Hostel; trans. Gantz 1981: 65–66

36Aldhouse-Green and Aldhouse-Green 2005: 195–96; the tale of Mog Ruith appears in a medieval mythic tale The Siege of Druim Damgaire: Smyth 1995; Sjoestedt 1926; Sjoblom 1996

37Cunliffe 1986: 155–71; 1993: 100–12

38Woodward and Woodward 2004

39Serjeantson and Morris 2011: 88, 98–99

40Ratcliffe 1997: 10; Wilmore 1977: 148

41Hunter 2015: 86; Megaw 1970: no. 211

42Green 1989: 104–5, fig. 45; Deyts 1976: no. 160. The image from Moux brings to mind the Norse god Odin, whose ravens, Huginn (‘Thought’) and Munin (‘Memory’) spied for him and brought him daily news-bulletins about happenings in the world. Faulkes 1987: 138

43From The Destruction of Da Derga’s Hostel; trans. Gantz 1981: 68–70

44Green 1996: 66, 124

45Triplistic imagery is equally prominent in Roman Gaul and the Rhineland.

46White and Barker 1998: 9

47White and Barker 1998: 96–97, fig. 50

48Aldhouse-Green 2004: 208, fig. 7.15

49Raftery 1994: 185–86, pl. 73

50Raftery 1994: 186

51Henig 1993a: no. 131, pl. 33. We know that weird things happened to Mars in Roman Gloucestershire: take the gabled relief dedicated to the British god Mars Olloudius from Custom Scrubs, near Bisley, depicting a strange figure with a tiny head and wardrobe-like body, with the distinctly non-warlike emblems of cornucopiae and offering-plate: Henig 1993: no. 40; pl. 13

52Henig 1993a: no. 120, pl. 31

53Henig 1998b

54Aldhouse-Green 2016

55Aldhouse-Green 2004: 208, fig. 7.16

56Deyts 1976: no. 171; Green 1989: 192

57Vitebsky 1995: 15

58After the ‘type-site’ of La Tène in Switzerland where vast amounts of decorated metalwork were ritually cast into Lake Neuchâtel in the later first millennium BC: Megaw 1970; Garrow et al. (eds) 2008; Green 1996

59Gombrich 1960: 331; 1972: 471–75. The term ‘surrealism’ was first used in 1924 to describe the desire for young artists to ‘create something more real than reality itself, something of greater significance, that is, than a mere copy of what we see’: Gombrich 1972: 471

60Aldhouse-Green 2004: 194

61Henig 1993a: no. 96; Aldhouse-Green 2004: 198–99, fig. 7.11

62www.100swallows.wordpress.com/2008/04/27/michelangelo’s-very-last-statue. It is known as the Rondanini Pietà, and is housed in the Sforza Castle in Milan.

63The term ‘robust tranquillity’ was used in a recent conversation on BBC Radio 4’s Saturday Live, 24 September 2016.

CHAPTER EIGHT

1 Satire 2; trans. Creekmore 1963: 48. The Orontes was the name of the principal river flowing through Syria.

2 Satire 3: trans. Creekmore 1963: 41

3 Malvern 2016

4 Whipple 2016

5 For example, Pliny the Elder Natural History 23.79; Seneca the Younger Declamations vol. 1 and Pomponius Mela De Chorographia 3.5

6 The final verse of Kipling’s poem A Song to Mithras; Wilkinson and Wilkinson (eds) 1952: 131

7 Curtis 1993: 11–14

8 Jerome Letters 107; after de la Bedoyère 2002: 176

9 Dalmatia was a Roman province in what is now Croatia.

10R.I.B. 1544; Coulston and Phillips 1988: 47, no. 121, pl. 31

11de la Bedoyère 2002: 175

12Grimes 1968: 98–117

13Grimes 1968: 109

14Grimes 1968: 115; Toynbee 1963; 1964: 315–17

152002: 176

16Ferguson 1970: 54

17Coulston and Phillips 1988: 47, no. 122, pl. 32

18Hunter et al. 2016

19Arnold and Davies 2000: 129–32

20R.I.B. 322

21Lewis 2016

22Henig 1993c: 147, fig. 122

23Lewis 2016

24Octavius 6, 23. 1–4; after Lewis and Reinhold 1966: 574

25Early Christians came under fire from pagans who wilfully interpreted the ‘Body and Blood of Christ’ Communion in which bread and wine were/are consumed as involving the actual consumption of human flesh and blood. See Rives 1995

