Cultural history: book culture, art, and architecture
A large literature has developed about book printing in Galicia during Polish rule. Despite indications of the existence of earlier printing establishments, it is generally assumed that the beginnings of book printing in Galicia, as well as in the Ukraine as a whole, should be dated with the arrival in L’viv of an emigre from Moscow, Ivan Fedorov / Fedorovych (d.
1583). In 1574, Fedorovych issued from his press the first books printed on Ukrainian territory. He left for Volhynia the following year and then returned to L’viv in 1581. After Fedorovych’s death, printing in L’viv was continued at the printshop of the Assumption Brotherhood (est. 1586), which for the next 350 years was to remain one of the most important in Galicia. In the seventeenth century a few other presses were established in Galicia as well.laroslav Isaievych and Mykola Koval’s’kyi have written works describing the source materials available for the early history of Ukrainian printing, in which L’viv and other Galician centers are discussed at length.[284] The enormous secondary literature on Fedorovych and printing developments in Galicia is found in a comprehensive bibliography by Evgenii Nemirovskii.74 A recent collection of 137 documents on printing activity between 1573 and 1648 also includes much material on Fedorovych and Galicia.75
Several general histories of Ukrainian printing by Ilarion Svientsits’kyi, Ivan Ohiienko, Serhii Maslov, Isaak Kahanov, and lakym Zapasko all contain one or more chapters on early printing activity in Galicia.76 There are also several studies devoted primarily to Galicia, whether to the earliest pre-Fedorovych enterprises77 or to the flowering of Galician printing in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries.78 As might be expected, Fedorovych has been the subject of much writing by Ukrainian, Russian, and Polish scholars, the most important being recent works
74 E.L.
Nemirovskii, Nachalo knigopechataniia v Moskve i na Ukraine: zhizn' i deiatel'nost’ pervopechatnika Ivana Fedorova, ukazatel’ literatury 1574-1974 (Moscow: Gosudarstvennaia biblioteka SSSR im. V.I. Lenina 1975).See also Edward Kasinec, “Soviet Ukrainian Works on the Old Ukrainian Book” Recenzija, V, 1 (Cambridge, Mass. 1974), pp. 47 -68.
75 la.D. Isaievych et al., Pershodrukar Ivan Fedorov ta ioho poslidovnyky na Ukralni (XVI- persha polovyna XVII st.: zbirnyk dokumentiv) (Kiev: Naukova dumka 1975).
76 Ilarion Svientsyts’kyi, Pochatky knyhopechatania na zemliakh Ukrainy (Zhovkva: O.O. Vasyliiany 1924); Ivan Ohiienko, Istoriia ukralns’koho drukarstva, vol. I: istorychno- bibliohrafychnyi ohliad ukralns’koho drukarstva XV-XVIII vv. (L’viv 1925; reprinted Winnipeg: Tovarystvo ‘Volyn’, 1983), especially pp. 33-156; S.I. Maslov, Ukralns’ka drukovana knyha XVI-XVIII vv. (Kiev 1925); I.la. Kahanov, Ukralns’ka knyha kintsia XVI-XVII stolit' : narysy z istorilknyhy (Kharkiv: Knyzhkova palata URSR 1959); la.P. Zapasko, Mystetstvo knyhy na Ukralni v XVI-XVIII st. (L’viv: LU 1971).
See also the short survey by Lubomyr R. Wynar, History of Early Ukrainian Printing, 1491-1600, Studies in Librarianship, vol. I, no. 2 (Denver: University of Denver Graduate School of Librarianship 1962).
77 O.Ia. Matsiuk, “Chy bulo knyhodrukovannia na Ukralni do Ivana Fedorova?” Arkhiv Ukrainy, XXII, 2 (Kiev 1968), pp. 2-14; O. Hubko, “Do pochatkiv ukralns’koho drukarstva,” Arkhiv Ukrainy, XXIII, 3 (Kiev 1969), pp. 12-28.
78 D. Zubrzycki, Historyczne badania o drukarniach rusko-slowianskich w Galicyi (L’viv 1836), translated into Russian: “O slavianorusskikh tipografiiakh v Galitsii i Lodomirii,” Zhurnal Ministerstva narodnago prosvieshcheniia, XIX, 2 (St Petersburg 1838), pp. 560-585; Ilarion Svientsits’kyi, “Deshcho pro pechatniu Uspens’koho Bratstva u L’vovi ta ii vydannia,” in Zbirnyk L'vivs'koi Stavropyhil: mynule i suchasne, vol. I (L’viv 1921), pp. 325-339; A. Kawecka-Gryczowa, K.
