The epics
We have referred to many of the texts that were produced during this era and suggested that many may have been descriptions (probably more than prescriptions) of ritual enactments of various kinds.
The two most famous “texts” to emerge in this period were the major epics, the Ramayana and the Mahabharata. When one speaks of them as “texts,” however, one cannot forget the oral and performative dimensions of both. The Ramayana was, to be sure, produced in written form, some of its earliest snippets perhaps as early as the fifth to fourth century bce.29 This written material is said to have been edited in its Sanskrit form by Valmiki. Yet the morality tale is based largely on oral stories and poems and, more importantly, was reproduced in oral and dramatic form in villages all over South Asia. The story, in short, was fluid; in each telling or dramatization different nuances would be highlighted, depending on context and dramatic troupe. As a result, there were many variations to the Ramayana, and it is enacted to this day even in Thailand and Indonesia where the story has changed. Each retelling had its own “local flavor”; so, in some Jain enactments, for example, Ravana was the hero insofar as he represented the non-vaidika protagonist.30 The Ramayana was a morality tale based on the story of Rama, a folk hero and his wife Sita. Among other things, the enacted stories stressed the importance of the role (svadharma) of the good warrior/king who is faithful to his word (rta) and to his duty; it portrayed the ideal of wifely fidelity in Slta. The narration reconciled the imagery of kingship and urban duty with that of asceticism and forest life. Among other things, it legitimated warfare insofar as Ravana was the paradigmatic enemy.The basic “plot” of the epic followed Rama’s heroic exploits. He was the eldest son and heir to his father Dasaratha, king of Ayodhya.
His stepmother, however, demanded her own son be made heir and crown prince (cashing in on a boon made available long before). Rama voluntarily withdrew to the forest with Sita (literally, “furrow”).31 In the forest, sages sought Rama’s help against harassing demons. Rama agreed to join the conflict against the demons, whose king, Ravana, abducted Slta, keeping her captive. Rama was aided by the monkeys of the forest, led by the general Hanuman, and eventually Ravana was overcome and Slta was rescued. Rama was restored to the throne of Ayodhya. In a later addition to the text the chastity and fidelity of Slta were questioned and she proved herself by surviving fire. Eventually, she returned to the earth and resumed her rightful place as a goddess.Many of the themes discussed earlier were reflected in this epic - the importance of kingship, the dialectic between city and forest (note now that it was important to have Rama return to his throne); and the sacred duty of husband and wife. Many of the stories told to Rama to inspire him and provide an example of how he should behave were stories of gods (like Skanda) who were heroes in their celestial roles. Over the years, the main characters in the epic have been understood in various ways depending on local retelling. Rama, for example, has been seen, not only as a “sacred king” and incarnation of Visnu, but also as a major deity in his own right, especially amongst Hindi-speaking people after the seventeenth century when his story appeared in a Hindi dialect. Hanuman, his monkey general, was eventually divinized and was perceived by some as the model of fidelity, virility, and patron-hero of warriors and wrestlers. Slta herself was not merely the dutiful wife, but by some women has been seen as a model of independence and strength, willing to stand up to her husband when asked to defend herself.
The other epic is the Mahabharata. Its origins appear to be in songs sung by bards in praise (stotra) of their noble patrons.
The verse form is generally known as mahakavya, wherein well-known themes are put into verse form.32 Songs sung for kings or patrons became songs sung for deities. Between the fourth century bce and the fourth century ce, many additions, stories, and anecdotes were added by various reciters until some 100,000 slokas comprised the final text organized into eighteen books - the longest single volume ever reduced to writing. Whether the epic reflected the affairs of actual historical figures has been hotly debated, and, if so, when they may have lived is unclear. It is plausible that the Mah.nbh.niat.a reflected some of the infighting that was occurring earlier in the Gangetic basin. In any case, there is a thread of a “plot” that holds the various strands of the epic together.A basic feud arose over succession to the kingdom of Kuruksetra. The rivals were two sets of cousins, descended from a legendary King Bharata; five sons of Pandu, known as the Pandava brothers; and 100 sons of Dhrtarastra (who was blind and hence ineligible for the throne). Pandu retired to the forest, still without offspring, then fathered five sons, the Pandava brothers. These five brothers were educated in the court of Dhrtarastra, who had become regent in Pandu’s absence. Their teachers included their great uncle Bhlsma (spiritual power) and the priest Drona (master of archery). These brothers exceeded their cousins in all virtues, including martial skill, incurring the jealousy of Duryodhana, Dhrtarastra’s eldest son. Duryodhana plotted to get the throne; Yudisthara, eldest son of Pandu, and rightful heir to the throne, lost his kingdom in a dice game, said to be “crooked.” Duryodhana refused to step aside when the Pandavas returned after their thirteen year exile. War became inevitable and lasted for eighteen days.
Numerous sub-plots and subsidiary stories flesh out the didactic value of the account. These were often told by raconteurs or enacted dramatically. Tucked into the Mahabharata, is one of those literary pieces that has become so well known in the Western world - the Bhagavadgita (literally, the “Song of God”).
The Bhagavadgita was set on the battlefield of Kuruksetra. Dhrtarastra heard of the war through the narration of Sanjaya. Implied also was an inner battle as Arjuna, a Pandava brother, is instructed by Krsna.The structure of the Gita includes some four sections: the first, chapter one, set the stage by recounting Arjuna’s dilemma: he did not want to go to battle against his own cousins. In the second stage, chapters two to seven, Krsna summarized some options for living. There was a dialectic presented between sacrifice and action (chapters three and four) and between renunciation and action (chapters five and six). The third section (chapters eight to twelve) appears to represent the “core” of the text; this part, at least, if not the entire text, was clearly written by a devotee of Krsna, as this section provided an epiphany of Krsna, who was presented as the fulfillment of all cosmologies and devotion (bhakti) to him as the culmination of all paths. The final section, chapters thirteen to eighteen, apparently using the dualistic Samkhya system as a base, presented homologies to two polarities - purusa and prakrti - and to the three characteristics (gunas).
The Bhagavadgita did many things at once. Clearly, it presented bhakti and Krsna as the epitome of all previous options. As indicated earlier, some scholars believe the cult of Krsna to have had connections to the city of Mathura, a city where Buddhism was also strong, and that Krsna, at the least, thus offered a vaidika alternative to Buddhism. But other themes and issues were addressed - these include: an articulation of the appropriate forms that dharma should take; a reconciliation of dualistic (samkhya) cosmologies and monistic ones; reconciliation of the ways of wisdom (jnana); action (karma) and devotion (bhakti); and integration of various soteriological paths (sacrifice, asceticism, yoga). Not least of all, it highlighted theism and devotion to Krsna as the summum bonum of religious practice, especially as an alternative to Buddhism. In the process it taught disciplined action (karmayoga) and lack of attachment to the fruit of one’s action (karma- phalasanga).