26Ferguson 1970: 14

27Green 1976: 55–57 (with references); James 1958

28Ovid Fasti 4. 183–87; after Henig 1984: 110

29R.I.B. 1791

30Ovid Fasti 2 refers to Augustus’s imposition of a new moral code on Rome: Chisholm and Ferguson 1981: 88

31Green 2003: 20–23; Ferguson 1970: 26–30

32Lewis and Reinhold 1966: 579

33Ferguson 1970: 28

34Birley 1986: 78–79

35R.I.B. 1135; Phillips 1977: 21, no. 58, pl. 17

36Phillips 1977: 16, no. 48, pl. 12

37Green 1976: 222; Tillyard 1917

38Francis 1926; Green 1976: 222; Harris and Harris 1965: 109–12; Henig 1984: 110–11, fig. 44

39Beard et al. 1998: 296

40De La Bedoyère 2002: 146–47

41It is worth noting that the site chosen for the main sanctuary in Rome itself was on the Aventine Hill, probably in acknowledgment of the god’s Syrian home on Mount Commagene.

42R.I.B. 992

43R.I.B. 1131; Phillips 1977: 17–20, nos 51–54

44Phillips 1977: 21, no. 57

45A series of silver and sheet-bronze plaques depicting Dolichenus balancing on a bull come from Heddernheim in Germany: Merlat 1954: 177ff. A stone image of Dolichenus on his bull is in the Capitoline Museum in Rome: Ferguson 1970: pl. 13

46R.I.B. 320

47R.I.B. 2098

48Harris and Harris 1965: 73; Green 2003: 27, pl. 12

49Metamorphoses I (otherwise known as The Golden Ass) 11. 5–6; after Beard et al. 1998: 298–99

50Graves 1950: 9–21

51Suetonius Life of Domitian 1

52Roberts 2013: 262–63

53Henig 1984: 113

54Beard et al. 1998: 299–300

551984: 115–16

56British Museum 1922: 89

57Green 1976: 222, pl. XXIIe

58The altar was reused as a foundation-stone for a late Roman wall at Blackfriars: Henig 1984: 114; Hassall 1980: 196–98, no. 2

59Known as a favissa.

60Ferguson 1970: 37

61Grimes 1968: 108, pl. 48

62R.I.B. 658; de la Bedoyère 2002: 173, fig. 116

CHAPTER NINE

1 Tomlin 1988: 232, no. 98

2 Adversus Judaeos; Thomas 1981: 43

3 De Excidio Britanniae 10; Thomas 1981: 48

4 Thomas 1981: 48

5 A History of the English Church and People 1.7; trans. Sherley-Price 1955: 47

6 Bede 1.7; trans. Sherley-Price 1955: 44–45

7 Bede 1.7; trans. Sherley-Price 1955: 47

8 Salway 1981: 718, 721; Breeze 2016: 35. Breeze argues that there is a case for reinterpreting the original texts of Gildas and Bede, where they call the place of their martyrdom as Legionum Urbs (Caerleon), and suggests that this may be a corruption of Legorum Urbs, Roman Leicester.

9 Theodosian Code 9.16, 2; AD 319; Lewis and Reinhold 1966: 607

10Salway 1993: 223–24

11For a full discussion of these ancient writers’ reportage, see Thomas 1981: 87

12Ferguson 1970: 55–56

13See Thomas 1981: 88, fig. 4 for examples/variations of the chi-rho symbol

14Ferguson 1970: 56

151970: 56

16Bede 1.8; trans. Sherley-Price 1955: 47–48

17Ecclesiastical History 10.7; after Lewis and Reinhold 1966: 605

18The Eucharist – the sharing of blessed bread and wine, as Christ did at the Last Supper.

