Index

academic stage (Hroch), 19-20, 27 Academy of Sciences, Russian, 24, 34 administrative-command economy, 134. See also central planning “Affirmative Action Empire,” 284 Africa, and Ukraine, 277 agricultural policies: under All-Union Communist Party, 131-68; under Russian Communist Party, 112; under Pavlo Skoropadsky, 68; Soviet grain acquisitions, 137-8; violence and drop in productivity, 166.

Alexander II, xv, 22 Alexander III, 22, 23 Alexius, Patriarch of the Russian

Orthodox Church: and Orthodox hierarchy in Western Ukraine, 269; efforts to merge the Greek Catholic Church with the ROC, 268-9; [Havril] Kostelnyk and Initiative Group for Greek Catholic and Russian Orthodox reconciliation, 268; Kostelnyk’s synod and the Greek Catholic Church’s “re­union” with the Russian Orthodox Church (1946), 269; number of arrests (1945-50) of those who refused to convert, 269; number of priests who joined the group, 268-9; opposition by Greek Catholic hierarchy, 269; OUN assassination of Kostelnyk (1948), 269; OUN opposition, 269; OUN’s threats to execute converted priests, 269; similar religious “reunions” in Carpatho-Ukraine and Presov- Priashiv region of Czechoslovakia, 269

Algeria: violence against the French, 237; Algerian National-Liberation Front and OUN-B, 241 All-Russian Congress of Soviets,

Second (October 1917), 56 All-Ukrainian Academy of Sciences (VUAN), 171, 172; Postyshev’s

dismantlement of the Institute of Linguistics, 182; Ukrainian “counter-revolutionaries” in, 178 All-Ukrainian Congress of Soviets,

First (December 1917), 72; Second (March 1918), 73; Fourth (May 1920), 76; Seventh (October 1922), 78

All-Ukrainian Cooperative Union: revival during German occupation (1941-14), 223; suppression under Soviets, 171

All-Ukrainian Radio Committee, 188 All-Ukrainian Revolutionary

Committee, 76

All-Union Central Council of Unions, 157

All-Union Commissariat of Heavy Industry, 136

All-Union Communist Party: and administrative-command economy, 134; “anti-cosmopolitan” cam­paign, 270-1; Bolsheviks, national security concerns, and the Russian identity, 191-2; and collectiviza­tion (1929), 147, 169, 189; counter­insurgency strategy in Western Ukraine (1944-52), 264-6; creation of Soviet Ukraine to compete with Ukrainian National Republic, 183; and Cultural Revolution, 169-171; and culture of violence and gar­rison mentality in party leadership, 190-1; and de-kulakization (1930), 144, 145, 171; de-politicization of national identities in the USSR, 183, 284-5; efforts to modern­ize USSR, 283-4; end of Jewish sections (1930), 185; and famine of 1932-3, 155, 156-7, 182, 189,

194; and foreign policy setbacks (1926-7), 133; and industrialization, 134, 169; “nation-building” and “nation-destroying” operations, 183; and New Economic Policy, 132; as party of “victors,” 168; and perceived enemies, 169, 172, 173; radicals in, 132; rebuilding and reconfiguring post-WWII CPU, 269-70; and “revolutions from above,” 169; Seventeenth Party Congress (1934), 181; and Stalin’s death, 272-7; transfer of capital of Soviet Ukraine from Kharkiv to Kiev (1934), 189; and Ukrainization, 129-30, 167, 173-4, 175-81, 182; views of peasants, 147.

Eastern Galicia, 87; recognition of Polish sovereignty, 93; and Twelfth Party Congress resolution, 117 Alma-Ata, 134 anarchy, 69 Anderson, Barbara, 253 Andriewsky, Olga 33 Anglo-American invasion of the

USSR and expectations of a third world war, 262-3, 266 Anglo-Soviet Trade Agreement

(1921), 133 anti-Russian feelings, as response to collectivization and grain requisi­tioning, 142

anti-Semitism, 88; Central Committee’s “anti-cosmopolitan” campaign, 270-1; Doctor’s Plot (1953), 271; Einsatzgruppen, 214;

Hitler’s plans (1941) to exterminate the Jews during a war of annihi­lation, 211; and Jewish cultural distinctiveness in Polish Republic, 88; Jews and Soviet passport system, 239; mass anti-Semitic violence in Volhynia, 236, 237; Nazi racial hierarchies in different occupational zones, 222-8; number of Jewish victims of violence in Volhynia, Eastern Galicia, and Kholm Region, 238-9; number of Jewish victims and survivors of the Holocaust (1941-4), 216 (table); Pale of Settlement, 17, 49-50; perceived as Soviet agents, 215; pogroms by Russian military (1914-17), 45, 46; pogroms and mass executions of Jews in Ukraine (1941-2), 215; quotas on Jewish en­try into the party, universities, and specialized schools, 271; radicaliza­tion of anti-Semitic, anti-Polish, and anti-Ukrainian attitudes (1939), 206-7, 211; as refugees in WWI, 49; as response to collectivization and grain requisitioning in Soviet Ukraine, 142; and shift in Soviet nationalities policy (early 1930s), 185; Soviet citizenship in Eastern Galicia and Volhynia and the Jews (1939), 206. See also Holocaust, Schutzmannschaft

anti-Ukrainization and Ukrainization, 175-81

Argentina, 137

Armenians: overrepresentation in Russian Communist Party, 115; Soviet deportations from the Crimea (1944), 249, 254 armistice (1918), 68

Asia, 7; and worldwide decoloniza­

tion process, 277 assassination of Soviet ambassador to

Poland, 133 assimilation: to Polish identity, 88,

101, 231; to Russian identity, 22, 23, 24, 121, 125, 161, 181-6; 284-6 Association of Ukrainian Nationalists

(OUN), 173 associations, voluntary, 31, 50, 158.

See also civil society Attlee, Clement, 255 Australia, and world agricultural

markets, 137

Austria, emergence after WWI, 84 Austria-Hungary: collapse, 79, 84;

conflict in Balkans 39; Czechs in, 53, 54; grain-producing and -consuming regions in, 281; military command, 53; non-German peoples, 53; non­Hungarian peoples, 53; political leadership, 53; recognition of the UNR at First Brest-Litovsk Treaty, 67; Romanians in, 53, 54; Serbs in, 53, 54; Ukrainians in, 53, 54; UNR’s diplomatic relations with 62, 69; war casualties (1914-18), 40; withdrawal from Ukraine (1918), 73 Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867, 31

Austro-Hungarian Empire and Ukrainian-speaking territories, xix, 12, 14, 17-19, 28-33, 50; administrative-territorial structure, xx; casualties (1914-18), 40, 43; Austria’s plans to annex Russia’s western borderlands, 49; autonomy and home rule, Ruthenian evolu­tion toward, 54; Bukovina, 67;

conflict with Russia over Galicia (1914-17), 40-1, 47; diffusion of Ukrainian idea, 50, 51, 54; Eastern Galicia, 67, 81, 82, 84; electoral reform and elections (1907), 32; Greek Catholics in, 18; Kholm/ Chelm, 67, 84; need for political concessions to Ukrainian national movement (WWI), 52; occupations of Austrian territories during the Great War, 45, 46; plans to establish a Kingdom of Poland and intro­duce Galicia’s autonomy (1916), 52; pogroms by Russian military dur­ing WWI, 45, 46; population and national composition, 81; promises at the First Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, 67; repressions in Galicia during WWI, 46; Russification of Galicia during WWI, 46; Russophile activi­ties under Russian military occupa­tion during WWI, 45; Rusynophile orientation (in Austria-Hungary), 105; Ukrainian morale at the out­break of war (1914), 41; Ukrainian seizure of power (1918) in Lemberg/ Lviv/Lwow, 81; withdrawal from Central Ukraine (1918), 73 authenticity, 14 authoritarianism, in Poland and

Romania, 107 autonomy and home rule, 54 Azerbaijan, as a geopolitical pivot, 6 Azov, Sea of, 7

Babi Yar, 215

Bachynsky, Julian (Ukraina irredenta),

32

Balitsky, Vsevolod, 167; and Ukrainization, 174; arrest, 187; charges against, 167; experience in grain procurement campaigns, 191

Balkans, conflict in, 39

Baltic provinces, 23; Second Treaty of Brest Litovsk (1918), 282

Banat, 101

Bandera, Stepan, 207-8 Bauer, Otto, and Karl Renner, 128 Bebeshko, Julian, 44

Belarus, 7; territories to Poland, 83; civilian losses during WWII, 252, 253; and anti-collective farm movement (1932), 152; Ukrainian­speaking territories to Belarusan SSR, 74

Belarusans, 25; in Communist Party (1922), 115; division into separate communities after WWII, 201; Hitler’s plans (1941) to starve and kill, 211; as Orthodox believers in Polish republic, 86; in Polish Republic, 86; as separate from Russians, 50; in USSR, 114

Beltz, 17

Berdychiv, 215 Berehovo, 202

Berezhany (Brzezany), 243 Beria, Lavrenty, 175; advocacy to increase number of Ukrainians in the party and government and to increase the use of Ukrainian in the public sphere (1953), 273; arrest, 274; assessment of immediate post­Stalinist situation, 273; attempt to undermine Khrushchev’s authority over his former clients in Soviet Ukraine, 273; continuation of his policies after arrest, 274; denuncia­tion of the Russification of Western Ukraine, 273; and the “friendship of

the peoples of the USSR,” 274; and Khrushchev and de-Stalinization, 276; Khrushchev organizes opposi­tion to Beria and outmanoeuvres him, 274, 276; and Khrushchev and the transfer of the Crimea to Ukrainian SSR (1954), 276; and lib­eralization of relationship between Moscow and the non-Russian republics, 273; negotiations con­cerning normalization of relations with the Vatican (1953), 273-4; and non-Russians, 274; policies in East Germany (1953), 274; and post­Stalinist succession struggle, 273-4; and removal of Leonid Melnikov and replacement with Oleksii Kyrychenko, 273; and rumours of deportation of Ukrainian popula­tion of Nazi-occupied territories, 250; and Soviet Ukraine and Western Ukraine, 273; and world­wide decolonization process, 273 Berlin arrests (1927), 133 Bessarabia, xx; creation of Moldovan

SSR (1940), 203; and extermination of the Jewish population (1941-2), 215; incorporation of Ukrainian­speaking territories of Bessarabia into Ukrainian SSR (1940), 197, 203; as part of Romanian-controlled Transnistria (1941-4), 218; percent­age of Ukrainian-speaking popula­tion (1930) in, 102; to Romania (1919-20), 74, 84; Romanian popu­lation in, 102; Romanian-Ukrainian relations, 102; Ukrainian national consciousness in, 102

Bible, 24 Bismarck, Otto von, 22

Black Sea, 7, 8 blacklists, 153 blitzkrieg tactics, German, 213 Bobrinskii, Georgii, 45 Bohemia, Germany’s annexation of, 203 Bolsheviks (Russian Social Democratic

Workers Party - Bolshevik), 42, 55, 61, 179; and Borotbists, 75; Central Committee, 72; and creation of Ukrainian SSR in framework of UNR’s Third Universal, 79; defin­ing Ukraine’s borders, 72; Donets- Krivoi Rog organization, 71-2; hopes to retake political control of Ukraine, 68, 69; invasions of Ukraine (1917-1918), 62, 67, 75; nationality policy, 75; and national question, 70-1; and peasantry in Ukraine, 73; Russian Communist Party, 111; seizure of power, 56, 61; Southwestern organization, 71, 72; support in cities, 67, 75-6 ; Ukrainian Bolsheviks, 76; Ukrainian composition (1918), 71-2.

borderland, Ukraine as, 7

Borotbists: and Bolsheviks, 74; Panas Liubchenko and, 188; and peasants, 73, 76; and Ukrainian culture, 117 Boryslav-Drohobych oil district (Eastern Galicia), 82

boundaries, Ukraine’s, 7 “bourgeois nationalists,” 175, 182, 183, 191, 194

Bratslav, 17 breadbasket, Ukraine as Europe’s, 26 “bread peace,” 68

Brest-Litovsk, Treaties of, 49, 231; and Finland, the Baltic region, Poland, and Transcaucasia, 282; First, 67, 72; new German world order in East Central Europe and on the Western front, 282; Second, 67, 73, 282; Soviet Russia’s loss of population, territory, and natural resources, 282 Brezhnev, Leonid, first political assignments, 189

Briansk Province, 74

British Conservative Party, and sever­ance of diplomatic ties with USSR (1927), 133

British general strike (1926), 133 Brotherhood of Taras, 33

Brusilov offensive, 40

Brygidki Prison and the West Ukrai­nian Prison Massacres (1941), 209

Buh (Bug) River, 203; and Kholm Region, 231; Soviet advance beyond (1944), 230

Bukharin, Nikolai: and the national question, 71; removal from the Politburo (1929), 143

Bukovina, xv, xx, 14, 28, 29, 57, 67; in Austrian and Austro-Hungarian Empires, 29; Austria’s promise to create separate Bukovina and Galician Provinces (1918), 67; collectivization in (1948-51), 267; differences from Bessarabia, 102; diffusion of Ukrainian idea before WWI, 50; Einsatzgruppen (1941-2), 215; elections (1907) in, 32; incor­poration of Ukrainian-speaking ter­ritories of Bukovina into Ukrainian SSR (1940), 197, 203; Jews in (1910), 18; northern Bukovina as part of Romanian-controlled Transnistria

(1941-4), 218; number and per­centage of Ukrainian-speaking population (1910), 17; proclama­tion of creation of West Ukrainian National Republic (1918), 81; refugees from (1914-17), 48; to Romania (1919-20), 74, 84, 101; under Romanian jurisdiction (1941-44), 212; Romanian popula­tion in, 102; Romanian-Ukrainian relations, 102; Russian conquests during the Great War, 45; Russia’s annexation plans, 49; Ukrainian na­tional consciousness in Bessarabia and Bukovina, 102; during WWI, 54 Bulba-Borovets, Taras, 227.

recognition of the UNR at First Brest-Litovsk Treaty, 67; UNR’s diplomatic relations with, 62 Bulgarians, deportations from Crimea

(1944), 249, 254 Bunce, Valerie, 286 Bund, 59-60

Canada, 13; provinces, 7; and world agricultural markets, 137 cannibalism, 218 Carpathian Mountains, 8 Carpathian Sich and Carpatho-

Ukrainian government, 202, 245; and OUN, 202 Carpatho-Ukrainian Republic; adop­tion of national symbols from Ukrainian National Republic (1917-20), 202; and Carpathian Sich, 202; declaration of independence (1939), 202; German and Italian agreement (1938) to Polish and Hungarian demands, 202; Hungarian invasion (1939), 202; OUN and lack of German sup­port for its independence, 107-8; Poland’s and Hungary’s demands that Carpatho-Ukraine become a part of Hungary (1938), 202; as Ukraine’s Prussia or Piedmont- Sardinia, 202

Caspian Sea, 202 catastrophe, demographic, 159, 160 cattle, decline (1928-32), 149 Caucasus, 33, 49

Caucasus Mountains, 202 censuses: Austro-Hungarian (1900), 28; Austro-Hungarian (1910), 17, 28, 29; Czechoslovak (1921), 104; Czechoslovak (1930), 104; Imperial Russian (1897), 16, 20, 35, 57, 127; Polish (1931), 87; Polish (1950), 257; Romanian (1930), 101; Soviet (1920), 129; Soviet (1923), 129; Soviet (1926), 114, 125-6, 127, 129, 145, 160-2; Soviet (1937), 125, 160-2; Soviet (1939), 125, 126, 277; Soviet (1959), 253-4, 258, 272, 277; Wolyh (1937), 96

Central Asia, 114; deportations of Germans to, 50

Central Asians, underrepresented in Communist Party, 115

Central Black Earth region, peasant resistance to collectivization (1930), 147

Central Executive Committee of the USSR, and internal passport system, 154

central planning, economic, 134

Central Powers, 40, 47, 51, 52, 67, 68; end of war, 81. See also Triple Alliance/Quadruple Alliance Central Rada. See Ukrainian Central Rada

Central Ukrainian Council, 50, 51 Cernauti (Chernivtsi/Czernowitz/ Chernovtsy), 30, 266; Russian conquests during Great War, 45, 47; University of, 29, 102 chaos, post-revolutionary political and social (1918-19), 68, 69, 84 Cheka and one-party state, 112 Chelm/Kholm Province, 84; and arrival of German and Dutch settlers, 232; composition of the population (1914), 231; evacua­tions during WWI, 231; German evictions of Poles and Ukrainians, 232; German occupational policies (1939-44), 231-2; German toler­ance of Ukrainian Autocephalous Orthodox Church (1939-44), 232; Home Army in, 233; Nazi racial hierarchies and Ukrainian empowerment, 232; Polish isola­tion of region from Galicia, 86; Polish Peasant Battalions in, 233; Polish and Soviet attacks on Ukrainians, 232; Polish-Ukrainian violence, 232; Polish weakening of Ukrainian Greek Catholic and Orthodox churches, 86, 232; polo- nization of Ukrainian population, 231-2; similarities and differences among Galicia, Kholm Region, Podlachia, and Volhynia, 233; Treaty of Riga (1921), 231; tsarist religious conversions of Ukrainian Greek Catholic population to

Orthodoxy (1875), 231; Ukrainian areas in, 62, 84; Ukrainian Central Committee in, 232; Ukrainian flight from Kholm, 233; Ukrainian population of (after Treaty of Riga), 231; Ukrainians in, 89; vio­lence in, 237-9; and the Volhynian massacres, 231-9

Cherniavsky, V.I., 167 Chernihiv/Chernigov Province, 12,

16, 57, 60; as part of Ukrainian SSR (1919), 73

Chernivtsi, 30, 266; Russian con­quests during Great War, 45, 47; University of, 29, 102

Chernivtsi Oblast, 265-6 Chernobyl, 17

China: as a cleft country, 6; as a geo­strategic player, 6

Chortkiv, 17

Christianity: Orthodox, 8, 14; Roman Catholic, 9; Greek Catholic, 14.

