The Umayyads and the Abbasids

After ‘Ali was killed, Mu'awiya claimed the caliphate. His leadership gave birth to what is known as the Umayyad Dynasty. This marked the end of the period of the Rightly Guided Caliphs.

The Umayyad period lasted nearly a century, from 661 until 750 ce. Umayyad leaders ruled from the city of Damascus in Syria. Although they were considered fairly effective leaders who expanded the Muslim Empire farther east to India and farther west to Spain, the reign of the Umayyads was controversial. For example, many Muslims thought that the Umayyads did not truly represent the diversity of the Muslim people, favoring Arab Muslims over non-Arab Muslims. Such criticism arose in part because Mu‘awiya had designated his son Yazid as his successor instead of letting the community select a leader. This turned the caliphate into a dynasty.

Many Muslims who were opposed to the Umayyad Dynasty felt that the leadership of the umma should come from the line of Muhammad through Fatima and ‘Ali. They argued that, therefore, their sons, Hasan and Husayn, should lead the umma. With the support of the Shi‘a, Husayn eventually challenged the Umayyads for authority. However, he was slain in 68o ce. when Yazid’s armies ambushed him on the plains of Karbala in what is now Iraq. This tragic event is referred to as the “martyrdom of Husayn.” This is a moment in Shi‘a history that is solemnly commemorated to the present day as Husayn’s sacrifice for the Muslim people. With the death of Husayn, the number of Muslims who believed the leader of the umma should be from the family of the Prophet grew. It was at this point that the Shi‘a formally broke away from the Sunnis and established a line of successors to the Prophet that remained within Muhammad’s family.

In the late seventh and early eighth centuries ce, many more Muslims began to criticize the Umayyad Dynasty. This group included those who were critical of the Umayyads for their perceived discrimination against non-Arabs and also those who supported the family of ‘Ali as rightful leaders of the umma. Muslims opposed to the Umayyads became known as the Abbasids, taking the name of one of Muhammad’s uncles, al-Abbas ibn Abd al-Muttalib. In 750 ce, the Abbasid Revolution succeeded in removing the Umayyads from power.

The first caliph of the Abbasids was a man named Abu al-Abbas, and during his rule the Abbasids moved their capital from Damascus to Baghdad. Baghdad became a cultural capital of the world. Islamic arts and sciences flowered in this time, which became known as the classical period of Islamic civilization. One of the most well-known pieces of literature from this period is One Thousand and One Nights. These colorful tales celebrate the reign of the most famous Abbasid caliph, Harun al-Rashid, who ruled for twenty-five years in the late eighth century.

Many of these intellectual and artistic developments had an enormous impact on world history and the cultures of Asia and Europe. Islamic scholarship in science, philosophy, and medicine built on earlier knowledge from Greek and Persian sources and was very influential in European schools and universities for many centuries. The time of the Abbasids was also the period during which many Islamic religious doctrines were developed into forms that are still accepted today. For example, it was in this period that the Islamic legal schools of thought, which we discuss later in this chapter, were formalized.

Abbasid rule continued for several centuries, but not all Muslims were united under the Abbasid Caliphate. In 950 ce, for example, rulers in Cairo and Spain also claimed the title of caliph. Furthermore, the Abbasid period saw the influence of the Crusades in Syria and Palestine, when European Christians sought to win control of the Holy Land.

By the end of the Abbasid Caliphate and the beginning of the fourteenth century, Islam was the majority religion in a vast region stretching from Spain and the western edge of North Africa all the way to Iran in Central Asia. The religion was also gaining converts in sub- Saharan Africa and South and Southeast Asia. Although military conquest expanded Muslim rule in some areas, it is incorrect to think that the historical spread of Islam around the globe was solely by the sword. In the earliest years of the umma, many tribes in Arabia joined the Muslims through political alliance. The growth of Islam throughout much of Asia and sub- Saharan Africa was gradual and peaceful. Often, Islam was introduced largely through traveling preachers, teachers, and traders.