19Boon 1961; Brewer 2006: 23

20Boon 1976: 173, argues that the Orpheus-and-Seasons mosaic ‘could well be taken as an index of the proprietor’s Christianity’

21Brewer 2006: 23

22See Painter 1976: 385–86

23Painter 1977; Thomas 1981: 113–21

24For a full discussion of later Romano-British Christian silver plate, for example the late 4th-century ‘Corbridge Lanx’ and the bullion from Traprain Law in Scotland see Thomas 1981: 113, 102

25Designed to be suspended from a beam or niche.

26Painter 1976: 385

27The alpha and omega, the first and last letters of the Greek alphabet, referring to Christ’s words ‘I am the alpha and omega, the beginning and the end’.

28Toynbee 1978; Green 1976: pl. XVIb; London Museum 1930: 47, pl. XX

29R.I.B. 215–17; Henig 1984: 147

30Other, later 4th-century hoards of silver, containing Christian pieces, are recorded from Britain, including the Mildenhall Treasure from Suffolk, which has a wonderful mixture of pagan and Christian imagery, including a superb head of Oceanus, who may have been reinterpreted as that of God: Painter 1977. At the other end of Britannia, a hoard of 110 pieces, of Gaulish manufacture, of which 6 were marked with Christian symbols, comes from Traprain Law in East Lothian, Scotland. Most of these pieces had been hammered flat, as bullion for distribution as loot, perhaps in the early 5th century AD, so their Christian symbolism did not protect them from being recycled as plunder: Thomas 1981: 102

31Thomas 1981: 105–6, pl. 5; Toynbee 1964: 447

32Thomas 1981: 106

33Toynbee 1964: 250, fn. 4

34Toynbee 1964: 251

35Meates 1955; Fulford 2005; http://www.english-heritage.org.uk/daysout/properties/lullingstone-roman-villa

36It is only at Dura Europos on the Euphrates that similarly early wall-paintings have been recorded.

37See Meates 1955: 131, fig. 11 for reconstruction of the pagan and Christian rooms.

38Toynbee 1964: 222–23; Thomas 1981: 94; fig. 9

39Toynbee argues for this interpretation, based on the painting of a curtain behind the figure, reminiscent of portrayals of the dead in Roman funerary imagery: 1964: 223

40First Apology 61; after Lewis and Reinhold 1966: 589–90

41Not unique in Roman Britain: for discussion of such tanks see Thomas 1981: 122

42British Museum 1964: 62–63, fig. 30.3; Thomas 1981: 175; Henig 1984: 226

43Goodburn 1979: 24

44A good comparable example is at Lydney on the Severn (see Chapter 6), where a late temple to the Romano-British god Nodens was erected on the site of an Iron Age hillfort and iron mine.

45Mercury was the herald of the gods and the cockerel was an appropriate animal companion because it heralds the dawn. Goats and sheep were associated with his role as god of fertility and prosperity.

46Woodward and Leach 1993; de la Bedoyère 2002: 224–25

47Thomas 1981: 237–38; Sparey Green 1989

48Apologia 37.4; after Lewis and Reinhold 1966: 584

49Acta Concilia Arelatensis; Thomas 1981: 44, 197; Eusebius Ecclesiastical History 10.5.21–24; Munier 1963: 14–22

50Brewer 2006: 45–46, 22, 15

CHAPTER TEN

1 Aeneid Book 6: lines 236–43; trans. Day Lewis 1966; after Chisholm and Ferguson 1981: 231

2 Saunders 2017.

3 This was true not just for Rome but for all Roman cities. The law banning intra-mural burial stemmed from a blend of ritual and practical considerations, not least the danger of disease and pollution.

4 Suetonius Nero 48; Hope 2000: 111

5 Bodel 2000

6 Aeneid 6: lines 149–56; Chisholm and Ferguson 1981: 229

7 Pharsalia I, lines 441 following; trans. Graves 1956: 38. Lucan came from Spain, where he was born in AD 39. He is chiefly known for his epic poem the Pharsalia, which chronicled the civil war between Pompey and Caesar in the mid-1st century BC.