Chubar, Vlas, 118, 151

Churchill, Winston, and Stanislaw Mikolajczyk, 230; at Potsdam (1945), 255

civil and national wars, in Eurasia, 190, 191

civil society, 90, 102, 171, 183, 244, 279; in Austro-Hungarian Empire, 29-32, 50-1; destruction of commu­nities and social solidarities, 243-4; mistrust as a problem in creation and maintenance of, 243-4; national communities, fraternization, and intercommunal trust, 243; na­tional communities in Ukraine, 243; Polish and Jewish negative feelings toward Ukrainians, 243; pattern of social relationships in Ukraine, 243; reappearance after German inva­sion (1941), 222; in Soviet Ukraine, 171; and total war, 279; Ukrainian negative feelings towards Poles and Jews, 243

civil war, international, 79 cleft country (term), 6, 287-90 coercion and mass violence: All­

Union Communist Party, 190; asymmetrical violence in Volhynia, 236-7; European, 3; as makers and remakers of Ukraine, 290

Cold War Europe, and post-WWII divisions, 251

collaboration: and Greek Catholic Church, 220, 267-8; as defined by Jan Gross and Stefan Korbonski, 246; guidelines for behaviour of Poles under German occupation, 246; and OUN-B/German rela­tions, 246

collective guilt, 94; and deportation of Ukrainian population in southeast­ern Poland (1947), 257; and depor­tations from Crimea (1944), 249, 254, 277; and forced removal of German population of East Central Europe (1945), 255. See also anti­Semitism; deportations; Holocaust; Holodomor

collectivization, 111, 137, 140, 142, 182; anti-Ukrainian orientation of, 192; Balitsky’s charges of anti­Soviet activities, 167; Bolsheviks and, 191-2; collective farms and

agricultural output, 144; collectiv­ization, famine, and improvised genocide, 194, 195; Communist Party and, 149, 166; Communist Youth League and, 149; as control over the peasantry, 182, 189, 192; failure to implement collectiviza­tion and violence, 149; intolerance of dissenting views, 164-6; irratio­nal assumptions concerning, 162-8; Kosior and, 147; and “optimistic assessments of the harvest,” 164; party mismanagement and, 163; party’s failure to provide peasants with incentives to deliver grain, 164; peasant resistance to, 145, 147, 148, 150; percentage of peasant households collectivized in Ukraine (March 1930), 147; psychological unmoorings, 280; Red Army and, 149; renewal of collectivization drive (1930), 148; rural and urban discontent with, 142; Soviet gains (1928-30), 148; tractors and horses, 163; and Stalin, 194; Ukrainian opposition to, 166; warnings about impossible quotas and peasant discontent, 151 collectivization in Western Ukraine

(1948-51), 266-7; exhaustion of the local population, 265; government vs guerilla violence, 266; peasant submission to collective farming, 266; Soviet success and widespread violence, 267; Soviet undermining of peasant support, 263-6; UPA’s opposition to, 263, 264 colonization: Polish efforts in Eastern

Little Poland and Volhynia, 91, 96, 97

Commissariat of Agriculture of the Ukrainian SSR, 136

Commissariat of Agriculture of the USSR, 136

Commissariat of Education (Ukrainian SSR), 122; dismantle­ment under Postyshev, 182, 183; expansion of Ukrainian in elemen­tary schools, 122; and literacy campaigns, 122; Skrypnyk and, 183; teachers’ responses, 122; textbooks, 122. See also Grinko, Grigory; Shumsky, Oleksandr; Skrypnyk, Mykola; Zatonsky, Volodymyr Commissariat of Foreign Affairs (RSFSR), 77

Communist International (Comintern), 117

Communist Manifesto, The (Marx and Engels), 24

Communist Party of Germany (KPD), 117, 174

Communist Party of Poland, 88; and Communist Party of Western Ukraine, 91; Roman Werfel’s char­acterization of Stalin, 190-1

Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU): Beria at the Nineteenth CPSU Congress (1952), 273; and the depoliticization of national identities in the USSR, 284; and Stalin’s death, 272-7. See also All­Union Communist Party; Russian Communist Party (Bolshevik)

Communist Party of Ukraine (CPU), 74-5, 79, 116, 117; All-Union Communist Party and purge of Ukrainian “rightists” in, 173; All-Union Communist Party’s Central Committee condemnation of the CPU Central Committee (1946), 270; arrests of Central Committee members (1937), 188; Beria, removal of Melnikov, and replacement with Kyrychenko, 273; Central Committee and Molotov-Yezhov-Khrushchev spe­cial commission (1937), 188; CPU Central Committee’s condemna­tion of Ukrainian intellectuals, 270; CPU Central Committee’s condemnation of Ukrainian na­tionalism (1933), 175; and distrust of pre-war Ukrainian intelligentsia, 172; founding, 74; Fourteenth Party Congress (1938), 188; home rule, 189-190; influence of culture of violence on party leadership and membership, 190-1; mass purges of CP(b)U, destruction of Ukrainian cultural ecosystem, and Russification, 196-7; membership, 74, 270; national composition and number of Ukrainian speakers within its ranks (1933-40), 189; non-Ukrainian members, 75; party leadership and garrison mentality, 190-1; percentage of Ukrainians (1922), 115; Politburo’s dissatisfac­tion with pace of Ukrainization, 122-3; Pravda’s attacks on Central Committee (1937), 188; rebuild­ing and reconfiguring after WWII CPU, 269-70; regional divisions, 75; as regional unit of Russian Communist Party, 75; reliability of CPU and Postyshev and Balitsky, 174; Russian Communist Party’s creation of the CPU and recogni­tion of Ukraine’s multinational

diversity, 283; Seventh Congress (1923) and Ukrainization, 117; Soviet limitations on Jewish entry into the party, 271; Stalinist accusa­tions against rural communists, 167; Stalin’s death, 272-7; Stalin’s mistrust of senior CP(b)U lead­ers, 193-4; suspicions of Ukrainian intelligentsia and advocates of Ukrainzation, 167, 175; Third All-Ukrainian Conference (1932), 151-2; Thirteenth Party Congress (1937), 182, 187; Ukrainian national communists, 129-30, 173 Communist Party of Western

Ukraine, 91-2

Communist Youth League (Komsomol): and collectivization, 149, 153; and Ukrainization, 149. See also Kopelev, Lev

Congress Kingdom of Poland, 23 Congress of Soviets of the USSR,

First (December 1922), 78 Congress of Vienna, 23 Constantinople, 8 Constituent Assembly (1917-18):

All-Russian, 59; elections to, 55; elections in Ukrainian provinces, 63, 67

Constituent Assembly, Ukrainian (January 1918), elections to, 63 constitution, preparations for a

Ukrainian (1917-18), 60 constitution, Soviet Russian (1919),

112

cooperative movement: in Austria- Hungary, 31; in Imperial Russia, 34, 58; in Poland, 91; in Reichskommissariat Ukraine, 223; in Soviet Ukraine, 171

Cossacks (Ukrainian), 9, 19, 274; elite destruction and co-optation, 34-5; Kuban Cossacks, 145; memories of Cossack self-rule, 136; universals, 59; Zaporizhian Cossacks, 145

Council of Ministers, Russian, 24

Council of People’s Commissars (Kharkiv/Kiev), and decrees on Ukrainian language, 122

Council of People’s Commissars (Petrograd/Moscow), 61; accusa­tions against Ukrainian Central Rada, 62, 72; declaration of war against UNR, 62; Decrees on Peace, Land, and Rights of the Peoples of Russia, 61; recognition of UNR, 72

Cracow, 212

Crimea, 57; and “creation” of the Ukrainian Peasant Union, 178; deportations from (1944), 249, 254, 277; German occupation, 211; as part of RSFSR, xxi; transferred to Ukrainian SSR (1954), xxi, 275-7; Russian invasion and annexation of (2014), xxi, 290; size, 274; territory, xxi

Crimean Tatars, 9; deportation by Stalin, xxi, 254

criminals, and the redistribution brigades, 144

Croatia, as a Nazi puppet state, 247 Croatian-Serbian War, in German- occupied Yugoslavia (1941-4), 238 cultural revolution, 169-71; and All­Union Communist Party, 170-1; attraction of the young to, 170; ideological fervour and incentives, 170; as revolution from “above” and “below,” 170; and state terror in Ukraine, 171-5 cultural stage (Hroch), 19

Curzon Line, 55-6 Cyryllo-Methodius Society, 24 Czech-language schools in Ukraine

(1930s), 186

Czechoslovakia, 9, 83, 85, 202, 245; Bohemia and Moravia, 103; consequences of Ukrainian Revolution (1917-1921) for, 81, 83-84; Czech population (1930), 103; Czech-German relations, 103; Czech-Rusyn/Ukrainian relations, 103, 104; Czech-Slovak relations,103-4; economy, 103; elections in, 106; emergence after WWI, 84; and expulsion of Germans from East Central Europe, 255; German population (1930), 103; government support for pro-Russian, pro-Rusyn, and pro-Ukrainian orientations in, 105-6; Great Depression, 103; Hungarians in Subcarpathian Rus, 105; literacy in Transcarpathia, 105, 106; as Marxist multinational federation, 251; Munich Agreement (1938), 201; population and per­centage of East Slavs (Ruski), 104, 106; poverty in Transcarpathia, 105, 106; primary schools in Transcarpathia, 105; Rusynophile orientation in Transcarpathia, 105; Ruthenian dislike of Hungarians, 104; Ruthenian national councils and future Ruthenian political options (1919-20), 104; Ruthenian/ Ukrainian population (1930), 104; Slovak population (1930), 103; Subcarpathian Rus, promise of autonomy within Czechoslovakia

(1920), 104; Sudentenland,

201; total population (1921), 103; total population (1930), 103; Transcarpathia, xx, 84; Transcarpathian autonomy (1938), 104; and the Ukrainian question, 83-4, 103-6; Ukrainian-speakers, 104

Czechs, Austrian military suspicions of, 53, 54

Czernowitz, 30, 266; Russian con­quests during Great War, 45, 47; University of, 29, 102

decolonization, worldwide: and Beria, 273; People’s Republic of China and, 277; Ukrainian SSR and, 277 Decree on the Full Completion of

the Grain and Sunflower Seed Procurement Plan by the End of January 1933 (December 1932): Stalin’s and Molotov’s, 153; and Kosior and Chubar, 153

Decree on the Protection of State

Property (August 1932), 152 De Gaulle, Charles (quote), 81 democratic centralism, defined, 113 Democratic Party (in Polish

Republic), 88 demographic changes: balance be­tween Russians and Ukrainians in the USSR (1926-37), 160; and fam­ine of 1932-3, 159, 160, 197; house­hold size in late nineteenth century, 25; table, 161; within USSR and Ukrainian SSR due to WWII, 197.

See also censuses; population demonstrations, Shevchenko cente­nary (1914), 34

Denekin, Anton 69, 75 deportations: of Crimean Tatars, Armenians, Bulgarians, and Greeks from the Crimea (1944), 249, 254; of Germans from Kiev, Podolia, and Volhynia (1915), 50; of Germans to Central Asia, 50; of Germans, Jews, and Ukrainians from Galicia (1914), 45; of Jews and Roma from Transnistria (1941-4), 222; of Poles, Jews, and Ukrainians from Eastern Galicia (1940-1), 208-9; Soviet resettlement (1935) of Germans from Soviet Ukraine, 186; of Ukrainian population in Nazi-occupied territories, 250; of Ukrainians from Western Ukraine (1946-50), 249 Desna River 12 “diaspora” nationalities, suspicions and persecutions of, 185, 285 dignity, 16, 22; personal and national, 58, 59, 101

Directory of the Ukrainian National Republic, 68, 69, 172, 179; and pogroms, 70

disloyalty. See treason Djilas, Milovan 251 Dmowski, Roman (National Democratic Party), 88-9; and Poland’s Belarusan and Ukrainian minorities, 99

Dnieper (Dnipro) River 7, 16, 24 Dnieper Industrial Region (in Soviet period): increase in number and percentage of Ukrainians (1920-6), 126; percentage of Ukrainians (1926), 125; rural areas (1926), 145; urban centres, 126

Dnieprodzerzhinsk Provincial Committee, and Brezhnev, 189

Dniepropetrovsk (city): and pogroms and mass executions of Jews (1941), 215; urban growth, 126

Dniepropetrovsk Oblast, 165; public use of Ukrainian in 1935, 182

Dobruja, to Romania (1919-20), 101 Donbass, 20, 71, 189; and furthest

German advance (1941), 211;

Bolshevik work in 75; increase in number and percentage of Ukrainians, 126; percentage of Ukrainians (1926) in, 125; under the jurisdiction of the German Military District (1941-3), 218; urban centres, 126

Don Cossacks, 62, 144

Donets-Krivoi Rog Soviet Republic, 72, 73, 79

Donetsk (Stalino), population (1959), 258

Don Republic, 73; and “creation” of the Ukrainian Peasant Union, 178

Dontsov, Dmytro, 93 Doroshenko, Dmytro, 47 Dovzhenko, Alexander, 12 Dovzhenko, Petro (Alexander’s father), 12, 20

Drohobych Oblast (Drohobycz voievodeship) xx, xxi; oil district, 82

East Central Europe: new geopolitical situation after 1945, 251; post- WWII border changes and popula­tion exchanges, 254, 285

East Germany (German Democratic Republic), Beria’s moderate policies in (1953), 274

East Slavic identity, 8, 14, 24, 25; in Czechoslovakia, 104; and Soviet passport system, 239

Eastern Little Poland (Malopolska

Wschodnia), 96; communist appeal among Ukrainians, 92; and creation of three voivodeships, 86; elections (1928), 92; entry of Eastern Galicia and Volhynia into the USSR (1939), 205; national security concerns, 101; Polish population in, 89; Polish-Ukrainian antagonisms in, 90; Ukrainian population in, 89; urban-rural divisions, 89. See also Poland (1918-39) economic policies, Soviet (1917-21), 112; central planning, 134; and ex­tractive institutions, 136; first five- year plan (1928-32), 132, 134-5;

and intolerance of dissenting views, 164-5; irrational assumptions concerning collectivization, 162-8; radicals and, 132; second five-year plan (1933-7), 135, 175; Stalin and economic short-cuts, 163; third five-year plan (1938-42), 135; underdevelopment and the need for industrialization, 131-2. See also New Economic Policy (1921); war communism

education, higher: decline of Ukrainian students in 1930s Soviet Ukraine, 183; language of instruc­tion in Western Ukraine (1949-53), 272; and Leonid Melnikov, 272; and population transfers in post- 1944 Western Ukraine, 271-2; in Romania, 102; in teachers’ col­leges and agricultural institutions in Western Ukraine, 272; at the University of Lwow, 90 education, primary and secondary, 105; compulsory Polish-language education, 90, 96; decline of Ukrainian as language of instruc­tion (1930s), 183; ideological indoctrination of youth in Western Ukraine after 1944, 271-2; in­crease in literacy, 105; number of Ukrainian-language and bilingual schools in interwar Poland, 90; in Romania, 102; Polish student transfers, 271; polonization of, 90; and population transfers to Western Ukraine (1940-1 and after WWII), 271-2; quality of Russian- and Ukrainian-language schools in cities and countryside, 123, 183, 184; transfer of teachers from Eastern to Western Ukraine, 271; transfers of Russians and Russian- speakers to Western Ukraine after 1944, 272; Ukrainian as language of instruction in Western Ukraine in early post-war period, 271; Ukrainian-language schools in Czechoslovakia, 103; Ukrainian- language schools in Ukraine, 122, 123; vetting of teachers in Western Ukraine, 271

Einsatzgruppen, and extermination of the Jews, 214-15

Ekaterinoslav/Katerynoslav (city):

Bolshevik work in, 75; pro-Bolshe­vik Soviet power, 72; refugees in, 48 Ekaterinoslav/Katerynoslav (prov­ince), 16, 57; as part of Ukrainian SSR (1919), 73; population (1897), 127

elections, in Ukrainian-speaking ter­ritories of former Russian Empire, 63-4

Ems Decree (1876), 24 enemies, Poland’s policies toward, 95 Estonia, 114; emergence after WWI, 84; national-personal autonomy, 85; population size (1921), 84-5; Soviet annexation (1940), 203

Estonians, overrepresented in Russian Communist Party, 115

Ethiopia, 6 ethnic cleansings, in Volhynia, 231-9 ethnicity vs nation (terms), xvii ethnographic group (term), xvii Eurasia, 7, 8, 22

Euromaidan Revolution, xxi, 290 evacuations (mass), Soviet (summer

1941), 214

Evdokhimov, Efim, experience in grain procurement campaigns, 191 excess deaths, 159-62; defined, 159 “extreme measures,” 142. See also “Urals-Siberian” method

famine (1921-2), 43, 112; and psycho­logical unmoorings, 280

famine (1928-9), 141, 182; peasant and Soviet reactions to, 143; as political decision, 143, 153; political reason for, 162, 165; and psychological unmoorings, 280; Stalin as catalyst for, 165

famine (1931-2), 150 182; and excess deaths and indirect losses, 151, 159; political reasons for, 150, 162; and psychological unmoorings, 280; Stalin as the catalyst for, 165

famine (1932-3), 182; activists and the stripping of rural areas of grain and all edible goods, 153-4; Balitsky’s charges that Ukrainian national­ists and Pilsudski triggered famine, 167; demographic consequences of, 159, 160, 197; and destruction of Ukrainian cultural ecosystem, 196-7; directives prohibiting peasant migration from Ukraine to other Soviet republics, 155; estimates of number of deaths due to, 159; excess deaths of children, 159; famine psychosis, 167; famine’s peak (March-April 1933), 153; and food, 155; and Holodomor, 151; in Kiev and Kharkiv oblasts, 159; and mass shift from Ukrainian to Soviet and Russian identities and expand­ing urban centres, 160; number of arrests of peasants who illegally tried to move to other Soviet re­gions (1933), 155; peasant survivor perceptions of their unequal status to urban residents, 158; as political decision, 153; political reason for, 162; population losses in Ukraine (1930-4), 159; possible reallocation of exported grain to alleviate, 156­7; and psychological unmoorings, 280; Stalin as catalyst, 165; Stalinist priorities, industrialization, export­able grain, and the famine, 157; Stalin’s accusation that CP(b)U leaders and famine victims respon­sible for their own starvation, 167; as total war, 11, 158; victims by age, gender, and membership in collec­tive farms, 156 ; and weakening of the survival instinct, 155-6. See also Holodomor

famine (1946-7), and psychological unmoorings, 280

famines, and new political balance, 189; as instrument of class struggle, 193; victims of, 193

Far East, 13 farming: subsistence, in Ukraine, 136;

tradition of individual farming, 145 fascist movement, and OUN, 93, 95,

240-1

fear, in Eastern Galicia, 211 February revolution (1917), 55. See

also Provisional Government Figes, Orlando, 58 Final Solution, 287. See also anti-Sem­itism; Einsatzgruppen; Holocaust Finland, 114; German plans to liber­ate during WWI, 49; and Second Treaty of Brest-Litovsk (1918), 282; emergence after WWI, 84; popula­tion size (1921), 84-5 Finns, in USSR, 114 First World War, 3, 13, 22, 39-54, 56;

and psychological unmoorings, 280 Fitzpatrick, Sheila: on Bolsheviks and their national identity, 191-2; and cultural revolution, 169-70; and garrison mentality, 190 folklore, Ukrainian, 21 food crisis, and Final Solution, 287 food security: famine and food, 155;

food rationing in cities in early 1930s, 157; importance during total wars, 281; and Jewish and Polish refugees in Eastern Galicia (1939), 211; legal residents and passport system, 154; Moscow and Leningrad as beneficiaries of rationing, 154; as national security, 68; and ration cards, 138; Stalinist priorities, 157, 158-9 food supplies, 55; breakdown in transportation of food to Russia’s cities, 281; food rationing in urban centres, 138-9, 157; and German

Army in Reichskommissariat Ukraine, 287; importance for Austria and Germany, 68; inter­nationalization of food supply problems, 282; and Jewish and Polish refugees in Eastern Galicia (1939), 211; Nazi plans to starve non-German populations of East Central Europe and the USSR, 287; and ration cards, 138; Stalinist priorities, 157, 158; Stalin’s reaction to urban food shortages, 139-40; Ukraine as a “food-supply base” for Axis powers, 213; and war com­munism, 139-40. See also grain foreign policy, Soviet setbacks, 133 France, 17; alleged alliance with

Great Britain and Poland against USSR, 133; as geostrategic player, 6; and Munich Agreement (1938), 201; and Polish-Ukrainian War (1918-19), 82; promise to defend Poland (1939), 203; support for Poland (1918-23), 87; UNR’s dip­lomatic relations with, 62; and von Schlieffen Plan, 40

Franz Ferdinand, Archduke of

Austria-Hungary, 39 Franz Joseph, Emperor of Austria and

King of Hungary, 52, 54 French Revolution and Napoleonic

wars, 15

Freud, Sigmund (quote), 279 “friendship of the peoples of the

USSR,” 276; Beria and, 274; CPSU

Presidium and, 272 Frunze, Mikhail, 77, 177

Galicia, xvi, xx, xxi, 14, 19, 28, 29,

49, 57, 65, 98; Allied Council of

Ambassadors and Eastern Galicia, 87; Austria’s promise to create separate Bukovina and Galician Provinces (1918), 67; census (1900), 35; census (1910), 17, 18; collectivization in (1948-51), 267; diffusion of Ukrainian idea before and during WWI, 50, 54; Eastern Galicia, 31, 40, 81, 82, 83, 87; elec­tions (1907), 32; and extermination of the Jews, 215; formal entry into the USSR (1939), 205; and the General Government (1941-4), 212; German occupational poli­cies in, 231; illiteracy (1900) in, 35; Khrushchev’s Sovietization policies in (1939-41), 205; mass intercommunal violence in, 236-8; plans for autonomy and division (1916), 52; Poland and Ukrainian National Republic, 98; post-war memories of German occupation, 262; proclamation (1918) of West Ukrainian National Republic, 81; refugees from (1914-17), 48; re­placed with Eastern Little Poland, 86; and Right Bank Ukraine, 98; and Russian Empire, 53; Russia’s annexation plans, 49; Russia’s conquests during the Great War, 45, 47; Russification, 45, 46-7; Sovietization, 205-6; and Treaty of Riga (1921), 74, 231; and Treaty of Warsaw (1920), 98