Korotajowa, and W. Krajewski, Drukarze dawnej Polski od XV do XVIII wieku, vol. VI: Malopolski-Ziemie Ruskie (Wroclaw: ZNIO 1959); H.I. Koliada and la.D. Isaievych, “Drukars’ka sprava na zakhidnoukrains’kykh zemliakh (XVI-XVIII st.),” in Knyhy i drukarstvo na Ukralni (Kiev: Naukova dumka 1964), pp. 42-69; la.D. Isaevich, “Izdatel’skaia deiatel’nost’ L’vovskogo bratstva v XVI-XVIII vekakh,” Kniga, vol. VII (Moscow 1962), pp. 199-238; lakym Zapasko, Kolyska ukralns’koho drukarstva (L’viv: AN URSR-LNBS 1970). See also the listings compiled by la. Holovats’kyi, A. Petrushevych, and F. Maksymenko, chapter 1, notes 28, 78, and 83.by Evgenii Nemirovskii and laroslav Isaievych.79 The monastery printshops at Pochaiv (est. c. 1630), just over the border in Volhynia, which competed with the jealously guarded prerogatives of the L’viv Assumption Brotherhood, and the one at Univ (est. 1647), are also the subject of individual studies.80
The era of Polish rule resulted in significant artistic creativity in the realm of architecture and painting. Familiarity with the achievements in these art forms provides a fuller understanding of the life-style of the secular and religious cultural elite in Galicia. Beginning with the late nineteenth century and continuing down to the present, an extensive literature has developed on architecture and painting produced in Galicia during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries.81 There are several general introductions to architectural monuments in Galicia,82 and L’viv in particular has been the focus of attention in comprehensive monographs by the prewar Polish art historians Wladyslaw Loziriski and Tadeusz Mankowski and more recently by the Soviet scholar Grigorii Ostrovskii.83 The
79 E.L. Nemirovskii, Nachalo knigopechataniia na Ukraine: Ivan Fedorov (Moscow: Kniga 1974); la.D. Isaievych, Pershodrukar Ivan Fedorov i vynyknennia drukarstva na Ukrami (L’viv: Vyshcha shkola 1975).
See also the older studies of Stanislaw L. Ptaszycki, Iwan Fedorowicz, drukarz ruski we Lwowie z konca XVI wieku (Cracow: G. Gebethner 1884), originally published in Rozprawy Wydzialu Filologicznego Akademii Umiejetnosci, XI (Cracow 1884); Ivan Krevets’kyi, Ivan Ohiienko, Volodymyr Doroshenko et al., “Ivan Khvedorovych,” Stara Ukrai'na, II-V (L’viv 1924), pp. 19-74; V. Romanovs’kyi, “Druka Ivan Fedorovych, ioho zhyttia ta diial’nist’in Ukrdins’ka knyha XVI-XVII-XVIII st., Trudy Ukrains’koho naukovoho instytutu knyho- znavstva, vol. I (Kiev 1926), pp. 1-55; Semeon lu. Bendasiuk, “Obshcherusskii pervopechatnik Ivan Fedorov,’’ Vremennik Stavropigiiskogo Instituta na 1935 god, LXXI (L’viv 1934), also separately (L’viv, 1934); P. Berezov, Pervopechatnik Ivan Fedorov (Moscow 1952); la. Zapasko, Pershodrukar Ivan Fedorov (L’viv 1964).
80 “Pochaevskaia tipografiia i bratstvo l’vovskoe v XVIII viekie,’’ Volynskiia eparkhial'nyia viedomosti, XVIII, 35-38 (Zhytomir 1909), pp. 726-732, 757-758, 781-785, and 807-810; A. Shchurovs’kyi, “Do pytannia pro pochatok Pochaivs’koi drukarni,” Zapysky NTSh, VII (L’viv 1895), misc., pp. 1-3; Ivan Ohiienko, “Pochatok drukarstva v Unevi,” Zapysky NTSh, CXLI-CXLII (L’viv 1925).