8 Library of History 5.28; trans. Tierney 1959–60: 250. Diodorus Siculus was a contemporary of Julius Caesar and Augustus, and wrote his LH as a definitive history of Rome. Pythagoras was a Greek philosopher from Samos, who taught in southern Italy in the 6th century BC. The much later Roman Stoic philosopher Seneca, who became minister to the emperor Nero, examined this doctrine in his Epistolae Morales (Letters from a Stoic), no. 108, written in the AD 60s. The core of Pythagorean teaching was the transmigration of souls between bodies.

9 Geography 4.4.4. Strabo was a near-contemporary of Diodorus.

10Cunliffe 1986: 155–71

11Aelian De Natura Animalium 2: 22; Silius Italicus Punica 3: 342–48

12Hill 2001. This is not the first female chariot-burial to have been discovered at Wetwang. Two other high-status woman’s tomb contained chariots, personal items and pig-bones: Dent 1985: 85–92; Green 1986: 124–26

13At time of writing, a new Yorkshire Iron Age chariot-burial had just been discovered at Pocklington. The chariot was found – and this is a very rare occurrence – together with the two horses that had drawn it, buried facing each other. The Times, 31 March 2017: 23

14Taylor 1993

15Booth 2012: 337

16Note that this chapter is entirely focused on pagan Romano-British mortuary rituals. The early Christian tradition was entirely different, and is discussed in Chapter 9.

17Matthews 1981

18Matthews 1981: 7, 9 and passim

19Macdonald 1979: 415–24

20Philpott 1991: 77–89

21Sophocles Antigone; trans. Fagles 1984

22Aldhouse-Green 2015a, passim

23See Aldhouse-Green 2015a for in-depth discussion of the ritual and meaning behind the bog-body phenomenon.

24This suggestion was made to me in April 2017 by a member of the audience at a lecture I gave in Wigton to the West Cumberland Archaeological Society. I only wish it had been my idea!

25From the opening of a curse, or duscelinata (‘evil death song’), written on lead in the 1st century AD and found in a Roman cemetery at Larzac in southern France: Mees 2009: 57, 196

26Mees 2009: 50–69

27Chapman 2000–2001

28De Bello Gallico 6.18

29Fitzpatrick 1996; Zavaroni 2007

30Belonging to the tribe of the Cantiaci: Parfitt and Green 1987

31R.I.B. 155, 162, 163

32Pagan Romano-British burial rites were very different from those of early Christians, for whom both age and the need for elaborate tombstones or funeral goods were unimportant (see Chapter 9).

33The most famous example was Julius Caesar’s adoption of Octavian, the young man who would progress to being the first emperor of Rome.

34R.I.B. 1065. The tombstone of Barathes himself was set up in Corbridge, nearby. He died at age 68, and his profession described as that of ‘flag-bearer’, presumably a military position.

35Henig 1984: 194. Sadly, this table is now lost. Other burials equipped with pipes are noted by Henig 1984: 195; he comments that some tombs were furnished with lamps so that the dead person should not have to endure utter darkness.

36Liversidge 1968: pls 3, 25a, 26c

37Liversidge 1968: pl. 1

38Henig 1993a: nos 137, 138, pl. 35

39Brewer 1986: no. 29, pl. 12

40Toynbee 1964: 112–14; pl. XXIXa, b

41Jennings 1992: 70

42St John’s Gospel chapter 11, vv 1–45

CHAPTER ELEVEN

1 McDermid 2014: 302

2 R.I.B. 152

3 R.I.B. 140

4 R.I.B. 151

5 Cunliffe and Fulford 1982: no. 26; Cunliffe 1995: col. pl. 1 and black-and-white fig. 5: if you look closely at the right cheek, you can see faint striations from a narrow sharp-bladed instrument.

6 Tacitus Annals 14.31; trans. Grant 1956: 318

7 See later this chapter for an account of how this priesthood came into being. The thought occurs to me that what happened at Colchester is not unlike President Trump’s plan to build a wall to keep the Mexicans out of the US, paid for with Mexican money.