Gallipoli campaign, 40 Galula, David (quote), 251 garrison mentality, and party leader­ship, 190-1

garrison state (national security state), USSR as, 132, 286

General Government, 212; and

General Plan Ost, 232; German preference for Greek Catholic Church, 268; German repression of Poles in, 219; Hitler’s view of Ukraine as “food-supply base” for Axis powers, 213; Polish peasants and the German reprivatization of land in Eastern Galicia, 219; Polish- German antagonism in Eastern Galicia and in Central Poland, 219; starvation of Jews, 220; Ukrainian Central Committee (Cracow), 220; Ukrainian-speaking areas under its jurisdiction, 212; Ukrainians and their limited preferential status, 219 General Secretariat (Ukrainian Central

Rada’s Council of Ministers), 60,

65; membership of, 61

General Ukrainian Rada (successor to

Central Ukrainian Council), 51 generation of 1917 (Andriewsky), 33 genocide, defined, 194. See also

Holocaust; Holodomor geography, Ukraine’s location, 25 Georgians, overrepresented in

Russian Communist Party, 115 German Communist Party, arrests,

133

German Democratic Republic (East

Germany), Beria’s policies in

(1953), 274

German Empire, 31; collapse (1918), 84

German Military District: control of the Donbass (1941-3), 218; coop­eration with Einsatzgruppen to exterminate the Jews, 214; post-war memories of, 262

German speakers, number (1897), 16 Germans in Ukraine: arrests in Soviet Ukraine (1934), 186; deportations from Kiev, Podolia, and Volhynia (1915), 50; Moscow’s suspicions of, 185; Nazi racial hierarchies, 222; as refugees, 49; in Right Bank Ukraine, 186; resettlement from Soviet Ukraine (1935), 186; and shift in Soviet nationalities policy (early 1930s), 185; in Soviet Ukraine, 185; as victims of Great Terror in Ukraine (1937-8), 187 German-Ukrainian relations during

WWII, 247-8

Germany (Imperial Germany), xx, 39, 83, 107, 108, 251; as geostrategic player, 6; international revolution, 79; and plans to liberate Russia’s western borderlands, 49; recogni­tion of the UNR at First Brest- Litovsk Treaty, 67, 245; relations with UNR, 69; spring 1918 offen­sive, 40; unification, 22, 39; UNR’s diplomatic relations with, 62; and von Schlieffen Plan, 40; withdrawal from Ukraine (1918), 73

Germany (Third Reich), 201; agreement (1938) to Polish and Hungarian demands that Carpatho-Ukraine become part of Hungary (1938), 202; annexation of Bohemia and Moravia (1939), 203; aspirations to overturn the Treaty of Versailles, 227; Einsatzgruppen, (1941-3), 215; failure of blitzkrieg tactics, 213; frustrations with the eastern front, 213; German casual­ties after invasion of the USSR (1941), 214; German invasion of USSR and furthest German advance (1941), 211; German national and racial constructs of Russians and Ukrainians, 216-17; German troop internalization of Nazi racial ideology and trans­formation of conflict into war of annihilation, 214; Hitler’s view of Ukraine as a “food-supply base” for the Axis powers, 213; invasion of Poland (1939), 203, 204; inva­sion of USSR (1941), 203-4; Main Security Office, 216; Ministry for the Occupied Eastern Territories, 216; Molotov-Ribbentropf Pact, 201; Moscow leaders and the pos­sibility of war with, 185; Munich Agreement (1938), 201; and Nazi racial theories, 108; number, national composition, and gender of foreign workers in German labour force (1944), 225; OUN and Germany as its only possible stra­tegic partner, 227-8, 245; role in the division of Belarusans, Lithuanians, Poles, and Ukrainians into separate communities, 201; Soviet-German Boundary and Friendship Treaty (1939), 206; Soviet-German Citizen-Exchange Agreement (1939), 206; Soviet-German Treaty of Friendship (1939), the divi­sion of Poland, and recognition of Soviet interests in Lithuania, 203;

Sudetenland, 201; targeting of Jews, Romani, and communists, 214; Ukrainians at top of the East Slavic racial hierarchy, 217; Ukrainians as Untermenschen, 217; views of the peoples of East Central Europe

as subhumans, 214; violations of

Munich Agreement, 203

Gilliam, Sylvia, 285-6 Gogol, Nikolai (Mykola Hohol), 20 Gorbachev, Mikhail, and Soviet post­war neutered national identities, 286

Gosplan. See State Planning Com­mittee

Gourevitch, Peter, and the conse­quences of total war, 279

GPU: and one-party state, 112; and political surveillance reports of Soviet intelligentsia, 176-8; Ukrainian GPU report on Ukrai­nian “counter-revolutionaries” (1926), 177-8

Gradenigo, Sergio, on the conse­quences of the Holodomor, 160 grain, and extractive institutions, 136, 140; Austria-Hungary, Russian Empire, Poland, Romania, Germany, and USSR and their struggle to control grain and es­tablish food-base in Ukraine, 280, 286-7; Austrian and German need (1918) for, 68; Austro-Hungarian Empire’s grain-producing and grain-consuming regions, 281; collectivization and forced grain requisitions, 142, 143, 189; col­lectivization and world grain markets, 192-3; crop rotation, 163; European grain-producing and grain-consuming states, 280-2; export of, 26, 136, 141, 142, 143, 149; famine (1928-9), 141-2; famine (1932-3), 142; famine as instrument of class struggle, 193, 287; grain collection, 136, 138; grain quotas after a bountiful har­vest (1930), 149-50; grain-requisi­tioning and bottlenecks, 192; grain stocks, 140; grain from Ukraine as percentage of total Soviet market­able grain, 156; harvest (1928-9) in Ukraine and grain exports, 140-1; harvest confiscation in Ukraine and North Caucasus (1931-2), 150; and introduction of ration cards, 138; peasant responsibility for collectivization problems, 193; production during war, 43; reallo­cation of exported grain to alleviate the famine of 1932-3, 156-7; req­uisitioning of kulak surpluses and mass collectivization of all peas­ants, 140; Russian Empire’s grain­producing and grain-consuming regions, 281; seed grain surrender, 150, 154; Soviet grain exports (1928-33), 156, 158; spoilage at col­lection points, 163; Stalin, collec­tivization, grain crisis, Ukrainian peasants, and Ukrainian elites, 194; Stalinist priorities, industrializa­tion, exportable grain, and the famine, 157, 158; Stalin’s reaction to urban food shortages, 139-40; starvation, 141; targets reduced and failure to deliver assigned targets, 154; Ukrainian grain and power in East Central Europe, 287; weeding, 163; world grain overproduction in the 1920s and 1930s, 286-7. See also food supplies

Graziosi, Andrea, comparison of the number of victims of the

Holodomor and the Great Terror of 1937-8, 167

Great Britain, 39; alleged alliance with France and Poland against USSR, 133; British-Soviet anti-German alliance (1941), 228; and Munich Agreement (1938), 201; as the OUN’s possible strategic partner, 227-8, 245; Poland as Britain’s clos­est ally, 203, 228; UNR’s diplomatic relations with, 62

Great Depression, 83; in Europe, 107; in Poland, 91

Great Fatherland War (WWII): efforts of the Soviet regime to institution­alize a common memory of the war, 262; hopes for the future after, 258

Great Russian project, 46

Great Terror, in Ukraine (1937-8), 167, 175, 187

Greece, 84

Greek Catholic Church, 248; Alexius’s efforts to merge with ROC, 268; in Austrian and Austro-Hungarian Empires, 18, 30; Beria’s nego­tiations with Slipy concerning normalization of relations with the Vatican and legalization of Greek Catholic Church (1953), 273-4; bishops opposed to OUN, 95; categorized as Ukrainians (not Ruthenians) by Austrian authori­ties (1917), 52; charge that Greek Catholic Church served as an ally of OUN and UPA, 268; CPU’s pressure for the Church to per­suade UPA members to accept Soviet government amnesties, 268; establishment of Metropolitan See of Galicia, 30; German preference for Greek Catholic Church over Polish Roman Catholic Church in General Government, 268; German tolerance of religious expression in RK Ukraine during occupation (1941-4), 223; merger with Russian Orthodox Church (1946), 263, 267-9; Kostelnyk and Initiative Group for Greek Catholic and Russian Orthodox reconciliation, 268; Kostelnyk’s synod and the Greek Catholic Church’s “reunion” with the Russian Orthodox Church (1946), 269; moral demands and in­stitutional imperatives in fluctuating political environment, 267; number of arrests (1945-50) of those who refused to convert, 269; number of Greek Catholic believers in Western Ukraine (1939), 267; number of priests who joined Kostelnyk’s group, 268-9; opposition by Greek Catholic hierarchy, 269; opposition by OUN, 269; OUN assassination of Kostelnyk (1948), 269; OUN’s threats to execute converted priests, 269; Patriarch Alexius and the Orthodox hierarchy in Western Ukraine, 269; Polish as the church’s working language, 30; in Polish- Lithuanian Commonwealth, 18, 263; question of cooperation and collaboration, 268; re-legalization of Greek Catholic Church under Gorbachev (1989), 269; religious “reunions” in Carpatho-Ukraine and Presov-Priashiv region of Czechoslovakia, 269; repressed by Russian government in Galicia in

WWI, 46, 47; response of Ukrainian Greek Catholic bishops to mass in- tercommunal violence in Volhynia, 238; role in creating Ukrainian identity, 14, 36; Sheptytysky as intermediary between German occupational authorities and Greek Catholic and Ukrainian interests, 268; Slipy as Sheptytsky’s succes­sor, 268; Soviet efforts to initiate post-1945 diplomatic relationship with the Vatican and the conversion process, 268; Stalin’s understanding of role of Greek Catholic Church in Ukrainian life, 269; UPA rank and file and the Greek Catholic Church, 263

Greeks: Greek-language schools in Ukraine and shift in Soviet nation­alities policy (1930s), 186; Soviet deportations of from the Crimea (1944), 249, 254; in Soviet Ukraine, 185

Grinko, Grigory, xv, 122

Grodno, 13

Gross, Jan, on collaboration, 246 Grossman, Vasily, on the famine of 1932-3, 155-6

Habsburg Monarchy 9, 28. See also Austro-Hungarian Empire Haiduk, Myroslav Ivanovych, 265-6 Halyts’ka, Artemiziia Hryhorievna (“Motria”), 265-6

Hamburg Insurrection (1923), 117-18 harvests, poor, 150-1

Hasidic movement, 17 Haskalah (enlightenment) movement, 17

health care, rural, 25

Herder, Johann Gottfried von, 15, 21 Hetmanate, establishment and evolu­tion of, 9

Heydrich, Reinhard, negative at­titudes about Ukrainians, 216 Himmler, Heinrich, 215; and civilian

population in the East, 252 Hirsch, Francine, and “state-spon­sored evolutionism,” 284-5 Hitler, Adolf, 103, 174, 212; at­titudes about Russians, 216; attitudes about Ukrainians, 212, 213, 216, 217; decisions about future of Ukraine, 212, 213; on Nazi Germany and USSR as two different ideological systems, 211; release of Ukrainian POWs in German hands, 217; Ukrainians at top of East Slavic racial hierarchy, 217; Ukrainians as Untermenschen, 217; view of Ukraine as a “food­supply base,” 213, 287; violations of Munich Agreement, 203; viola­tions of the Treaty of Versailles, 203 Hohenzollern Dynasty, 28. See also

Germany

Holocaust, 214-16; and psychological unmoorings, 280; table, 216. See also anti-Semitism; Einsatzgruppen; Jews; “Judeo-Bolsheviks” and “Judeo-Bolshevism”; pogroms; Schutzmannschaften

Holodomor, 92, 151, 152, 171, 175, 182, 194, 207, 285; cause of 1926-39 demographic distortion among Ukrainians, 162; collectivization, famine, and improvised genocide, 194; defined, 5; demographic consequences of, 159, 160, 197; and destruction of Ukrainian cultural ecosystem, 196-7; excess deaths and lost births in rural areas after, 162; as instrument of class struggle, 193; marriage and birth rates after, 162; and peasant responses to German occupation, 223; peasants prohibited from migrating (1933), 155; and psychological unmoor­ings, 280; toxic environment conducive to, 194

Holowko, Tadeusz, 100

Home Army (Polish): British aspira­tions for, 228-9; and conflict with Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists, 230; and conflict with Ukrainian Insurgent Army, 227, 230; and cooperation with other groups against OUN, UPA, and lo­cal Ukrainian population, 246; and Chelm/Khlom Province, 233; dis­banding (1945); geopolitical strat­egy in East Central Europe, 227-8; and mass intercommunal violence in Volhynia, 237; need to restore Poland to its pre-1939 borders, 229; and Pilsudski’s acolytes, 228; rela­tionship with Polish government­in-exile, 229; and Union for Armed Struggle, 229; and Warsaw Uprising (1944), 230

homeland, as symbol to Poles and Ukrainians, 234

horses, 163

Hroch, Miroslav, 19, 27, 65 Hrushevsky, Mykhailo, xv, 22, 50,

57, 172; GPU surveillance of, 176; interpretation of history of East Slavs (1946), 270

human losses and casualties, 4; armistice (November 1918),

73; determinant of survival of Ukrainian national movement in Austro-Hungarian and Russian empires, 51-2; diffusion of national self-determination, 53; fertilization of communism and fascism, 53; internationalization and radicaliza­tion of national questions, 53; pris­oners of war, 44, 217; Provisional Government and end of war, 55; repercussions of, 78-80; and the Ukrainian idea, 54; and world agri­cultural market, 137

Hungarian Soviet Republic, 79 Hungary, 7, 8, 245; emergence after WWI, 84; and expulsion of Germans from East Central Europe, 255; German and Italian agreement (1938) to Polish and Hungarian demands, 202; partial partition of Carpatho-Ukraine, 202; Poland’s and Hungary’s demands that Carpatho-Ukraine become part of Hungary (1938), 202 Huntington, Samuel P., 6 hypercentralization, of agriculture and industry, 131-68; of political and cultural life, 169-97

identity: codification of, 15; dual Soviet and non-Russian identities during German-Soviet war, 242; implication for post-war changes, 242; Lenin’s recognition of separate Ukrainian identity, 80; mass-based, 27; mass shift from Ukrainian iden­tity to Soviet and Russian identities, 160; Soviet identity with Russian culture as its primary component, 196, 242; Soviet state’s imposition of its political vision of Ukraine, 242-3; in Transcarpathia, 105; in urban and rural areas, 27; Ukrainian ambivalence over, 12, 13, 14 identity, national (term), xvii, 56;

social, 56

illiteracy, 35. See also literacy Imperial Academy of Sciences (Saint

Petersburg), 24, 34 independence, Ukrainian: Carpatho-

Ukrainian Republic’s declaration of (1939), 202; diffusion of idea, 34, 48-9, 54; frustrations in Western Ukraine over failure of (1917-21), 94-5; idea first espoused, 32-4; OUN-B and declaration of (1941), 211-2; Ukrainian National Republic’s declaration of (1918), 62-3; Ukrainian SSR’s declaration of (1991), 280; West Ukrainian National Republic’s declaration of (1918), 81; WWII and, 201 India, 6 indigenization (korenizatsiia), 186;

evolution of, 113-25; retreat from, 131-97 individualism, peasant, 136, 145 Indonesia, 6 Industrial Party Trial (1930), 170 industrialization, v, 14; and control over agricultural production, 134; decline in industrial capital investments in Ukraine (1933-9), 135-6; and exportable grain col­lection, 136, 138; Fifteenth Party Conference (1926), 134; Fifteenth Party Congress (1927), 134; financ­ing of, 134, 137; Fourteenth Party Congress (1925), 134; and first five-year plan (1928-32), 134-5;

increase in industrial expenditures for, 135; increase in Ukrainian output, 135; industrial productivity between USSR and other industrial powers, 132; location of new indus­tries, 135; need for new workers, 135; in nineteenth century, 27, 39; percentage increase of Ukrainians among workers (1926-39), 135; and psychological unmoorings, 280; and social mobility and cultural revolution, 170; and Soviet grain acquisition, 137-8; Stalin and, 131; in twentieth century, 111; and un­derdevelopment (economic), 131-2; and war scare (1926-7), 133, 134 influenza outbreak (winter 1918-19),

3-4

Initiative Group for Greek Catholic and Russian Orthodox reconcili­ation, 268-9. See also Kostelnyk, Havril

Institute of Linguistics, Ukrainian Academy of Sciences, 182 integral nationalism, 92, 244; ex­

planation for failure to establish an independent Ukrainian state in 1917-20, 245; and interest in military formations, 245; and need for a powerful ally, 245; opposed to liberal national­ism, 91; and Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists (OUN), 92; Sheptytsky’s criticisms of OUN and integral nationalism, 95, 244 intelligentsia: All-Union Communist

Party’s distrust of, 172; Balitsky’s charges of “anti-Soviet activi­ties,” 167; in Bukovina, 29; East European 15, 16; emergence in

Ukrainian-speaking provinces, 20; in Galicia, 29; GPU surveil­lance of, 176; mass arrests, 171-2; mass purges, 196-7, 285; public use of Ukrainian, 185; Russified Ukrainian, 65; Stalin and, 194; Ukrainian, 15, 20-2, 25, 26, 27 Iran, 6

Iranians, Moscow’s suspicions of, 185 Ireland, violence against the British, 237 Israel: Irgun and Stern Gangs and OUN-B, as national liberation movements, 241; Jewish national­ist violence against the British and Palestinians, 237; Palestinian nationalist and Islamist violence against Israelis, 237

Italy, and Munich Agreement (1938), 201; unification (1870), 39

Ivanov, Nikolai, General, 45

Izmail Province, xxi

Japan, possibility of war with, 185 Jewish Autonomous Republic (Birobidzhan), 185

Jews, 13, 14; arrival in Eastern Galicia, 211; in Austro-Hungarian Empire, 18; differentiated Soviet policies toward national groups, 210-11; Einsatzgruppen, and extermination of Jewish popula­tion (1941-4), 215; Hitler’s plans (1941) to exterminate, 211; within Jewish sections of the All-Union Communist Party, 185; and national-personal autonomy, 59, 62, 63; number of Jewish victims of intercommunal violence in Volhynia, Eastern Galicia, and Kholm Region, 238-9; number in Western Ukraine (1939), 267; overrepresented in Russian Communist Party, 115; Pale of Settlement, 17, 49-50; perceived as being Soviet agents, 215; pogroms and mass executions in Ukraine (1941-2), 215; reaction to Red Army’s arrival in Eastern Galicia and Volhynia, 206; refugees from central Poland moving to Eastern Galicia and Volhynia (1939-41), 206-7; as refugees in WWI, 49; in Right Bank Ukraine, 186; in Russian Empire, 16-17; and Schutzmannschaften in Volhynia, 235-6; and shift in Soviet nation­alities policy (early 1930s), 185; and Soviet passport system, 239; in Soviet Ukraine, 185; in Ukrainian­speaking provinces, 17, 18. See also anti-Semitism; Holocaust

Joravsky, David, and garrison mental­ity, 190

Joseph II, Emperor of Austria, 30 Jozewski, Henryk, 96-101 “Judeo-Bolsheviks” and “Judeo-

Bolshevism,” 210, 211, 216 June (1917) offensive, Russian, 47

Kaganovich, Lazar, 152, 165, 193; and 1932 agricultural plan, 152; and GPU surveillance, 176; and pace of Ukrainization, 176-7; and peasant radicalization, 142; Shumsky’s criti­cisms of, 176; and Ukrainization, 175

Kai-Shek, Chiang, 133 Kappeler, Andreas, 34-5

Karl I (1916-18), Emperor of Austria and King of Hungary, 52, 54

Katyn Forest Massacres (1940), 209, 229

Kazakhstan, 13; decline in number of Kazakhs within USSR (1926-37), 162; number of self-identified Ukrainians in 1937, 160; and OGPU report on the anti-collective farm movement (1932), 152; popu­lation losses, 159, 160, 162; refu­gees, 192; Russian and Ukrainian regions in, 162

Kenya, 6

Kerch, pogroms and mass executions of Jews (1941), 215

Kerensky, Alexander, 47

KGB and one-party state, 112 Kharkiv (city), 34, 57, 62, 67, 71, 72, 128, 160, 181; Bolshevik work in, 75; German starvation of (1941-3), 224; and passportization, 154; po­groms and mass executions of Jews (1941), 215; population, 127, 258; Soviet capture (1943), 227; transfer of capital to Kiev (1934), 189; urban growth, 126

Kharkiv Province, 16, 19, 57, 139; military conscription (1914-17), 43; as part of Ukrainian SSR (1919), 73

Kharkiv Technical Institute, 120 Kharkiv University, 21 Khataevich, Mendel, 165-6 Kherson (city), 72

Kherson Province, 16, 57; as part of

Ukrainian SSR (1919), 73 Khmelnytsky, Bohdan, 9, 274 Kholm/Chelm Province. See Chelm/

Kholm Province.