81 References to the extensive literature on art and architecture in L’viv are found in the monographs of Lozinski, Mankowski, Zholtovs’kyi, and Gybarowicz, notes 83, 85, and 86 below. See also the historiographical survey of art scholarship on Galicia during the early decades of this century in Tadeusz Mankowski, “Dzieje sztuki na Ziemi Czerwieriskiej (przeglgd badah 1918-1934),’’ Ziemia Czerwienska, I (L’viv 1935), pp. 290-302.
82 Ladislaus Luszczkiewicz, “Die Architektur,” in Die osterreichisch-ungarische Monarchie in Wort und Bild: Galizien (Vienna: Vlg. der K. K. Hof- und Staatsdruckerei 1898), pp.
665 - 720; Aleksander Czolowski, “Dawne zamki i twierdzy na Rusi halickiej,” Teka Konserwatorska, I (L’viv 1892), and separately (L’viv: p.a. 1892); G.
K. Lukomskii, Galitsiia v eia starine: ocherki po istorii arkhitektury XII-XVIII vv. (Petrograd: R. Golike i A. Vil’borg 1915).83 Wladyslaw Lozinski, Sztuka Iwowska w XVI i XVII wieku: architektura i rze'zba (L’viv: H. wooden church architecture in the Carpathian foothills of southern Galicia has in particular been singled out in numerous studies.[285] [286]
Introductions to secular and religious painting in Galicia from the era of Polish rule are found in the interwar studies of Mykola Holubets’ as well as in the extensive sections on Galicia in the more recent and beautifully illustrated works by the Soviet art historians Platon Bilets’kyi and Pavlo M. Zholtkovs’kyi.[287] Special attention has also been given to secular portraiture in L’viv,[288] and to the extensive religious art (especially icons) found in churches and monasteries throughout Galicia.[289]
Cossacks in Galicia and the brigand movement
Historians have also devoted attention to two other aspects of the Ukrainian reaction to Polish rule in Galicia: the military campaigns led by the Zaporozhian Cossack Hetman Bohdan Khmel’nyts’kyi, and the uprisings and protest movements of peasants and mountain brigands. Although Khmel’nyts’kyi’s appearance in Galicia was brief (he laid siege to L’viv in 1648 and again in 1655), the central importance of the Cossack leader for Ukrainian history has prompted Galician historians to analyze in detail the activity of this national leader in their native province.
Stepan Tomashivs’kyi has devoted the most attention to the Khmel’nyts’kyi era in Galicia. He prepared three volumes of documents containing the acts of the Galician dietines, materials on the peasant movement (1648-1651), and chronicles describing the Cossack wars around L’viv (1648-1657).[290] Numerous documents dealing with the Cossacks in Galicia are also found in a mid-nineteenthcentury collection published by the Kiev Commission for the Study of Ancient Documents and in the three-volume set put out by the Soviets in 1953 on the eve of the three-hundredth anniversary of the “reunification” of the Ukraine with Russia.[291] Soviet writers are, of course, quite interested in stressing Muscovy’s interest in the fate of the “western Rus’” lands not only during the Khmel’nyts’- kyi era, but throughout the seventeenth century.[292]
Several monographs focus on specific aspects of Khmel’nyts’kyi’s activity in Galicia.
The best of these are by Stepan Tomashivs’kyi, in which he analyzes both the military and diplomatic aspects of Khmel’nyts’kyi’s first campaign (1648) in the L’viv region and the revolutionary response of the local peasantry.[293] The uprisings of Galician-Ukrainian peasants against Polish landlords between 1648 and 1654 are the focus of attention in a monograph by the Soviet scholar Volodymyr Hrabovets’kyi,[294] while the siege of L’viv in 1655 has been the subject of three older Polish studies, each of which considers the eventual departure of Khmer- nyts’kyi as a victory for Polish civilization over the “unruly eastern hordes.”[295]The most recent literature on Polish rule in Galicia is from Poland and the Soviet Ukraine, and it reflects the interests of Marxist scholarship in the interminable class conflicts that are considered the dominant feature of all history before the Soviets came to power. The most prolific writers in this regard are the Pole Maurycy Horn and the Ukrainian Volodymyr Hrabovets’kyi. In separate studies, they have described the economic situation and resultant peasant disturbances in Galicia throughout the seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries.[296] Both have also written about one particular aspect of primitive revolt, the brigand movement, based largely in the Carpathian Mountains and led by many local ‘ ‘Robin Hoods,” the most famous of whom was Oleksa Dovbush (1700-1745).[297]