8 Webster 2016

9 Webster 2016

10Strict Islamic law

11MQPhil 2008

12Ross 1967: 169

13R.I.B. 986, 987

14R.I.B. 988 (Felicessimus), 989 (Peltrasius)

15Sauer 2003: 24

16Upper Germany (Germania Superior) was the name given to the Rhenish province closest to Rome, as opposed to Germania Inferior (Lower Germany), which was to the north.

17Sauer 2003: 26–30

18An amusing modern take on prudery and censorship has recently occurred on the social media site Facebook which in 2016, citing ground of its indecency, took down a picture of the recently-discovered nude image of a god found this century at the Roman fort of Papcastle, near Cockermouth in Cumbria: Apperley 2016: 34

19Aldhouse-Green 2016

20Henig 1993a: 11, no. 24, pl. 9

21Islam eschews holy images as being sacrilegious, and some fundamentalist Muslims see even those of the remote past as being blasphemous and ripe for destruction in the name of Allah and The Prophet Mohammed.

22See Croxford 2003

23Aldhouse-Green 2016

24Woodward and Leach 1993

25Henig 1993d: 88–94

26Caesar De Bello Gallico 6: 17; trans. Wiseman and Wiseman 1980: 123

27Tacitus Germania 43. He describes the Naharvali’s worship of twin gods whom they called ‘Alci’, ‘but according to the Roman Interpretation the gods so recorded are Castor and Pollux’: after Henig 1984: 36

28Webster 2016

29Sellwood 1988

30Green 1989: 36–54

31Esperandieu 1915, no. 4566

32Toynbee 1962, no. 79, pl. 78; 1964: 176

33R.I.B. 140

34Peregrinus means ‘foreigner’, and it is interesting that one dedication from a temple at Trier refers to ‘Mercury Peregrinorum’, divine patron of foreigners and trade: Wightman 1970: 215

35See Susini 1973: 14–20 for discussion of stonemasons and the production of inscriptions

36Ross 1967: 36

37Wightman 1970: 211–14

38Wightman 1970: 209

39These were ex-slaves who had been freed, or manumitted, by their owners but who often retained a close connection with their former owners and their families.

40C.I.L. (Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum) XII, no. 4333; after Lewis and Reinhold 1966: 62–63. Reference is made to the seviri Augustales at Colchester in Britannia early on in this chapter, their forced patronage of the Imperial Cult being a particular source of grievance to the newly conquered Trinovantes in the AD 40s and 50s.

41As at Eisenberg in Germany and Metz in France: Green 1989: 54, with references

42Henig 1993a: nos 78–82

43Henig 1993a: 26–27, no. 78, pl. 22

44Generally on his head but sometimes on his ankles.

45A good example is the highly schematic image of Mercury found at the bottom of a well at Emberton in Buckinghamshire: Henig 1993a: 26, no. 77, pl. 22, which clearly show the god wearing horns, as does the even more abstract and perfunctory carving from Great Chesters on Hadrian’s Wall, identifiable as Mercury only by his scratched-on caduceus and money-bag: Coulston and Phillips 1988: no. 81, pl. 22. Both these depictions show British schematism at its zenith; no attempt has been made to give ‘human’ reality to the body or its accompanying symbols.

46See Ross 1967: 127–67

47Bath: Cunliffe and Fulford 1982: no. 39, pl. 11; for an example of a late Iron Age bucket burial, at Aylesford in Kent, see Aldhouse-Green 2004: 165–68

48Shaw and Stewart 1994: 1

49For both sides of the debate – positive and negative – see the individual contributions to Stewart and Shaw (eds)

50Webster 2016

51Williams 1979; Green 1998: 18–19

EPILOGUE

1 I use the term humanitas in the way it was employed in the Classical world, to refer to people perceived as so different from Greeks and Romans as to be outside ‘civilization’.

2 Wyndham 1955

3 Aldhouse-Green 2010: 20–38; Bradley 2007: 1–10

4 Cammaerts 1937

5 The Cloud of Unknowing is an anonymous 14th-century British Christian text (Backhouse (ed.) 2009), either written by someone associated with the Carthusian monastic order or by a person outside the monastic system altogether. I am grateful to Dr Rowan Williams for the latter observation.

6 Hyde 2008