Khrushchev, Nikita: as acting first secretary of the CP(b)U, 188; brief biography of, 189; continuation of Beria’s policies after his arrest, 274; and de-Stalinization, 276; organizes opposition to Beria, 274; outma­noeuvres Beria (1953) and Malenkov (1955), 276; as permanent first secretary, 188; and post-Stalinist succession struggle, 273-7; and ru­mours of deportation of Ukrainian population of Nazi-occupied ter­ritories, 250; Sovietization policies in Eastern Galicia and Volhynia (1939-41), 205; and special commis­sion (1937) to Kiev, 188; and transfer of the Crimea to Ukrainian SSR (1954), 276

Khust, 44

Khvylovy, Mykola: and emergence of Ukrainian national communists, 129-30; Stalin on anti-communists as leaders of Ukrainization move­ment, 177; suicide, 175; Ukrainian national communists censured, 173 Kiev (city), xv, xvi, 34, 50, 57, 128;

and Jews, 17, 19; conquest by Bolsheviks (1918-19), 179; con­quest by Germans of (1941-3), 212; conquest by Soviets (1943), 227; de­population during German occupa­tion (1941-3), 224; elections (1917) in, 63, 64; NKVD-generated explo­sions in city’s centre (1941), 215; passportization, 154; population (1897), 127; population (1926), 127; “primate” city, 127-8, 258; pro­Bolshevik Soviet power, 72; refu­gees in, 48; return of Bolsheviks, 73; starved by Germans, 224; trans­fer of capital from Kharkiv (1934), 189; Ukrainian urban growth after WWII, 257, 258; urban growth, 126

Kiev Archeographic Commission, 21

Kiev Province, 57; as part of Ukrainian SSR (1919), 73; peasant land holdings in, 26

Kiev Rus, 8, 28, 45

Kiev University, 21

Kingdom of Poland, as envisioned by Emperor Franz Joseph (1916), 52

Kirov, Sergei, 175, 187

Koch, Erich: appointment as head of Reichskommissariat Ukraine, 217, 262; negative attitudes towards Ukrainians, 218-19, 221; opposi­tion to creation of SS-Waffen Division Galicia (1943), 220; persecution of Ukrainians, 217; preferential treatment of Ukrainian language and culture over Russian, 239-40; prohibition of public reci­tations of Shevchenko’s poetry, 240 Konovalets, Evhen, 93, 208

Kopelev, Lev: on collectivization, 146, 153; on the Great Terror of 1936-8 and famine of 1933 in Ukraine, 175, 197

Korbonski, Stefan, on collaboration, 246

Koreans, Moscow’s suspicions of, 185 Korniichuk, Alexander, 242 Korotchenko, Damian, 188

Kosior, Stanislav: and Bolshevik Ukrainization, 182; and collectiv­ization of Ukraine, 147; and “kulak arithmetic,” 167; and national devi­ations in USSR and Soviet Ukraine, 181; recall to Moscow, 188

Kostelnyk, Havril: and Greek Catholic Church’s “reunion” with the Russian Orthodox Church (1946), 269; and Initiative Group

for Greek Catholic and Russian Orthodox reconciliation, 268; OUN assassination of, 269 Kovpak, Sydir, 226, 242. See also partisans; Soviet Kravchenko,Victor (quote), 120 Kremenchug (city), Bolshevik work in, 75

Kronstadt Uprising (1921), 112 Kuban Province (RSFSR), 16; and “creation” of the Ukrainian Peasant Union, 178; possible transfer of majority Ukrainian-speaking ter­ritories to Soviet Ukraine, 179; sub­sistence farming in, 136; Ukrainian speakers in, 74, 136

Kubijovyc, Volodymyr, 220 Kuibyshev, 187

kulaks/kurkuls 66, 138, 191; All­

Union Communist Party Central Committee and de-kulakization decree (1930), 144; defined, 138; de-kulakization, 143-4, 171, 182; deportation of kulak households (1930-1), 144; government seizure of grain from, 140; policies against them, 138, 139; and psychologi­cal unmoorings, 280; resettlement (1935) from Soviet Ukraine, 186; and workers, 138

Kundera, Milan (quote), 12

Kundt, Ernst, 212

Kurds, 107

Kursk Battle (1943): as inspiration for young peasants to join UPA in Volhynia, 260; and OUN-B's reconsideration of its political and socio-economic programs, 240; reaction to Soviet victories among Ukrainians in Eastern Ukraine,

261; as turning point in war, 227, 261

Kursk Province, 189; and “creation” of Ukrainian Peasant Union, 178; possible transfer of majority Ukrainian-speaking territories to Soviet Ukraine, 179; transfer of parts from RSFSR to Ukrainian SSR, 74; Ukrainian-speaking areas, 16, 62

Kyrychenko, Oleksii: as Khrushchev’s protege, 275-6; and incorpora­tion of all Ukrainian-speaking lands into the Ukrainian SSR, 276; replaces Melnikov, 273

land/peasant holdings: in Eastern Galicia, 28; in Kiev, Podolia, and Volhynia, 26; in late 19th-century Russia, 25-6

land tenure, hereditary household vs repartitional communal systems, 25, 58, 136

language: abolishment of 1928 stan­dardization of Ukrainian orthog­raphy, 183; All-Union Communist Party’s support for Ukrainization, 174; ban of Ukrainian in public sphere in Kuban and the Far East, 174; closure of Czech-, German-, Greek-, Polish-, and Swedish- language schools in Ukraine, 184; competition between Polish and Ukrainian, 30; competition between Russian and Ukrainian, 27, 122, 123, 183, 185; competition in Transcarpathia, 105; creation of bilingual Russian-Ukrainian edu­cational network in Ukraine, 184; decline of Ukrainian as language of instruction (1930s), 183; dialects and Kiev-Poltava dialect as model standard, 35; end of discrimina­tory measures against Ukrainian in Russian Empire, 34; expansion of hours devoted to Russian lan­guage during the school week, 184; expansion of urban-rural differ­ences in language use, 185; intel­ligentsia’s public use of Ukrainian, 185; introduction of Ukrainian in schools and bureaucracy, 58; language hierarchy in Ukraine, 119; “mixed message” on equality of Russian and Ukrainian languages in the public sphere (1933-41), 185; Postyshev’s “negative selection,” 183; public use of Ukrainian in 1935 in Dniepropetrovsk, Odessa, and Stalino Oblasts, 182; quality of Russian- and Ukrainian-language schools in cities and countryside, 123, 183, 184; Russian-language and Ukrainian-language schools, 123; secret decree on the Russian language and literature as required subjects of study, 183-4; standard­ized Ukrainian, 35; teachers and Ukrainian language, 122, 123; tsarist policy against Ukrainian, 24, 26, 27, 35; Ukrainian in the public sphere and resistance against it, 119, 120, 121, 122, 184; Ukrainian-language dictionary suspension, 183

Latvia, 114; emergence after WWI, 84; Soviet annexation of (1940), 203 Latvians: overrepresented in Russian Communist Party, 115; population size relative to Ukrainians in Polish Republic (1921), 84-5

League of Nations, 107

Lebed, Dmitrii, 117

Left Bank Ukraine: in Imperial pe­riod, 9, 13,18, 19, 20, 21; percent­age of Ukrainians (1926), 125; rural areas (1926), 145; urban centres, 126. See also Little Russia; Poltava; Chernihiv/Chernigov; and Kharkiv/Kharkov Provinces

Lemberg/Lwow/Lviv (city), xvi, 30, 31, 81, 82; Russian conquests during Great War, 45; Ukrainian seizure of power (1918), 81; University of, 50

Lemkin, Raphael, 194

Lemko region (Cracow voivodeship), 89, 255-6

Lenin, Vladimir, 61, 72, 74; and cre­ation of one party-state, 112; criti­cisms of Stalin’s commission (1922), 77; doubts about Soviet Ukraine as a separate republic, 75; and national question, 70-1; and recognition of separate Ukrainian identity, 80

Leningrad: food rationing, 138, 157; and furthest German advance (1941), 211; passportization, 154 linguistics. See All-Ukrainian Academy of Sciences; Institute of Linguistics literacy: among all Soviet men and women nine years old and older (1926-39), 284; doubling of literacy rate in Soviet Ukraine (1926-39), 123; in Russian, 27; in Ukrainian, 27. See also illiteracy

Lithuania, 114; emergence after WWI, 84; population size relative to Ukrainians in Polish Republic (1921), 84-5; Soviet annexation of (1940), 203; Soviet-German Treaty of Friendship (1939), 203

Lithuanians, 9, 10; division into separate communities (WWII), 201; over­represented in Russian Communist Party, 115; in Polish Republic, 86

Little Russia (Malorossiia), 16. See also Poltava; Chernihiv/Chernigov; and Kharkiv/Kharkov

Little Russian(s) (Maloruski), 10, 16, 25; definition of term, xvi; in Russian Empire, 35; transformation into Ukrainians, 32

Little Russian, Rusyn, Ruthenian, not Ukrainian (terms), xvi, 25, 50

Liubchenko, Panas, 188

Lodz, German annexation of (1939), 203

Lower Volga Region, as major grain­growing area of USSR, 152 loyalties, multiple, 21, 35

Lublin Province /voivodeship, 13, 89

Lviv (city), xvi, xx, 30; Polish popula­tion in, 89; Soviet capture of (1944), 227

Lviv Oblast, xx, xxi. See also Lwow woewydstwo

Lviv University, 30

Lwow woewydstwo, xx, xxi; anti­Ukrainian policies in, 99; cre­ation, 86; peasant holdings in, 91; Ukrainians in, 89

Lypkivsky, Vasyl, 171

Machiavelli, Niccolo, 44-5

Magocsi, Paul Robert, 11

Maisky, Ivan, 228

Main Security Office, Nazi Germany’s, 216

majority rule and trust, 64. See also trust

Makhno, Nestor, 69

Malaysia, 6

Malenkov, Georgi: Khrushchev out­manoeuvres, 276; and post-Stalinist succession struggle, 273 malnourishment: and typhus (1932­

3), 157; workers and, 157 Malorossiia. See Little Russia Manchuria, 8 Manuilsky, Dmytro, 77 Mao Ze Dong (quote), 256 Maria Theresa, Empress of Austria,

28, 30

Mariupil (city): pogroms and mass executions of Jews (1941), 215; pro-Bolshevik Soviet power, 72 Marne, First Battle of, 40 marriage and birth rates, after

Holodomor, 162

Martin, Terry, 11; and “affirmative action empire,” 284

Marxism-Leninism and Russian na­

tional interests, 251

Marxism and the National Question

(Joseph Stalin), 128 measurements, xxiii Medvedev, Roy, and possible realloca­

tion of exported grain to alleviate famine of 1932-3, 156-7

Melitopil (city), 139

Melnikov, Leonid, 272-3 Melnyk, Andrii, 207-8 Mennonites, 222

Mensheviks, 55 Menshevik trial (1931), 170 Metropolitan See of Galicia, 30

MGB, and one-party state, 112 Mickiewicz, Adam, 22

Middle (Central) Volga region: as ma­jor grain-growing area, 152; peasant resistance to collectivization (1930),

147; population losses (1930-4),

159 migration: directives prohibiting

(1933), 155; rural to urban, 127; from Ukraine, 13; Ukrainians as majority of migrants, 128-9 Mikhnovsky, Mykola (Samostiina

Ukraina), 33 Mikolajczyk, Stanislaw, 230 military, Ukrainian, 66, 67 military systems, European, 39 Miliukov, Pavel, 47 Ministry of Higher Education of the

Ukrainian SSR, 271

Ministry for the Occupied Eastern

Territories, Germany’s, 216; creation of a Ukrainian National Army (1945), 121; Rosenberg and recognition of the Ukrainian National Committee, 221; treatment of Ukrainians in Reichskommissariat Ukraine as Untermenschen, 240 minorities, national. See national mi­norities, in East Central Europe minorities, in Soviet Ukraine. See

Bulgarians; Germans; Greeks; Jews;

Poles; Romanians; Russians Minsk, and passportization, 154 modernization, 14 Moldova, 7 Moldovan Autonomous Soviet

Socialist Republic, creation of (1924), xx

Moldovan-language schools in

Ukraine, 186

Moldovan Soviet Socialist Republic: creation (1940), xx, 203; transfer of central Bessarabia into Moldovan ASSR (1940), 203

Molotov, Viacheslav, 136, 151, 165, 203; and 1932 agricultural plan, 152; Decree on... Grain and Sunflower Seed Procurement Plan (December 1932), 153; and grain procurements in Ukraine (1927-8), 138; and the Molotov-Yezhov- Khrushchev special commission (1937) to Kiev, 188

Molotov-Ribbentropf Non­Aggression Pact (1939), xx, 228; Hitler and adherence to, 211; USSR as main beneficiary, 203

Mongols, 8, 9

Moravia, Germany’s annexation of (1939), 203

Mordvinians, cultural level in USSR, 115

Moscow, xv, 139, 172; food ration­ing, 138, 157; and furthest German advance (1941), 211; and passporti­zation, 154

Moscow region, peasant resistance to collectivization (1930), 147 “Motria” (Artemiziia Hryhorievna

Halyts’ka), 265-6

Mudry, Vasyl, 207

Mukachevo, ceded to Hungary (1938), 202

Munich Agreement (1938), 201; Hitler’s violations of agreement, 203

Muscovites, 10 Muscovy, 9, 22, 274 Mykolaiv/Nikolaev (city): Bolshevik work in, 75; introduction of ration cards, 138; and Jews, 17; Ukrainian urban growth after WWII, 257; urban growth, 126

Mykolaiv/Nikolaev Oblast, xx, 218

Nachtigall, 245

Naimark, Norman, 11 “nashi” (ours), 25, 239 nation vs ethnicity (terms), xvii nation-building (term) 27, 65;

Communist Party’s “nation­building” and “nation-destroying” operations, 283; and state-building 65

“national” vs “nationalist,” 197 national communists, Ukrainian.

See Khvylovy, Mykola; Shumsky,

Alexander; Skrypnyk, Mykola; Volobuev, Mykhailo national consciousness, xvii; diffusion

of, 125; Ukrainian, 28, 34-6 National Democratic Party (Galicia),

32, 33

National Democratic Party (Polish

Republic), 88-90, 100 national deviations, 180-1 national identity (term), xvii; depoliti­

cization of, 284; form and content of, 286; and nationalism as “states of mind,” 286; in Right Bank in 1920s, 186; USSR as reinforcer of, 74 nationalism, Ukrainian: diffusion of

idea, 49, 54; as response to collec­tivization and grain requisitioning, 142

nationalist (term), xvii nationalist phase (Hroch), 19 nationalizing state(s), 22, 84-6, 284-5 national liberation movements, 136,

241

national minorities: in East

Central Europe, 85; treaties with Czechoslovakia, Poland, and Romania, 85, 87, 107; and Ukrainians, 106 national movement: in Austria-

Hungary, 18, 19, 20, 28-33; handicaps during revolutionary period, 84; in Russia, 25, 26, 27, 57; Ukrainian 19-22, 27 national-personal autonomy, 59;

Bauer and Renner’s ideas of, 128;

Estonia and, 85; Ukrainian Central Rada and Law on, 62, 63

national question and the Bolsheviks, 70-1

national security: Austria and Germany’s, 68; Bolsheviks’ concerns, 191-2; contrast with German policy in WWI, 213; Czechoslovakia’s, 105; fears of capitalist invasions of the USSR, 133; fears of food security and, 68; Imperial Russia’s, 25, 26; and industrialization, 131-2; interna­tional setbacks, 133; mobilization plan, 133; Nazi conception of the new world order after invasion of USSR, 213; Polish Republic’s, 87, 88, 101; USSR’s prophylactic mea­sures, 133; USSR’s concerns and responses, 190; war scare (1926-7), 133-4

naval race, Germany and Great Britain, 39

New Economic Policy (NEP), 111, 113, 140, 171, 175, 244; re-emphasis of, 117; retreat from, 132, 140, 143, 144; and Stalin, 191; and Ukrainization as part of the old political balance, 189

New Russia (Novorossiia), 16 19; military conscription (1914-17) in, 43. See also Taurida; Kherson; Ekaterinoslav

Nicholas I, tsar of Russian Empire, 24 Nicholas II, tsar of Russian Empire, 22, 41, 47, 55, 57

Nigeria, 6

Nikolaev/Mykolaiv (city): Bolshevik work in, 75; introduction of ration cards, 138; and Jews, 17; Ukrainian urban growth after WWII, 257; urban growth, 126

Nikolaev/Mykolaiv Oblast, xx; as part of Romanian-controlled Transnistria (1941-4), 218

NKVD (People’s Commissariat of Internal Affairs): arrests of military leaders in Ukraine (1937), 187-8; arrests in Poland’s former regions, 209; and deportation of Crimean Tatars, Armenians, Bulgarians, and Greeks from Crimea (1944), 254; and deportation of Germans and Poles (1930s) from Soviet Ukraine, 254; and Great Terror in Ukraine (1937-8), 187; and Katyn Forest Massacres (1940), 209; and one- party state, 112; Ukrainian NKVD, 186; and West Ukrainian Prison Massacres (1941), 209-10; Yezhov’s dismissal as NKVD head (1938), 189 nomads, 8 non-Ukrainians: and Bolsheviks, 61;

and General Secretariat 60, 61; Small Rada, 60, 61; and Ukrainian Central Rada, 59, 60, 61; and UNR’s declaration of indepen­dence, 63. See also Germans; Jews; Poles; Russians

Normanist and anti-Normanist con­troversy, 20

North Caucasus region: as major grain-growing area, 152; peasant resistance to collectivization (1930), 147; peasant revolts (1921) in, 112; population losses (1930-4), 159, 162

Novgorod-Siversk, 19

Novorossiia. See New Russia

occupational zones in Ukraine: Austrian (1918), 68; German (1918), 68; German occupational zones (1941-4), 197, 218-21; Hungarian (1939-44), 218; Romanian (1941-4), 197, 222; Soviet (1939-41) over Galicia and Volhyia, 204-11; Tsarist Russia’s over Galicia and Bukovina (1914-17), 40-1, 44-9

Oder-Niesse Rivers, as Poland’s west­ern post-1945 borders, 255

Odessa (city), xvi; Bolshevik work in, 75; introduction of ration cards, 138; Odessa Soviet Republic, 72, 73; passportization, 154; pogroms and mass executions of Jews (1941), 215; population (1897), 127; population (1926), 127; population (1959), 258; pro-Bolshevik Soviet power, 72; Romanian occupation (1941-4), 212; urban growth, 126

Odessa Oblast, xx; part of Romanian- controlled Transnistria (1941-4), 218; public use of Ukrainian in 1935, 182

Odessa Soviet Republic, 72, 73, 79 OGPU: defections in Europe, 133; and one-party state, 112; prophylactic measures (1927), 133; registration of mass protests and “terrorist acts” in countryside (1927-9), 142; report on anti-collective farm movement in Belarus, Kazakhstan, and Ukraine (1932), 152; reports on peasants, 147. See also NKVD

oil, in Drohobycz/Drohobych-

Boryslav (Eastern Galicia), 82 Old Church Slavonic, 30

Old Ruthenian movement, in Austro-

Hungarian Empire, 36 one-party state, creation of Soviet, 112, 113, 114

Operation Motria, 265-6 Operation Vistula, 256-7 Organization of Ukrainian

Nationalists (OUN): adoption of fascist practices, 95; appeal for young people, 94-5; arrests of OUN-B leaders by the Germans (1941), 212; aspirations for Carpatho-Ukraine, 202; aspirations to overturn the Treaty of Versailles, 227-8, 245, 246; attacks by OUN-B on Soviet authorities in Eastern Galicia and Volhynia (1939), 207; conflict between the Bandera and Melnyk factions of, 207-8; and declaration of Ukrainian indepen­dence (1941), 211-12; and Dmytro Dontsov, 93; expeditionary groups to Soviet Ukraine after German invasion (1941), 240; founding, 92; frustrations, 94-5; German-OUN relations, 107, 211, 212, 246, 247; goals, 92-3; identification as a revo­lutionary integral nationalist group, 93; inspiration, 93; and killings of unarmed Jewish and Polish civilians, 249; and Evhen Konovalets, 208; maximalist orientation, 95; number of members (1939), 94, 207; partici­pation in terrorism and violence, 93, 101 208; Poles, Russians, and Jews as enemies of Ukrainians, 208; Poles and Ukrainians (1939-41) in Eastern Galicia and Volhynia, 205-6; strat­egy in regard to the Germans (1943), 245, 247; and Ukrainian Military Organization, 93

Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists (OUN-B); assassina­tion of Havril Kostelnyk (1948), 269; Bandera faction, 247; contra­dictions in the OUN-B attempts to accommodate Germany, 245; differing views with OUN-M concerning Germany and the Germans, 212-13; establishment of independent Ukrainian state as its first priority, 241; ethnic cleansing campaign in Volhynia, 234, 236-7; as existential threat to Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Poland, Romania, and the USSR, 241-2; expectations of third world war and Western intervention, 262-3; and geopolitical situation favouring the Red Army, 242, 262; killing of Polish General Karol Swierczewski (1947), 256; Kursk and Stalingrad battles (1943), 240-1; life in an il­legal and conspiratorial world, 241; opposition to Kostelnyk, 269; and Poles, Jews, Russians, and Soviets, 208, 213; as spearhead of Ukrainian national-liberation movement, 241; Third Extraordinary Grand Assembly (1943), 240-2; “Ukraine for Ukrainians,” 241; Western Ukrainian Territorial Committee, 234

Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists (OUN-M): arrests by the Germans (1941-2), 212; differing views with OUN-B over Germany, 212, 213

Oriental Institute (Warsaw), 99

Orlov, A.F., 24

Orlov Province, 12

Orthodox Christianity, 8; and Belarusans in Polish Republic, 86; German tolerance of religious expression during occupation (1941-4), 223; number of Orthodox Christian believers in Western Ukraine (1939), 267; role in creat- ing/inhibiting Ukrainian identity 10, 13, 14, 16, 24-5, 29, 36, 96; in Wolyn, 96

Orwell, George (quote), 201

Ostarbeiter (Eastern Worker) program, 219, 224-6; over­all number, 252; and post-war political reintegration, 259; and Schutzmannschaften in Volhynia, 235-6; as subhumans, 225

Ottoman Empire, 9, 31, 84; closure of the Bosphorus and Dardanelles, 28; conflict in Balkans, 39; decay, 39; joins Central Powers, 40; recognition of the UNR at First Brest-Litovsk Treaty, 67; UNR's diplomatic relations with, 62

Ottoman Turks, 9

pacification campaign (Poland, 1930), 94-5

Pale of Settlement, 17; abolishment (1915), 49-50

Palestine: Irgun and Stern Gangs, PLO, and OUN-B as national lib­eration movements, 241; Jewish na­tionalist violence against the British and Palestinians, 237; Palestinian nationalist and Islamist violence against Israelis, 237

Paris, 147

Paris, Treaty of (1920), Bessarabia and Bukovina to Romania, 84, 101, 102 partisans, Soviet, 226-7; founding, 226; importance, 227; in Kholm/ Chelm, 233; location of opera­tions, 226; national identification of, 226; number (1943), 226; and Schutzmannschaften, 235-6; Sydir Kovpak, 226; in Volhynia, 235-6 partisans, Tito’s, and Ukrainian

Insurgent Army, 227

partisans, Ukrainian. See Ukrainian Insurgent Army

passports (internal): for all major ur­ban and industrial centres, 154; and documentation of Jewish, Russian, and Ukrainian identities, 239; and East Slavic identity, 239; and food security, 154; Imperial Russian and Soviet, 48; introduction of, 154; issued to new Soviet citizens of Eastern Galicia and Volhynia (1939), 206; peasant exclusion from, 154, 239; Soviet citizenship and the Jews (1939), 206; Ukrainization and, 239

patriotism, Soviet, 132

Peasant Battalions, in Kholm/Chelm Region, 233

peasant revolts, in Tambov, Volga re­gion, Siberia, the North Caucasus, and Ukraine, 112, 147

peasant soldiers, polarization of, 65 peasants, 13, 14, 18, 25; in 1930, 147, 148-9; alienation 75; arrests of (1933), 155; “backwardness” of, 146; and Bolsheviks, 73, 75; and Borotbists, 73; collectivization as control over, 182; collectivization as end of traditional way of life, 147­8; and Communist Youth League, 147, 149, 153; as component of the national movement, 194; culture of defying authorities, 149; demands for end of collectivization and state grain requisitions, 147; differ­ences with Russian neighbours, 137; economic revival in Ukraine, (1921-6), 113; entry into collec­tive farms (1931), 149; famine and food, 155; fear of being classified as a kulak, 148; flight to Poland, 148; and good soldier Svejk, 150; GPU analysis of the opponents of collectivization, 148; grain advance surrender (November 1932), 152; grain requisitions and peasant radicalization, 142; importance of Ukrainian SSR to, 80; and individu­alism, 136, 145; land holdings in Lwow, Stanisfawow, and Tarnopol, 91; as largest potentially mobilize­able group against the Soviet state, 195-6; livestock surrender, 152-3; middle peasants, 140; mobilization along national and social lines, 137; neutrality of, 66; OGPU registra­tion of mass protests and “terrorist acts” (1927-9), 142; opposition to collectivization and grain requisi­tioning, 195; party members and collectivization, 149; perception of party’s hostility to them, 14; perceptions of Soviet authorities re­garding Ukrainian peasant wealth, 145, 146; polarization, 65; poor

peasants and collective farms, 140, 145-6; prohibited from migrat­ing, 155; rebellion against Hetman Skoropadsky, 179; Red Army veterans and rural party leadership, 149; resistance to collectivization, 145, 148, 149, 150; response to Germans during occupation (1941­4), 223-4; response to Stalin’s “Dizzy with Success” article (1930), 148; and rural Communist Party membership, 149; rural com­position (1930), 149; rural popula­tion and its national composition (1926, 1929), 145, 146 (table); seed stock reserve requisitioning (1932), 154; Stalinist priorities, 157; Stalin’s suspicion of peasants, 139; Stalin’s visit to Siberia and the Urals (1928), 139-40; surrender to collective farm system (1933), 157; and Ukrainian language, 58; and Ukrainian Peasant Union, 178; war against, 139. See also kulaks People’s Republic of China (PRC),

277

People’s Secretariat, 62, 67, 72, 73 Pereiaslav, Treaty of (1654), 9;

celebrations of anniversary, 275; decree commemorating its signifi­cance, 275; as model for historical relations between Russians and non-Russians within USSR, 275; as permanent “reunion,” 275; the tricentennial celebrations (1954), 274-6; Ukrainians as junior part­ners in administering USSR, 276 Petliura, Symon, 179; and alli­

ance of UNR with Poles against Bolsheviks, 69; assassination (May 1926), 147; Bolshevik victory over, 75; dilemma over UNR and Eastern Galicia and Volhynia, 98; and pogroms, 70; popularity among Ukrainians in Poland, 100; relationship with Pilsudski, 98; and renewed alliance between Poland and exiled UNR government, 147; Ukrainian peasants as followers of, 166

Petrograd, 55, 57, 59, 66 Petrograd Soviet, 55

Petrovsky, Hryhory, 151 Petrushevych, Evhen, 82

Phillipines, 6

Piatakov, Georgi, 71, 73 Piedmont-Sardinia, as model for

Carpatho-Ukraine, 202 Pieracki, Bronislaw, 94 pigs, decline (1928-32), 149 Pilsudski, Joseph, 87-8, 90, 186, 189,

192, 193; authoritarianism, 99; coup (1926), 133, 177; death (1935), 88; identification with poloniza- tion and pacification, 99; and Promethean movement, 97-101; recognition of Ukrainian interests inside and outside Poland, 99, 101; relationship with Petliura, 98; sup­porters’ mixed attitudes towards Poland’s Belarusan and Ukrainian minorities, 99

Pipes, Richard, 78, 284 pivot, geopolitical: defined, 6; Ukraine

as, 6, 280-7

Plast, 90 player, geostrategic: defined, 6; Russia as, 6

Podlachia region, xx, 212, 233; German occupational policies in, 231, 255-6; Treaty of Riga (1921) and Podlachaia, 231; and Volhynia and Eastern Galicia, 231

Podolia Province, 57, 60; as part of Ukrainian SSR (1919), 73; peasant land holdings in, 26

pogroms: and mass executions of Jews in Ukraine (1941-4), 215; number of Jewish victims and survivors in Ukraine (1941-4), 216 (table); number of Ukrainian perpetrators, 216; by Russian imperial troops in Galicia in WWI, 45, 46; in territo­ries claimed by Directory (1918­19), 69-70; West Ukrainian Prison Massacres (1941), 209-10

Poland (before 1918), xx, xxi, 6, 7, 9, 49, 83, 114, 245, 247; Austrian plans to establish a Kingdom of Poland and introduce Galicia’s autonomy (1916), 52; common destiny with Ukraine, 52; consequences of Ukrainian Revolution (1917-21) for, 81, 83-4; German plans to liberate it from Russian Empire during WWI, 49; historic, 82; and national-personal autonomy, 62, 63; partitions of, 9, 16, 18; procla­mation of Polish Republic (1918), 81, 82; and Ukrainian question, 83. See also Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth

Poland (1918-39), 82, 86-101; agri­culture and rural overpopulation, 87; alleged alliance with France and Great Britain, 133; anti-Semitism and Jewish cultural distinctiveness, 88; Belarusans in, 86; colonization efforts in Eastern Little Poland and Volhynia, 91; Communist Party of Poland, 88; constitution, 87; demands that Carpatho-Ukraine become part of Hungary (1938), 202; Democratic Party, 88; econo­my, 87; emergence after WWI, 84; fear of Soviet military interven­tion, 92; geopolitical position, 87; German invasion of (1939), 203, 204; German and Italian agreement (1938) to Polish and Hungarian demands concerning Carpatho- Ukraine, 202; Great Depression, 91; invasion of Ukraine (1920), 69; isolation of Volhynia and Kholm from Galicia, 86; land reform, 89, 91; legacy of the partitions, 87; Lithuanians in, 86; migration to the US and Canada, 91; military capac­ity during Polish-Ukrainian War, 82; Moscow leaders and the pos­sibility of war with, 185; national security concerns, 87; nationalizing state, 84-6; Orthodox popula­tion, 86; pacification campaign (1930), 94; parliamentary elec­tions (1930), 94; Joseph Pilsudski, 87-8; policies toward internal enemies, 95; political consolida­tion and national integration, 87; Polish Socialist Party (PPS), 88; Polish-Ukrainian relations, 84-85, 89, 90, 91, 94, 97-101, 106-107; political gridlock, 87; population (1921), 86; population (1931), 86; proclamation of Polish Republic (1918), 81, 82; reassessment of relationship with USSR and its Ukrainian population (1932), 100; Red Army’s invasion (1920) of, 79; Soviet invasion (1939), 203, 204; state policies towards Ukrainians, 244; territory, 86; Ukrainian Greek Catholic and Orthodox churches in, 86; Ukrainian percentage of total population (1931), 106; Ukrainian population (1921-39), 86, 89; Ukrainian population (1921) in, 84-5; and Ukrainian question, 83-4, 87, 90; Ukrainian-speaking territories in, 86-7; victory over Bolsheviks (1920), 86

Poland (1939-45): elections in Soviet- annexed territories (1939), 205; formal entry of Eastern Galicia and Volhynia into the USSR (1939), 197, 203, 204, 205; German annexations of Poznan, Pomorze (Pomerania), Lodz, and Upper Silesia, 203, 204; German zone of occupation (1939-41), 203, 204; national com­position of newly incorporated ter­ritories, 204; number of new Soviet citizens (1939), 205; overall civilian losses during WWII, 252; Polish Government-in-Exile (London), 209, 210, 228; Polish-Ukrainian conflicts under Soviet occupation (1939-41), 204-5; “revolution from abroad,” 204; and Second Treaty of Brest Litovsk (1918), 282; Soviet citizens encounter higher living standards in, 259; Soviet-German Treaty of Friendship (1939), 203; Soviet invasion (1939), 203, 204; Soviet pacification model, 205; Soviet policies in newly acquired Ukrainian-speaking territories, 205; Soviet zone of occupation (1939-41), 203, 204. See also Polish Government-in-Exile (London)

Poland (post-1945): border changes and population transfers (1944-6), 254, 255; census of 1950, 257; expulsion of Germans from East Central Europe, 255; expulsion of Ukrainians (1946), 255-6; as nationally homogeneous state, 257; new size (1945), 255; Operation Vistula, 256-7; post-war boundar­ies, 255; Soviet expulsion of Poles and Jews to, 255; Ukrainian popu­lation, 256; Western areas of the new Poland, 255

Poles, 9, 10, 13, 14, 18, 22, 194; anti­Polish violence in Volhynia, 236, 237; arrests (1934) of in Soviet Ukraine, 186; deported from Soviet Ukraine to Kazakhstan, 186; dif­ferentiated Soviet policies toward national groups (1939-41), 210-11; Hitler’s plans (1941) to starve and kill, 211; Moscow’s suspicions of, 185; national security concerns and the Russian identity, 191-2; Nazi racial hierarchies in different occupational zones, 222-8; nega­tive views of Ukrainians, 101; as NKVD target, 186; overrepresent­ed in Russian Communist Party, 115; Polish-German antagonism in Eastern Galicia and in Central Poland, 219; “Polish operation” in Ukraine, 186; Polish peasants and the German reprivatization of land in Eastern Galicia, 219; Polish-Ukrainian mixed areas and irreconcilable conflicts, 256;

population transfers within Poland, 257; radicalization of anti-Semitic, anti-Polish, and anti-Ukrainian

attitudes (1939), 211; as refugees in WWI, 49; resettlement (1935) from Soviet Ukraine, 186; in Right Bank Ukraine, 186; and Schutzmannschaften in Volhynia (1943), 235-6; shift in Soviet na­tionalities policy (1930s), 185-6; in Soviet Ukraine, 185; as victims of Great Terror in Ukraine (1937-8), 187; WWII as dividing Poles from other national groups in East Central Europe, 201 Polesie/Polissia (region): emer­gence of Ukrainian self-defence forces (1942), 227; as part of Reichskommissariat Ukraine (1941-4), 218; Polish weakening of Ukrainian Greek Catholic and Orthodox churches, 86; Ukrainians in, 89; urban centres, 125 Polish Committee of National

Liberation (Lublin Government): Mikolajczyk and Churchill on the recognition of Lublin Government, 230; and the Provisional Government of National Unity, 230; and Soviet government, 230 Polish Government-in-Exile

(London): aspiration to become USSR’s equal ally against Nazi Germany, 247; and estimates of repressions (1939-41) in Soviet- occupied areas of former Polish state, 210; geopolitical strategy in East Central Europe, 228-30; London government and USSR as wary allies against Nazi Germany, 228; need to restore Poland to its pre-1939 borders, 228, 229; Polish­Soviet break after Katyn Forest massacre (1943), 229; Polish-Soviet military alliance and resumption of diplomatic relations (1941), 228; relationship with Home Army, 228; Warsaw Uprising, 230

Polish Institute of Nationalities Research, 99

Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, 9; Greek Catholics in, 18; Khmelnytsky revolution (1648-54), 9; partitions of, 275; Treaty of Pereiaslav (1654), 274

Polish Military Organization, 186 Polish Minority Treaty, 90 Polish Orthodox Autocephalous

Church, 97

Polish revolt of 1863, 23

Polish Socialist Party (PPS), 88 Polish speakers, number (1897) in Russian Empire, 16

Polish-Soviet War (1920), 43, 231 Polish-Ukrainian borderlands, num­ber of victims of mass intercom- munal violence in, 237-9. See also Zakerzonnia

Polish-Ukrainian War (1918-19), 82, 83

Polish-Ukrainian War (1943-7), 237-9 Polissia/Polesie (region): emer­gence of Ukrainian self-defence forces (1942), 227; as part of Reichskommissariat Ukraine (1941-4), 218; Polish weakening of Ukrainian Greek Catholic and Orthodox churches, 86; Ukrainians in, 89; urban centres, 125 political stage (Hroch), 19, 20 political trials: Industrial Party (1930), 170; Menshevik trial (1931), 170; Shakhty (1928), 170; Union for the

Liberation of Ukraine (1929-30), 171-2 politics, mass, 15 Poltava (city), 57; as part of Ukrainian

SSR (1919), 73

Poltava Province, 16, 57, 60; as part of Reichskommissariat Ukraine (1941-4), 218

Pomorze (Pomerania), 203 Poprad Mountains, 202 popular sovereignty, 15 population: acquisition of Ukrainian-

speakers and Russian-speakers (1939-54), 277; changes in de­mographic relationship between Russians and Ukrainians due to WWII, 197; density (1897), 26; educated (1897), 20; growth, (1870­1914), 25-6, 39; growth (1926-39), 166; Little Russian share of total population (1897), 26; rural, 13, 14; Ruthenian share in Eastern Galicia (1910), 28; Ukrainian percentage of total population in 1939 and 1959 censuses, 277. See also censuses population losses (1926-39), 159-62 population transfers: Allied expul­sion of Germans from East Central Europe, 255; collective guilt of Ukrainians in southeastern Poland, 257; and education in Western Ukraine (1940-1 and 1944-5), 271-2; failure of voluntary post­war population transfer to Ukraine, 256; and higher education, 271-2;

movement of Russian and Russified cadres to Ukraine’s eastern and southern regions, 257; number of Europeans transferred (1943-8), 254; Operation Vistula and UPA, 256-7; OUN/UPA hostility to­ward Ukrainians who voluntarily registered to transfer, 256; between Poland and Ukraine (1944-6), 254; Polish expulsion of Ukrainians (1946) from Zakerzonnia, 255-6; and Polish student transfers, 271; post-WWII population transfer to Western Ukraine from Central, Southern, and Eastern Ukraine, 271-2; between Soviet Ukraine and USSR, 254; teacher transfer from Eastern to Western Ukraine, 271; Ukrainian as language of instruction in Western Ukraine in early post-WWII period, 271, 272; Ukrainian population in Zakerzonnia, 256

Postyshev, Pavel, 167, 187, 188; dis­mantlement of the Commissariat of Education and Institute of Linguistics, 182; CPU Central Committee’s failure to meet grain targets, 174; and “negative selec­tion,” 183; purge of CP(b)U, 174-5, 182-3; and Ukrainization, 174 poverty, rural, in Lwow, Stanislawow and Tarnopol, 91

Poznan, German annexation of (1939), 203

preference policies: and enlarged elites, 171; governmental during WWI, 47; of workers in late 1920s, 170-1. See also indigenization; Ukrainization

primate city. See Kiev prisoners of war, 44; cannibalism among Soviet POWs, 218; and dif­fusion of Ukrainian idea in WWI, 51; German mistreatment of Soviet

POWs, 217-18; Hitler’s release of Ukrainian POWs, 217; national composition of Soviet POWs, 217; numbers of Soviets captured, 218; post-war political reintegration, 259 Project on the Soviet Social System,

Harvard University, 185 proletarian internationalism, 284-5 Promethean League, 97-101; Central

Ukrainian participation in, 99;

Tadeusz Holowko and, 100; Jozewski ’s role, 97; Pilsudski’s role, 97; Polish alliance with Belarus, Lithuania, and Ukraine against Russia, 97; supporters of Ukrainians, 99-100; Western Ukrainian rejection of, 99 Prosvita, 90 Provisional Government, 41, 47,

55, 57, 59, 62, 65, 69, 72, 111; and Bolsheviks on national question, 71; cooperation with Ukrainian Central Rada, 61; demise of PG, 61; reactions to Ukrainian Central Rada, 59, 60, 61; and Ukrainian autonomy, 60-1 Prussia, as model for Carpatho-

Ukraine, 202 Przemysl, Russian conquests during

the Great War, 45 purges: All-Union Communist Party and purge of Ukrainian “right­ists,” 173; in countryside, 150; of CP(b)U, the destruction of the Ukrainian cultural ecosystem, and Russification, 196-7, 285; Postyshev’s purge of CP(b)U, 174-5; as response to national secu­rity concerns, 190; and state terror in Ukraine, 171-5, 196-7, 285

Pushkin, Alexander, 22

Putin, Vladimir, 251

Pyskir, Maria Savchyn, 94, 95

racial theories, Nazi, 108, 222-8

Radchenko, Oleksandra, 150-1 radicalization of population: by

Germans and Austrians in WWI, 68; in interwar Poland, 95; by OUN, 96; in Wolyn, 96

Radical Party (Galicia), 32, 33 railway system, Russian and Soviet, 26, 43, 45, 259

Rakovsky, Christian, 76, 116, 118 ration cards: exclusion of peasants from rationing system, 139; food rationing in cities in early 1930s, 157; introduction (1928-9) of, 138; percentage of Ukraine’s population receiving, 138

Ravich-Cherkasskii, M., 75

Red (Soviet) Army, response to Polish invasion (1920), 69

Red Guards, 72

refugees: Austro-Ukrainian, 48-9, 50; created in 1914-17, 48; created in 1918-22, 4; created in 1945-50, 4; in Ekaterinoslav, 48; German, 49-50; impact of Galician refugees in Russian-controlled provinces, 48-9; Jewish, 49-50; in Kiev, 48; Polish, 49

regions, “special status,” 23

Reichskommissariat Ukraine: areas un­der its jurisdiction, 212; creation, xx, 218; and General Government, 219; Hitler’s view of Ukraine as a “food­supply base,” 213; importation of coal from Germany, 219; insufficient agricultural deliveries to Germany, 219; and King Leopold’s Congo,

219; local population’s passive resis­tance, 219; memories, 261, 262; Nazi occupation and special conditions for Ukrainians, 248; prohibition of public recitations of Shevchenko’s poetry, 240; treatment of Ukrainians in RK Ukraine, 240; and Ukrainian nationally conscious elite, 240 Reichsrat, 32 religion: German tolerance of reli­gious expression during occupa­tion (1941-4), 223. See also Greek Catholic Church; Hasidic move­ment; Haskalah movement; Jews; Orthodox Christianity; Roman Catholic Church of the Eastern Rite; Roman Catholicism; Russian Orthodox Churches

Renner, Karl, and Otto Bauer, on national-personal autonomy, 128 repressions, political. See state terror Revolution of 1905, 34

“revolution from abroad” (Jan Gross), 204

Revolutionary Ukrainian Party (Kharkov), 32, 33 revolutions: and psychological un­moorings, 280; as urban, rural, and non-Russian, 56, 169 revolutions of 1848, 32 Riga, Treaty of (1921), 69, 74, 228, 231; and changes along the Polish and Soviet borders, 254; conse­quences and aftermath, 99; and Eastern Galicia, 231; and Khlom Region, 231; and Podlachaia, 231; and Western Volhynia, 231

Right Bank Ukraine, xvi, 9, 13, 19, 21; delineation of national iden­tities in 1920s, 186; Germans in, 186; Jews in, 186; as part of Reichskommissariat Ukraine (1941­4), 218; percentage of Ukrainians (1926), 125; Poles in, 186; rural areas of (1926), 145; and Treaty of Warsaw (1920), 98; Ukrainians in, 186; urban centres, 126

Rivne, capital of Reichskommissariat Ukraine, 218

Robinson, Marilynne (quote), 201 rodina (motherland) vs otechestvo (fatherland/the state), 24

Rolland, 245

rolling stock for grain, lack of, 163 Roman Catholic Church of the

Eastern Rite, 232

Roman Catholicism, 17, 22; German preference for Greek Catholic Church over Polish Roman Catholic Church, 268; German tolerance of religious expression during occupation (1941-4), 223; number of Roman Catholic believ­ers in Western Ukraine (1939), 267; Ukrainian-speaking Roman Catholics, 186

Romania, xx, 9, 31, 83, 84, 247; abolition of provinces, 86; Banat as part of, 101; Bessarabia as part of, 84, 101, 102; Bukovina as part of, 84, 101, 102; consequences of Ukrainian Revolution (1917-21) for, 81, 83-4; Dobruja as part of, 101; economy, 101; and expulsion of Germans from East Central Europe, 255; Germans in, 101; Hungarians in, 101; incorporation of Ukrainian-speaking territories into Ukrainian SSR (1940), 197, 203; interwar policies toward

Ukrainians, 86, 102-3; national­izing state, 84-6, 102; policies to­wards Ukrainians, 244; population, 101; Romanian-Ukrainian rela­tions, 101-3, 106-7; Soviet citizens encounter higher living standards in, 259; Soviet policies in newly acquired Ukrainian-speaking terri­tories annexed from, 205; total pop­ulation (1930), 101; Transylvania as part of, 101, 102; Ukrainian percentage of total population (1930), 106; Ukrainian population, 101; and Ukrainian question, 83-4, 101-3; Ukrainian-speaking areas under its jurisdiction (1941-4), 212; weakening of Ukrainian Greek Catholic and Orthodox churches on its territory, 86 Romanianization, 102 Romanians: Austrian military’s suspicions of, 53, 54; differentiated Soviet policies toward national groups in (1939-41), 210-11; in Soviet Ukraine, 185

Romanov dynasty, 22, 28, 55. See also Alexander II; Alexander III; Nicholas I; Nicholas II; and Peter I (the Great)

Roosevelt, Franklin Delano, 230 Rosenberg, Alfred, 221 Rotterdam, 93, 208 Rudnytsky, Ivan L., 27 Ruski (Czech term), 104 Russia, 9; collapse (1917-18), 84;

conflict with Austria over Galicia (1914-17), 40-1; conflict in Balkans, 39-40; February (1917) revolution, 41; as geostrategic player, 6; military conscription (1914-17), 42-3; as oil producer, 82; population (1914), 42; Provisional Government, 41; and question of Ukrainian homeland, 280; size, 56; and von Schlieffen Plan, 40; war casualties, 41, 43, 46

Russian Communist Party (Bolshevik), 74; alienation of non-Russians, 115; creation of the Communist Party of Ukraine, 283; creation of Ukrainian SSR, 283; membership spurt (1917-21) and one-party state, 112; need to secure its power (1921), 111; peasant and national questions, 115; policies to accommodate non-Russian popula­tion, 111; Russian percentage of total membership, 115; social and national backgrounds of members, 115; special commission to discuss future Soviet republic relation­ships, 77; Tenth Party Congress (1921), 113-14; Twelfth (1923) Party Congress and indigenization, 113-14, 117; under- and over-repre­sented national groups in party, 115

Russian Criminal Code, Article 107, 140

Russian Empire: breakdown of rail­way system, 281; failure to satisfy economic and political demands of total war, 282; grain-producing and -consuming regions, 281; outbreak of February Revolution (1917), 281-2; total Russian population (1897), 114

Russian Empire and Ukrainian­speaking territories, xix, 9, 12, 14, 18, 30, 36, 231; anti-Ukrainian repressions after start of WWI, 50; autonomy and home rule, 54; Bessarabia to Romania (1919-20), 101; breakdown of railway system, 281; diffusion of Ukrainian idea, 54; expulsions of Jews, Germans, Ukrainians from Galicia during WWI, 45; frustrations at war’s end, 43; Galicia, 45-6; military conscrip­tion (1914-17), 43; occupations of Austrian territories during Great War, 45, 46, 207; plans to annex Bukovina and Galicia and rec­ognize autonomous Poland, 49; pogroms by Russian military dur­ing WWI, 45, 46; religious conver­sions of Ukrainian Greek Catholics to Orthodoxy (1875), 231; Russia as existential threat, 50; Ukraine as a major grain-producing zone, 281; Ukrainian morale at outbreak of war (1914), 41; war casualties, 43; wheat, 137; withdrawals from Galicia in WWI, 46

Russian Federation, 7; recognition of Ukrainian borders, xxi; RSFSR Supreme Soviet approval of transfer of Crimea to Ukrainian SSR (1954), 275; size, 5

Russian identity, and Soviet passport system, 239

Russian Orthodox Church (ROC); Alexius and the Orthodox hierar­chy in Western Ukraine, 268, 269; change in status of ROC in relation to USSR during WWII, 267; and Greek Catholic Church, 267-9; Kostelnyk and Initiative Group for Greek Catholic and Russian Orthodox reconciliation (1946), 268, 269; normalization of relations with Vatican and legalization of Greek Catholic Church (1953), 273-4; number of arrests (1945-50) of those who refused to convert, 269; number of Greek Catholics in Western Ukraine (1939), 267; number of priests who joined Kostelnyk’s group, 268-9; opposi­tion by Greek Catholic hierarchy, 269; and OUN, 269; other religious “reunions” in Czechoslovakia, 269; and Ukrainian Autocephalous Orthodox Church, 171, 267 Russian Soviet Federal Socialist

Republic, xx, xxi, 62, 84; adminis­trative-territorial structure, 76-7; Allied fear of revolutionary ap­peals, 82; borders between RSFSR and Ukrainian SSR, 74; decline in number of self-identified popula­tion (1926-37), 160; number of Ukrainian- and Turkic-language speakers (1921), 114; population upsurge (1926-37), 160; recogni­tion of UNR, 62, 67; recognition of Soviet Ukraine, 73; Russian and non-Russian populations (1921), 114; treaty with Ukrainian SSR (28 December 1920), 76, 77; Ukrainian­speaking border areas in, 74;

Ukrainian territories to RSFSR, 74

Russians, 13, 14, 18, 25, 194; Hitler’s war of annihilation (1941), 211; and national-personal autonomy, 62, 63; Nazi racial hierarchies, 222-8 Russian speakers: number of (1897), 16, 18; in urban areas, 19 Russification: accelerated after 1945 in Ukrainian SSR, 253-4; admin­istrative, 23, 26, 27, 76; cultural,

76; evolution of Stalinist, 16-17; in Galicia during WWI, 46; natural and voluntary, 22, 23, 76; tsarist 76; of Ukrainians, Belarusans, and peoples of the North, 24 Russophile movement: activities

under Russian military occupation during WWI, 45; Austrian military exaggerations of, 53; in Austro- Hungarian Empire, 36; on eve of 1914, 47

Rusyn (term), xvi, in Austrian and

Austro-Hungarian Empires, 28-33; in Hungary, 35

Rusynophile orientation (in Austria-

Hungary and Czechoslovakia), 105 Ruthenian (term), xvi, 28, 32; in

Austrian and Austro-Hungarian

Empires, 28-33, 35; Austrian mili­tary suspicions of, 53, 54; transfor­mation to Ukrainian, 32

Ruzhin, 17

Saint George’s Greek Catholic

Cathedral (Lviv), 268 Saint-Germain, Treaty of (1919), 74,

101

Samostiina Ukraina (Mykola

Mikhnovsky), 33 Sasse, Gwendolyn, xvii Saunders, David, 25 Schutzmannschaften (German

auxiliary police units), 245, 248; creation, 215; in Belarus, 235; in Volhynia, 235; increase in ranks (1942), 215; mass desertion (1943) and German response, 236; mem­bership coerced and volunteered in, 235; national composition of, 215; number of Ukrainians in, 215, 235;

Polish recruits into, 236; ques­tion of loyalty to Germans or to fascist principles, 235; reasons for joining, 235 ; and Soviet partisans, ex-communists, Jews, ex-prisoners, and Polish intelligentsia, 235-6; and Ukrainian Insurgent Army, 236 Scott, James C., 290 Second World War, 108, 201-50, 285;

annihilation of Jewish and Romani populations, 201, 251; appear­ance of potential new conflict, 174; changes in demographic relationship between Russians and Ukrainians, 197; division of Belarusans, Lithuanians, Poles, and Ukrainians into separate communi­ties, 201; human losses, 4, 251-2; post-war geopolitical architecture, 251

Secret Order No. 0078/42, 250 security services and one-party state, 112

self-determination: diffusion dur­ing WWI, 53, 54; during and after February Revolution, 56; ideal and reality for Ukrainians, 84, 107; Lenin’s vision of, 82; national conflict in Balkans, 39; Serbia, 31; USSR as a Marxist multinational federation, 251; Wilson’s vision of, 82, 107

separatists, pro-Russian in Eastern Ukraine, xxi

Serbs, Austrian military’s suspicions of, 53, 54

Serdiuk, Z.T., 274-6

serfdom: Austrian emancipation (1848), 13; and emancipation (1861), 20, 27; in Polish-Lithuanian

Commonwealth, 9; in Russian Empire, 13, 20

Sevastopol, 289; and the Jews, 17 Shakhty region, transfer to RSFSR, 74 Shakhty Trial (1928), 170, 172 Shandor, Vincent, 44

Sheptytsky, Andrei, 46; opposition to OUN, 95, 244

Shevchenko, Taras, 21-2, 24, 35; dem­onstrations on centenary (1914), 34; Koch’s prohibition of public recitations of his poetry, 240 Shevelov, George Y., 120 shtetls (Jewish towns and hamlets), 17 Shukhevych, Roman, 265 Shumsky, Alexander: All-Union Communist Party, Ukrainization, and emergence of Ukrainian national communists, 129-30; criticisms of Kaganovich, 176; interpretation of Ukrainization overturned by 1934, 181; and pace of Ukrainization, 176-7; Stalin’s criticisms of, 177; Ukrainian na­tional communists censured, 173 Sian River, 32

Sian Region (Zakerzonnia), 255-6 Siberia, 13; deportations of Germans to, 50; imprisonment in, 172; peas­ant revolts (1921) in, 112

Sich Riflemen, 51, 81; and Ukrainian Military Organization, 93

Siedlce Province, 13

Sikorski, Wladislaw, 228, 229 Silver, Brian, 253

Simonov, Konstantin, 259 Singapore, 6

Sinn Fein, Irish Republican Army (IRA), and OUN-B, as national liberation movements, 241

Skropadsky, Pavlo, 68

Skrypnyk, Mykola, 73, 77, 117;

All-Union Communist Party and

Ukrainization, 174, 129-30; appeals to Stalin to lower grain allot­ments, 150; as head of Ukraine’s State Planning Commission, 175; interpretation of Ukrainization overturned by 1934, 181 slave hunting, 8, 226 Slavophile-Westernizer debates, 20-1 Slipy, Joseph: and normalization of relations with the Vatican, 273-4; as Sheptytsky’s successor, 268 Slovakia, 7; declaration of indepen­dence (1939), 202, 203; establish­ment of autonomous government (1938), 202; as Nazi puppet state, 247; population (1930), 103 small nations: Hroch, 19; Kundera, 12 Small Rada (Ukrainian Central Rada’s executive committee), 60, 61 Snyder, Timothy, 11, 236 Social Democratic Party (Galicia),

32, 33

Social Democratic Party (Germany),

174

“socialism in one country,” 191, 283; Stalin and, 132

socialist revolutionaries: Russian

(Party of Socialist Revolutionaries), 55; Ukrainian (Ukrainian Party of Socialist Revolutionaries), 58 soldiers, Ukrainian, alienation from

Ukrainian Central Rada, 66-7 Solovetsky Islands, imprisonment in, 172

Solzhenitsyn, Alexander, reaction to

Stalin’s death, 272 Somme, Battle of, 40

Sophie, Archduchess of Austria- Hungary, 39

Southern Bureau of the General Jewish Labor Bund of Lithuania, Poland and Russia (the Bund), 59 South Korea, 6

Southwest Region (lugozapadnyi krai), 16; military conscription (1914-17), 43. See also Kiev; Podolia; Volhynia

sovereignty, Ukrainian SSR, 136; class-based, 56, 72; enhanced in post-1945 world, 277; as founding member of USSR, 286; and Fourth All-Ukrainian Congress of Soviets (May 1920), 76; limitations in 1920s and 1930s, 286; national, 56; popular, 56; problems, 72, 76-7, 78, 79; as quasi-sovereign state within USSR, 79, 286; Ukrainian SSR as founding member of the United Nations, 242, 277; Ukrainian SSR’s defence of national self-determi­nation and sovereignty at the UN, 277-8

Soviet-German Treaty of Friendship (1939), 203

Soviet Union. See Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) “speculation” (grain), 140 spies, Soviet, 133 Sri Lanka, 6

SS-Waffen Division Galicia (1943), 220, 245; becomes 14th Waffen- Grenardierdivision der SS (Galiz. Nr. 1), 221; characteristics of those enlisted, 220; creation of a Ukrainian National Army (1945) from this division, 121; loss at the Brody-Tarnow pocket (1943), 221; national composition of, 220-1; op­position to creation of (1943), 221; reasons for enlistment in, 220-1; relationship to the Ukrainian Central Committee and the Greek Catholic Church, 220; surrender to the British, 221; transfer from Slovenia to Slovakia, 221

Stalin, Joseph, xvii, 111, 151, 203; accusation that CP(b)U leaders and famine victims responsible for their own starvation, 167; accusa­tions of disruption of collective and state farms, 166; accusations against rural communists, 167; accusations against UNR, 62; acknowledg­ment of Ukrainian participation in WWII, 250; and cadres, 169; as catalyst for the famines of 1928-9 and early 1930s, 165; as chair of commission to discuss future Soviet republic relationships (1922), 77; cities in Ukraine and in other countries, 128-9; civil war generation and NEP, 191; collec­tivization, 148, 152; concept of the socialist fatherland, 132; criticisms of Shumsky, Kaganovich, and political surveillance, 177; death and subsequent crisis for the CPSU and CPU political elites (1953-4), 272-7; Decree on... Grain and Sunflower Seed Procurement Plan (December 1932), 153; decree “On the Protection of State Property” (August 1932), 152; and de-kulakization, mass col­lectivization, grain-requisitioning, famines, and improvised genocide, 195-6; and de-Stalinization, 276; on differences between Ukrainian methods of grain procurement in Georgia and Ukraine, 165; “Dizzy with Success” article (1930), 148; grain collections reductions, 150; grain deliveries, 151; impatience of the civil war generation, 190; implementation of aspects of national-personal autonomy, 128; integration of countryside into Soviet economy and politi­cal system, 168; intentionality of Holodomor, 152; mistrust of CP(b) U senior leaders, 193-4; mixed messages on Ukrainization (1929), 178-81; and national question, 70-1; national security concerns and the Russian identity, 191-2; necessity of ideological purification and decontamination, 250; neces­sity of violence in grain-surplus regions, 165; need to discipline Ukraine, 167; on occupations and imposition of social systems (1945), 251; and old technical intelligentsia, 170; opportunism, 133; order and legitimacy, 130; outmanoeuvring of the Polish Home Army and Government-in-Exile, 230; peasant and national questions and need for prophylactic measures, 148; peas­ants as powerful component of the national movement, 194-6; percep­tion of peasants as primary social base for supporters of Ukrainian nationalism, 148; plans for a speedy trial of the Union of the Liberation of Ukraine, 172; policy toward Soviet Ukraine after collectiviza­tion and industrialization, 197; at Potsdam (1945), 255; radio address (July 1941), 226; reaction to peasant opposition to collectivization and grain requisitioning, 195; reac­tion to urban food shortages, 139; reasons for collectivization and industrialization, 168; recognition that most living under occupa­tion passively accepted German and Romanian rule, 250; refusal to lower grain collection allotments, 150, 151; removal of Bukharin from Politburo (1929), 143; on revolution and individual nation­alities, 169; Shumsky and pace of Ukrainization, 176-7; socialism and the intensification of the class struggle, 166; “socialism in one country,” 132; speech to industrial mangers (1931), 131-2; suspicion of peasants, 139; suspicions of Ukrainian creative intelligentsia and communists, 167; toast prais­ing the Russian people (1945) and condemnation of Ukrainian na­tionalists, 270; total requisitioning, 154; total war against Ukrainian peasants, intelligentsia, and culture, 167-8; and Ukraine (1945-54), 251-78; underdevelopment and need for industrialization, 131; understanding of role of Greek Catholic Church in Ukrainian life, 269; “victor of victors,” 168; view of Ukraine as centre stage in next world war, 174; view of under­ground ready to embrace foreign intervention and restore capitalism, 168; visit to Siberia and the Urals (1928), 139; and war scare (1926-7), 133-4; Werfel’s characterization of, 190-1

Stalingrad (1943): inspiration for young peasants to join UPA in Volhynia, 260; and Kursk as spark of OUN-B’s reconsideration of its political and socio-economic programs, 240; reaction to Soviet victories among Ukrainians in Eastern Ukraine, 261; as turning point in the war, 227, 261

Stalino (Donetsk): OUN-B and UPA units reach Stalino, 261; population (1959), 258; urban growth, 126

Stalino Oblast, public use of Ukrainian in 1935, 182

Stanislaviv Oblast/Stanislawow voievodeship, xx, xxi; anti­Ukrainian policies in, 99; creation, 86; peasant holdings in, 91; during Polish-Ukrainian War (1918-19), 82; Ukrainians in, 89

starvation, 151; Austrian and German (by 1918), 68; directives prohibiting migration of peasants from Ukraine to other Soviet republics (1933), 155; exported grain and its possible reallocation to alleviate famine of 1932-3, 156-7; famine (1928-32), 151; famine (1932-3), 155; famine and food, 155; famine and political coercion, 167; and Final Solution, 287; forced peasant surrender of livestock, 152-3; German starvation of cities during occupation (1941­4), 224; Nazi plans to starve the non-German populations of East Central Europe and the USSR, 211, 287; Stalinist priorities, 157; victims by age, gender, and membership in collective farms, 156; weakening of the survival instinct, 155-6

state: unitary, 22, 23; Stalinist version, 197

state building and nation building, 65 State Commission for Aid to Victims of Crop Failure of the Ukrainian SSR, 141

State Planning Committee (Gosplan), 140

“state-sponsored evolutionism” (Hirsch), 284-5; implementation by means of persuasion, 285; inter­mingling of ideology of proletarian internationalism with Russian state interests, 285; stages, 285 state terror, 190-6; in former Polish state, 210; Great Terror in Ukraine (1937-8), 187; influence of culture of violence on party leadership and membership, 190-1; mass arrests (1938-40), 189; mass arrests in Soviet Ukraine (1935-6), 187; as tool for remoulding society, 190; against Ukrainization, 171-5

Stavropol Province, Ukrainian minor­ity in, 16

steppe, role in Ukraine, 8

Steppe Region (in Soviet period), 125, 126

storage facilities for grain, lack of, 163 Subcarpathian Rus: promise of auton­omy within Czechoslovakia (1920), 104; Treaty of Trianon (1920), 104 Subtelny, Orest, 11 Sudan, 6

Sumy, and OUN-B and UPA units, 261

Supreme Council of the National Economy (Vesenkha) of Ukrainian

SSR and USSR, abolition of (1932), 136

Supreme Ruthenian Council, 32 Supreme Ukrainian Council (HUR),

81

surveillance, political, 171; of

Mykhailo Hrushevsky, 176; Stalin’s criticisms of Shumsky, Kaganovich, 177; start by GPU, 176; of Ukrainian intelligentsia, 176-8 suspicions of disloyalty. See treason Svejk, the good soldier, peasants as,

150

Swedish-language schools in Ukraine (1930s), 186

Taganrog, and Jews, 17

Taganrog okrug, transfer to RSFSR,

74

Tanzania, 6

Tarasov, M.P., 275 Tarnopol/Ternopil: during Polish-

Ukrainian War (1918-19), 82;

Russian conquests during WWI, 45, 46, 47

Tatars: peasant resistance to collectiv­ization (1930), 147; in USSR, 114

Tatra Mountains, 202

Taurida Province, 16, 17, 57, 63; as part of Ukrainian SSR (1919), 73

Tenth Party Congress (1921), 113 Ternopil Oblast/Tarnopol voievode- ship xx, xxi; anti-Ukrainian policies in, 99; creation, 86; peasant hold­ings in, 91; Ukrainians in, 89 terror and terrorism: defined, 93;

Great Terror, 175; in 1922-3, 93; in 1930-1, 93; numbers of victims during famine and the Great Terror of 1937-8, 167; OUN terror, 93-4;

“prophylactic measures,” 173; state terror against Ukrainization, 171-5 Tesniak, Oleksa, criticisms of

Bulgakov’s The Days of the Turbins, 179

Texas, 7

Third Reich (Nazi Germany). See

Germany (Third Reich) Thornton, T.P., on terror, 93 total war: civil society and, 279;

collectivization and famines (1928-33) as, 131-68; Communist Party’s intolerance of dissenting views, 164-6; Communist Party’s supremacy over the countryside and non-Russian republics, 166; and consequences in the twenti­eth century, 279; in East Central Europe, 279; evolution of, 3; and Peter Gourevitch, 279; against the peasants, 150, 158, 166; and psy­chological unmoorings, 280; and revolutions as “critical junctures” in the development of modern Ukraine (1914-54), 279-80; Russian Empire’s failure to satisfy economic and political demands of total war (1914-18), 282; Stalin’s total war against Ukrainian peasants, intelli­gentsia, and culture, 167-8; against Ukrainian intelligentsia and on the CPU, 166; WWI as, 39-54; WWII as, 202-50

tractors and horses, 163 Transcarpathia, and Carpathian Sich, 202; adoption of national symbols from Ukrainian National Republic (1917-20), 202; autonomous (1938), 104; becomes Carpatho-Ukraine, 202; collectivization in (1948-9), 267; Czechoslovak government’s national security concerns about, 105; declaration of indepen­dence (1939), 202; diffusion of Ukrainian idea during Great War, 44, 54; Hungarian invasion (1939), 202; Hungarians in, 105; Jews in (1910), 18; literacy increase, 105; Magyarization of 29; national iden­tity, 105; part of Czechoslovakia xx, xxi, 84, 103-6; part of Hungary and Austrian Empire, xx, 14, 28, 29, 36, 44, 57; partial partition by Hungary (1938), 201; Poland and Hungary’s demands that Carpatho-Ukraine be­come part of Hungary (1938), 201; political autonomy, 105; poverty, 105; primary schools, 105; Soviet capture (1944), 227; Subcarpathian Rus, 104; as Ukraine’s Prussia or Piedmont-Sardinia, 202

Transcaucasia, and the Second Treaty of Brest Litovsk (1918), 282

Transnistria xx, 218; G. Alecsianu (1941-4), 222; arrival of Soviet military (1944), 222; deporta­tions of Jews and Roma, 222; Einsatzgruppen (1941-2), 215; included territories, 217; location, 222; population, 222; post-war memories of the Romanian occupa­tion of Transnistria, 261-2; under Romanian jurisdiction (1941-4), 212, 222; size, 222; Tiraspol and Odessa as capitals, 222

Transylvania: to Romania (1919-20), 101; Romanian population in, 102 treason: Austrian military suspicions of Czechs, Serbs, Romanians, and Ukrainians, 53, 54; disloyalty and treason, 50; Polish suspicions of Ukrainian disloyalty, 207; Stalin’s suspicions of Ukrainian peasants, intelligentsia, and communists, 167; tsarist suspicions of Ukrainians, 50

Trianon, Treaty (1920), 104

Triple Alliance, 39, 41; Austro- Hungarian Empire’s problematic grain-producing areas, 281; British naval blockade and starvation in Austria, 281; British naval blockade and starvation in Germany, 281; Germany as grain importer, 281; grain-producing and -consuming members, 281

Triple Entente, 39, 41; grain-producing and -consuming members, 281; Great Britain and France as grain importers; Russian Empire’s prob­lematic grain-producing areas, 281; starvation in Russian Empire, 281; the United States as grain exporter, 281

Trotsky, Leon, xv, 111; expulsion from Central Committee and USSR, 134

Trotskyists, as victims of Great Terror in Ukraine (1937-8), 187

Truman, Harry S., 255

trust: in former Russian Empire, 63-4; intercommunal fraternization and the question of trust in Berezhany, 243; between Ukrainians and non­Ukrainians in Austro-Hungarian Empire, 64

Turkestan, 281

Turkey, 6

Turks, 9

Twelfth Party Congress of the Russian Communist Party (1923), 113 typhus, 157

Ukraina irredenta (Julian Bachynsky), 32

Ukraine: administrative-territorial structure, 79-80; Austrian with­drawal (1918), 73; Bolsheviks in, 71, 74; border demarcation, 79-80; as borderland, 7, 8; breakdown of railway system, 281; claim by Ukrainian Central Rada, 57; as cleft state, 6-7, 280; collectiviza­tion, the Holodomor, and purges as Soviet response to threats from the West, 286; common destiny with Poland, 52; defining, 70, 72, 79-80; geopolitical importance, 79; as geopolitical pivot, 6, 79, 280-7; German plans to liberate it from Russian Empire during WWI, 49; German withdrawal (1918), 73; internationalization of food sup­ply problems, 282; location, 7, 8, 25, 79; as major grain-producing zone, 281; natural resources, 7, 79; occupation of a critical geopoliti­cal location, 245; partitioned by Poland and Soviet Russia at Treaty of Riga, 69; peasant reaction to railway system breakdown, 281; size, 5, 7; symbol of one of Europe’s most volatile social labo­ratories, 289; terrain, 7; transfor­mation in twentieth century, 289; and WWI, 39-54

Ukrainian(s), not Little Russian, Rusyn, or Ruthenian (terms), xvi, 25, 50; ambivalence over national identity, 12, 13, 14, 15

Ukrainian Autocephalous Orthodox Church, 171; German tolerance of religious expression during

occupation (1941-4), 223; and Ukrai­nian “counter-revolutionaries,” 178 “Ukrainian (bourgeois) nationalism,” 194

Ukrainian Central Committee (Cracow), 220; and creation of SS-Waffen Division Galicia (1943), 220; and Kholm/Chelm Province, 232; expansion of Ukrainian- language schools and cooperatives, 220; response to mass intercommu- nal violence in Volhynia, 238 Ukrainian Central Rada, 57, 58, 59, 68, 72, 84, 172; autonomy, 61; bureaucracy, 65; and cities, 57; co­operation with non-Ukrainians, 59, 60, 61; declaration of independence (January 1918), 63; emergence, 74; and Germans, 59; and Jews, 59; land question, 66; membership of, 59, 60; military support, 66-7; national-personal autonomy, 62, 63, 79; peasant polarization and neutrality, 65-6; plans for autono­mous Ukraine, 59; and Poles, 59; popular support, 63-4; reaction to Provisional Government, 60, 61; and Russians, 59; soldier support,

66- 7; Treaties of Brest-Litovsk,

67- 8; urban support, 67

Ukrainian Communist Party (Ukapists), 76

Ukrainian Council of People’s Commissars, 116, 118

Ukrainian-German relations during WWII, 247-8

Ukrainian Insurgent Army (UPA), 245, 259-66; absorption into OUN-B, 227; and beliefs of rank and file, 263; casualties (1944-6), 263; casualties (1944-52), 264; concentration of forces in Galicia and Volhynia, 261; conflict with Polish forces in Zakerzonnia, 256; death of Roman Shukhevych (1950), 265; exhaustion of the local population, 265; expecta­tions of a third world war, 262-3, 266; founded (1942) by Taras Bulba-Borovets, 227; and Greek Catholic Church, 263; and killings of unarmed Jewish and Polish civilians, 249; and mass intercom- munal violence in Volhynia, 236-7; membership profile in Volhynia (1943-4), 260-1; NKVD mass tri­als and executions of OUN/UPA members, 264; NKVD and UPA, 259-67; number of members and supporters at peak strength (1944), 260; Operation Vistula, 256-7; and opposition to collectivization, 263, 264; OUN/UPA revenge on those who accepted amnesty and those who cooperated with Soviet government, 264-5; OUN(B) and UPA, 260; OUN-B, NKVD, and “Operation Motria,” 265-6; peasant support for, 263-6; rela­tive strengths and weaknesses of, 262; size in comparison to Tito’s Partisans and Polish Home Army, 227; Soviet amnesties (1944-9), 264; Soviet counterinsurgency strategy in Western Ukraine (1944-52), 264-6; Soviet mass deportations of villages and “suspicious elements,” 264; Soviet population transfers, 264; and the world of the damned, 261

Ukrainian language: identification of Ukrainian language with barba­rism of the Nazis, 240; Koch’s limited preferential treatment of Ukrainian language and culture over the Russian, 239-40; in the 1920s, 116-21; post-1945 clusters of “tipping points,” 257-8; promotion of Ukrainian language, 125, 182; Russification after 1945, 253-4; secret decrees on Russian language and literature, 184

Ukrainian Military Command, 51

Ukrainian Military Organization

(UVO): in Galicia, 93; Sich Riflemen and Ukrainian WWI veterans, 93; in Soviet Ukraine, 173; terrorist activities, 93

Ukrainian National Army, 221 Ukrainian National Center (UNTs), 173

Ukrainian national communists, 129-30, 173

Ukrainian National Democratic Alliance (UNDO): conflicts with OUN, 95; declaration of loyalty to the Polish state (Sept. 1939), 204, 207; founding, 89; and liberal nationalism, 91; limited political influence in Poland, 96; modera­tion, 95; non-violent manner, 96; relations with Polish government, 89-90 ; and Ukrainian reaction to outbreak of WWII, 89

Ukrainian National Rada (OUN-M), 223

Ukrainian National Republic (term), xvi, 61, 62, 74, 96-7, 98; defeat by Bolsheviks (1919), 73; exiled UNR, Petliura, and Ukrainians in Poland, 100; and First Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, 67; loss of protec­tion by Austria-Hungary and Germany (1918), 69; merger with West Ukrainian National Republic (1919), 69, 82; and national-personal autonomy, 63; natural resources, and the Second Treaty of Brest Litovsk (1918), 282; and pogroms, 70; and Promethean League, 99-100; recognition by European powers, 74; and Second Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, 67, 68

Ukrainian Party of Socialist Revolutionaries, 58, 63, 73. See also Borotbists

Ukrainian project: accelerated after the Euromaidan Revolution (2014), xxi, 290; as work in progress, 290

Ukrainian Revolution (1917-20), 55-80; consequences for Czechos­lovakia, Poland, Romania, and USSR, 81, 83-4

Ukrainian Scientific Institute

(Warsaw), 99

Ukrainian Social Democrats, 172 Ukrainian Socialist-Federalists, 172 Ukrainian Socialist Revolutionaries, 172

Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic (Ukrainian SSR), 116, 192; ac­quisition of Ukrainian speakers and additional Russian speakers (1939-54), 277; administrative- territorial structure, xix-xxii, 73, 76, 78; anti-Polish measures in Western Ukraine (1939-41), 208; attraction of Ukrainian SSR to Ukrainians in Wolyn/Volhynia, 96; border changes and forced population transfers between Poland and Ukraine (1944-6), 254; Central Executive Committee of, 78; changes in the demographic relationship between Russians and Ukrainians due to WWII, 197; class conflict in countryside, 138, 146; collectivization in Eastern Galicia, Western Volhynia, Bessarabia, and Bukovina (1939-41), 208; control over its economy and industry (1927-32), 136; creation of Moldovan SSR (1940), 203; creation of Ukrainian SSR in framework of UNR’s Third Universal, 79; Curzon Line between Poland and USSR (1920), 255-6; Curzon Line as new Polish-Soviet border after WWII, 55-6; decline in number of rural residents (1926-37), 159-62; decline in number of self-identified Ukrainians (1926-37), 161; de­cline in self-identified Ukrainian percentage of Soviet Ukraine’s total population (1926-39), 161; decrease in number of those who self-identified themselves as Jews (1926-37), 161; defining borders, 72, 74; demographic consequences of the famine of 1932-3, 159, 160, 197; deportations, evacuations, and forced labour conscriptions (1939­45), 253; deportations from Eastern Galicia (1940-1) and their national composition, 208-9; destruction of its natural wealth, 252; dif­ferentiated Soviet policies toward national groups in Eastern Galicia, Western Volhynia, Bessarabia, and Bukovina (1939-41), 210-11; economic revival (1921-6) in, 113; estimates of number of deaths due to famine of 1932-3, 159; German brutalization of Ukraine (1941-4), 204; German division of Ukrainian SSR into five separate adminis­trative units, 218; German inva­sion (1941), 203-4, 211; German invasion and local population’s hopes for political change, 211; German occupation (1941-4), 211; German population in, 185, 254; government decrees (secret) on the Russian language and literature, 184; Greeks in Soviet Ukraine, 185, 249, 254; Hitler’s view of Ukraine as “food-supply base,” 213; incor­poration of Eastern Galicia and Western Volhynia into Ukrainian SSR (1939), 197, 203, 204, 205; incorporation of Ukrainian­speaking territories of Bessarabia and Bukovina into Ukrainian SSR (1940), 197, 203, 204; incorpora­tion of Transcarpathia (1945) into Ukrainian SSR, 257; increase in industrial expenditures in USSR and Ukrainian SSR, 135; increase in number of Russians within republic (1939-59), 253-4; increase in number of Russians in Ukrainian SSR (1926-39), 161; increase in number of Ukrainians in Ukrainian SSR (1937-9), 161; Jewish losses (1941-4), 253-4; Jewish popula­tion (1926), 215; Jews in Soviet Ukraine, 185; Kiev as Ukraine’s “primate” city, 256, 258; language and cultural policy (early 1920s) in, 116-17; as major grain-growing

area, 152; national composition of newly incorporated territories (1939-40), 204; national homogene­ity and heterogeneity by region in post-1945 Ukraine, 257-8; Nazi racial hierarchies in different oc­cupational zones, 222-8; number of new Soviet citizens (1939), 205; and OGPU report on the anti-col­lective farm movement (1932), 152; overall civilian and military losses during WWII, 252, 253; at peak of its expansion (1954), 277; peasant resistance to collectivization, 145, 147; peasant response to Germans (1941-4), 223; peasant revolts (1921) in, 112; People’s Secretariat, 62, 67, 72, 73; percentage of self­identified Jews in (1926-37), 161; Poles in Soviet Ukraine, 185; poli­cies in newly acquired Ukrainian­speaking territories annexed from Poland and Romania, 205; Polish Government-in-Exile (London), 210; Polish population increase, 254; population increase (1926-37), 160; population losses (1930-4), 159; post-Soviet Ukraine and psy­chological unmoorings, 280; post­war migration into Ukraine, 253; promotion of Ukrainian language, 125, 182; Provisional Workers’ and Peasants’ Government of Ukraine, 73; quasi-state, 79; reac­tion to Soviet arrival in Eastern Galicia and Volhynia (1939), 206-7; reaction (Ukrainian) to Soviet arrival in 1939 Eastern Galicia and Volhynia, 207, 208; refugees (Jewish and Polish) from central Poland moving to Eastern Galicia and Volhynia (1939-41), 206-7, 211; reinforcement of Ukrainian and other national identities, 74; Reichskommisariat Ukraine, and memories, 261; Romanians in Soviet Ukraine, 185; rural and urban divisions, 117, 119, 121, 144; Russian Communist Party’s cre­ation of Ukrainian SSR to compete with Ukrainian National Republic, 283; Russian culture in, 117; Russian-language schools in, 186; Russian population (1926), 215; Russification after 1945, 253-4; social divisions in rural areas, 144; sovereignty and its problems, 72, 76-7, 78, 79; sovereignty in the USSR and in the UN after 1945, 278; Soviet directives prohibiting migration of peasants from Ukraine to other Soviet republics (1933), 155; between Soviet Ukraine and USSR, 254; Sovietization and radi­calization of Poles and Ukrainians (1939-41) in Eastern Galicia and Volhynia, 205-6; Soviet Ukraine as a founding member of the United Nations (1945), 242; as stage in the evolution of an independent Ukrainian state, 92; Stalinist policy toward Soviet Ukraine after col­lectivization and industrialization, 197; Stalin’s accusation that Soviet Ukraine was “slacker republic,” 167; as “subversive state,” 286; territorial unity after 1945, 277; territory of, 73; transfer of capital of Soviet Ukraine from Kharkiv to Kiev (1934), 189; transfer of central Bessarabia into Moldovan ASSR (1940), 203; transformation of Soviet Ukraine into Stalinist satrapy, 190; treaty with RSFSR (28 December 1920), 76, 77; Ukrai­nian percentage of total population in 1939 and 1959 censuses, 277; Ukrainian population (1926), 215; Ukrainians and urban popula­tion (1939), 135; urban growth (1920-39), 125, 126; urbaniza­tion (1920-39), 121, 125-6; urban population increase (1926-39), 135; urban response to Germans, 224; USSR’s recognition of the legitima­cy of separate Ukrainian identity in Ukrainian SSR, 80; USSR Supreme Soviet and creation of separate military formations, 242; USSR Supreme Soviet decree granting Soviet citizenship to residents of Eastern Galicia and Volhynia (1939), 206; and worldwide decolo­nization process, 277

Ukrainians, 25; Austrian military suspicions of, 53; Communist Party membership underrepresentation, 115; cultural level in USSR, 114-15; decline in number of self-identified Ukrainians in Ukrainian SSR (1926-37), 161; decline in percent­age of total Ukrainians in USSR (1932-3), 160; decline in self­identified Ukrainian percentage of Soviet Ukraine’s total population (1926-39), 161; decline in self­identified Ukrainians in RSFSR after 14 December 1932 decree, 160-1; differentiated Soviet policies toward national groups, 210-11; employment as Schutzmänner and their dehumanization, 248-9; enlistment in Red Army (1941-5), 250; Hitler’s war of annihilation (1941), 211; increase in number of self-identified Ukrainians in Ukrainian SSR (1937-39), 161; as integral part of the Soviet legitimiz­ing myth of the war, 250; mass in- tercommunal violence in Volhynia, 236-7; Nazi occupation and special conditions for Ukrainians, 248; Nazi racial hierarchies in different occupational zones, 222-8; and question of “collaboration” dur­ing German occupation, 246-7; in Right Bank Ukraine, 186; in Soviet partisan groups, 250; WWII’s divi­sion of Ukrainians into separate communities, 201

Ukrainian-speaking territories, xvi; 13; administrative-territorial struc­ture in 19th and 20th centuries, xix-xxii; as breadbasket of Europe, 26; casualties (1914-17) and post­war conflicts (1918-22), 43; con­sequence of Ukrainian Revolution in former Habsburg and Romanov territories, 81; term, 13; USSR acquires majority of Europe’s Ukrainian speakers, 84, 257 Ukrainian-speaking territories in Austria-Hungarian Empire, xx, 17­19, 28-36; in Kingdom of Hungary (1900), 17; non-Ukrainian majori­ties in urban areas, 19; percentage of Jews in (1910), 18; population in (1910), 13, 17-18; trust between Ukrainians and non-Ukrainians, 243; Ukrainian seizure of power

(1918) in Lemberg/Lviv/Lwow, 81; war casualties (1914-17), 43, 243

Ukrainian-speaking territories in Polish Republic: agricultural economy, 89; geographical distribu­tion in, 89; Ukrainian population (1921-39), 89

Ukrainian-speaking territories in Russian Empire, 16-17, 34-6; Crimea Tatars in (1897), 17; Jews in (1897), 17; Left Bank, 18-19; Lutherans in (1897), 17; Novorossiia, 19; population of (1897), 13, 16; Roman Catholics in (1897), 17; rural population (1897) 18; trust between Ukrainians and non-Ukrainians, 63-4; war casualties (1914-17), 43. See also Bessarabia; Chernigov; Don Cossack; Ekaterinoslav; Grodno; Kharkov; Kherson; Kiev; Kuban; Kursk; Podolia; Poltava; Tavrida; Volhynia; Stavropol; Voronezh Ukrainization, 92, 194, 244; All­Union Communist Party and, 173-4; anti-Ukrainization, 175-81; arrests of supporters among cre­ative intelligentsia, 182; Balitsky’s charges of anti-Soviet activities by Ukrainian intelligentsia during Ukrainization and collectivization, 167; Bolshevik Ukrainization as “national in form, socialist in con­tent,” 182; compulsory, 175; and creation of urban, Ukrainian, and educated elite, 286; decrees on, 118­19; demographic Ukrainization of Volhynia, 239; differences between self-identified Ukrainians and Ukrainian-speakers and their support for, 124-5; enforcement of, 121; evolution of, 116-21; as expansion of self-identified Ukrainians, 182; full Ukrainization as full de-colonization, 180; and growth in Communist Party of Ukraine,124; and growth in Communist Youth League, 124; implementation in Ukraine and North Caucasus, 194; and industri­alization in towns and cities, 286; Kaganovich, Ukrainization, and Ukrainian nationalism, 175; literacy and education, 122; Koch’s limited Ukrainization in 1940s, 239-40; literacy campaign, 122; and New Economic Policy, 189; number of newspapers, journals, and books, 123, 183; opera, radio, and theatre, 123; outside of the Ukrainian SSR after 14 December 1932 decree, 160-1; passive resistance, 124; as peasant-oriented policy (1923), 181-2; policy justification, 119; politics and culture, 138; and power elite, 123-5; preference for Ukrainians, 118-19; problems in government, industry, and higher education, 123; problems in party and Communist Youth League, 124; promotion of Ukrainian language, 118, 119; “prophylactic measures” against, 173; and public sphere, 119-21, 122; reconfigured, 182, 183-4; and reinvigoration of anti-Soviet opposition, 194; resis­tance against, 120-21; retreat from, 132; Russian push-back against, 179; and secret Soviet govern­ment decree on Russian language

and literature, 183-4; and Soviet passport system, 239; and state terror against supporters of, 171-5; Shumsky’s and Skrypnyk’s inter­pretations overturned by 1934, 181; Shumsky, Stalin, and the pace of, 176-7; Stalin on anti-communists as leaders of Ukrainization move­ment, 177; Stalin’s mixed messages on Ukrainization (1929), 178-81; and SVU trial, 172; as urban- oriented policy (1925), 182; as a variant of Bauer and Renner’s idea of national-personal autonomy, 128 Ukrainophile movement, 24, 26, 27,

28-33; in Austria-Hungary, 35, 36, 45; in Russian Empire, 36

Uman, 17 underdevelopment (economic), and

the need for industrialization, 131-2 underground, communist (during

German occupation, 1941-4), 226 Uniates. See Greek Catholics Union for Armed Struggle (ZWZ), 229 Union for the Liberation of Ukraine

(during WWI), 51; (after WWI), mass arrests during trial of, 171-2; in 1929-30, 171-2; Stalin’s plans for a speedy trial of, 172 Union of Soviet Socialist Republics

(USSR), 9, 107, 132, 245; acquisition of majority of Ukrainian-speaking territories, 84; administrative- territorial structure, xix, 78; an­nexation of territories from Poland, Romania and Czechoslovakia, 258; aspirations to overturn Treaty of Versailles, 227; Belarusans in, 114; beneficiary of the Molotov- Ribbentropf Pact, 203; changes in demographic relationship between Russians and Ukrainians due to WWII, 197; collapse of the USSR and psychological unmoorings, 280; consequences of Ukrainian Revolution (1917-21) for, 81, 83-4; constitutions of 1924, 1936, and 1977, 78; creation of Moldovan SSR (1940), 203; and de-emphasis of Ukrainian language and culture, 285; economic revival (1921-6) in, 113; elections in Galicia and Volhynia to approve Soviet incorporation (1939), 205; and evolution of forms and contents of national identities within, 285; evolution as garrison state, 132, 286; expansion of Soviet power into East Central Europe, 251; and expulsion of Germans from East Central Europe, 255; and famine of 1932-3, 156-7; fear of another Polish invasion, 92; Finns in, 114; foreign policy setbacks, 133; formation, 74, 77-8; German invasion of (1941), 203-4; hybrid socialist-Russo-nationalizing state, 86; incorporation of Ukrainian­speaking territories of Poland and Romania into Ukrainian SSR (1939-40), 197, 203, 204, 205; invasion of Poland (1939), 203, 204; Latvians in, 114; literacy rates throughout, 114; as Marxist mul­tinational federation, 251; national composition of newly incorporated territories, 204; national-territorial structure and promotion of a limited national consciousness, 284; non-recognition of Romania’s right to Bessarabia, 101; number of homeless in USSR (1945), 252; number of new Soviet citizens (1939), 205; Poles in, 114; policies in newly acquired Ukrainian­speaking territories annexed from Poland and Romania, 205, 210-11; and Polish Committee of National Liberation, 230; and Russian national interests, 132; policies towards Ukrainians and attrac­tion of Germans, 244; population expansion (1926-37), 160; post-war reintegration of Western Ukraine and Western Belarus and Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania into USSR, 258; proletarian internationalism, national identities, and creation of a new type of state, 284; recognition of legitimacy of separate Ukrainian identity in Ukrainian SSR, 80; rein­forcement of Ukrainian and other national identities, 74; revelations (1943) of Katyn Forest Massacres, 229; Russian percentage of total population (1926), 114, 115; secret government decree on Russian language and literature, 183-4; so­cial and cultural differences among the non-Russians, 114; Soviet annexation of Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania (1940), 203; Soviet directives prohibiting migration of peasants from Ukraine to other Soviet republics (1933), 155; Soviet- German Boundary and Friendship Treaty (1939), 206; Soviet-German citizen-exchange agreement with Germany (1939), 206; Soviet- German Treaty of Friendship

(1939), 203; Soviet mass evacua­tions (1941), 214; Soviet “scorched earth” policy (1941), 213-14; Soviet state defined in anti-imperial terms, 284; Soviet transfer of Poles and Jews in USSR to Poland, 255; sup­port for a quasi-sovereign Soviet Ukrainian political entity, 86; Tatars in, 114; transfer of central Bessarabia into Moldovan ASSR (1940), 203; Ukrainian percentage of total population (1926), 106, 114; and the Ukrainian question, 83-4; as unitary state with a federal facade, 277; urban-rural divisions in non-Russian areas, 114

Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR), Supreme Soviet: approval of transfer of Crimean Oblast from RSFSR to Ukrainian SSR (1954), 275; creation of separate military formations in the 16 republics (1944), 242; decree grant­ing Soviet citizenship to residents of Eastern Galicia and Volhynia (1939), 206; and Soviet Ukraine as a founding member of the UN (1945), 242

Union of Ukrainian Students, 33

Union of Ukrainian Women (Soiuz ukrainok), 90

Union of Ukrainian Youth (Spilka ukrains’koi molodi), 172

United Nations: Soviet Belarus as founding member, 277; Soviet Ukraine as founding member, 242, 277; Stalin’s negotiations with Roosevelt and Churchill on, 277

United States, 13; as oil producer, 82; as potential ally of OUN-B, 245;

UNR's diplomatic relations with 62; WWI and the world agricultural market, 137

“unity in negation,” 389

Universals (Ukrainian Central Rada): First, 59, 62, 63; Second, 60, 62, 63; Third, 61, 62, 63; Fourth, 62-3, 67

Untermenschen (subhumans), 217,

218

Upper Silesia, German annexation of (1939), 203

uprisings, peasant (1918), 68 “Urals-Siberian” method, 140 urban centres: and “barbarian”

Ukraine, 180; elections in (1917), 63; in Eastern Galicia, 28; German starvation of, 224; Nazi racial hierarchies in (1941-4), 224; in Russian Empire, 57-8, 63; in Soviet Ukraine, 125, 126

urban growth and urbanization,

14, 125-8; creation of urban, Ukrainian, educated elite, 286; food rationing in early 1930s, 157; increase in number and percent­age of Ukrainians (1920-6), 126; increase in urban population (1926-39), 135; industrialization in the reconfiguration of Russian-, Polish-, German-, and Yiddish­speaking towns and cities, 286; majority of Soviet population ur­banized (1970), 284; during famine of 1932-3, 157

Uspenskii, A.I., on Ukrainians as “bourgeois nationalists,” 175 Uzbekistan, and deportation of

Crimean Tatars (1944), 254 Uzhhorod, 30; ceded to Hungary (1938), 202

Valuev, Petr, ban on Ukrainian lan­guage, 24

Vatican: Beria’s attempt to normalize relations with (1953), 273-4; Soviet effort to improve diplomatic rela­tionship with (post-1944), 268 Verdun, Battle of, 40 Versailles, Treaty of (Paris Peace Conference), 203; Allied fear of Bolsheviks, 83; aspirations (Soviet, German, and OUN) to overturn it, 227-8; confusion over East Central European claims and counter­claims, 82-3; Eastern Galicia, 87; and European border changes, 254; Poland’s creation, 87; Polish claims against Ukrainians, 83; Transcarpathia to Czechoslovakia, 74; Vienna, 30, 82. See also Allied Council of Ambassadors Viet Minh and OUN-B, as national

liberation movements, 241 Vinnytsia, pogroms and mass execu­tions of Jews (1941), 215 Vinnytsia Oblast, xx, 167, 188 violence, mass, 11, 79; collectiviza­tion and famines, 131-68; in interwar Poland, 95, 100-1; in Kholm Region, Western Volhynia, and Eastern Galicia, 237; purges, 169-97; revolutionary period, 55-80; post-war period, 251-69; WWI, 39-54; WWII, 202-50 Volga region: peasant revolts (1921) in, 112; population losses during famine and collectivization drive, 162 Volhynia Oblast/Wolyn voievode- ship, xx, xxi, 13, 57, 60, 83; anti­Ukrainian policies in, 99; assessment of intercommunal violence, 238-9; collectivization in (1948-51), 267; communist appeal to Ukrainians in, 92; demographic Ukrainization of, 239; eastern areas as part of Ukrainian SSR (1919), 73-4, 84; Einsatzgruppen, (1942-3), 215; elections (1928) in, 92; emergence of Ukrainian self-defence forces (1942), 227; ethnic cleansing in, 236-7; formal entry into the USSR (1939), 205; German preference for Ukrainians over Poles, 235; ir­reconcilable political goals of Poles and Ukrainians, 233-4; Jozewski as governor, 96-7; Khrushchev’s Sovietization policies in (1939-41), 205; mass anti-Polish violence in, 236, 237; mass anti-Semitic violence in, 236, 237; mass anti-Ukrainian violence in, 236, 237; mass inter- communal killings in, 234, 236-9; national security concerns, 101; Orthodox Church in, 96; as part of Reichskommissariat Ukraine (1941-4), 212, 218; peasant land holdings in, 26, 47; Podlachia region and German occupational poli­cies, 231; Polish Home Army and Soviet partisans, 233; Polish military intervention, 97; Polish-Soviet co­operation against Ukrainians, 234; Polish-Ukrainian antagonisms, 90; Polish and Ukrainian perceptions of existential threats, 234; Polish weakening of Ukrainian Greek Catholic and Orthodox churches, 86; population (1937), 96; radical­ization of, 96, 97; responses to mass intercommunal violence, 238; and Schutzmannschaften in, 235-6;

Sovietization and the radicalization of Poles and Ukrainians (1939-41) in, 205-6; Treaty of Riga (1921), 231; Ukrainian national conscious­ness, 96; Ukrainians in, 89; USSR Supreme Soviet decree granting Soviet citizenship to residents of (1939), 206; violence and Thirty Years War, 237

Volobuev, Mykhailo, and emergence of Ukrainian national communists, 129-30, 173

Volodimer (Vladimir/Volodymyr) the Great, Grand Prince of Kiev Rus, 8 Voloshyn, August, Rev., 202 von Schlieffen Plan, 40

Voronezh Province: “creation” of Ukrainian Peasant Union in, 178; possible transfer of majority Ukrainian-speaking territories in RSFSR to Soviet Ukraine, 74, 179; Ukrainian areas in, 62

Voroshilovhrad (Luhansk), and fur­thest German advance (1941), 211

Votiaks, cultural level in USSR, 115 Vovchok, Marko, 35

Vynnychenko, Volodymyr, 65; and pogroms, 70

Waffen SS, and the extermination of the Jews, 214

war communism, 112, 113, 114 Wardhaugh, Ronald 27 wars: as total wars, 3-11; external and internal, 4

Warsaw, xv

Warsaw, Treaty of (1920), 98-9 Warsaw Uprising (1944), 230 war scare (1926-7), 133; and rapid industrialization, 134

Werfel, Roman, characterization of Stalin, 190-1

Western Siberia region, peasant resis­tance to collectivization (1930), 147

Western Ukrainian Territorial Executive Committee, 208, 234. See also Bandera, Stepan

West Ukrainian National Republic: alliance with General Anton Denikin, 69; merger with UNR 69, 82, 98; military capacity during Polish-Ukrainian War, 82; and oil, 82; population and national com­position (1921), 81; proclamation of creation (1918), 81; territorial claims, 81, 82; Ukrainian seizure of power (1918) in Lemberg/Lviv/ Lwow, 81, 82

West Ukrainian Prison Massacres (1941), 209-10; poisoning of rela­tions among Soviets, Poles, Jews, and Ukrainians, 210; and subse­quent anti-Jewish pogroms and executions, 210

wheat: prices received by peasants, 137; reduction in peasant planting, 137; reduction in peasant sales to the state, 136; White Army, 69 Wilson, Andrew, 11

Wolowyna, Oleh, 159 Workers’ Opposition, 113 Workers’ and Peasants’ Government of Ukraine, 73

Yalta, and Jews, 17

Yekelchyk, Serhy, 11, 242-3 Yezhov, Nikolai: dismissal as

NKVD head, 189; and the

Molotov-Yezhov-Khrushchev special commission (1937) to Kiev, 188; and Polish Military Organization, 186; and Ukrainian nationalism, 175

Yiddish speakers, number of (1897), 16, 19

Ypres, Battle of, 40

Yugoslavia, 83; Croatian-Serbian war (1941-4), 238; emergence after WWI, 84; and expulsion of Germans from East Central Europe, 255; as a Marxist multina­tional federation, 251; total popula­tion (interwar), 103

Zakerzonnia (Transcurzon Line),

255; conflict with Polish forces, 256; failure of the voluntary post-war population transfers to Ukraine, 256; Polish transfer from Eastern Galicia and Volhynia in Soviet Ukraine to Poland, 256; Ukrainian population, 256. See also Lemko Region; Podlachia; Sian Region

Zamarstynow Prison, and West Ukrainian Prison Massacres (1941), 209

Zamosc, 232

Zaporizhzhia, more Ukrainian after

WWII, 257

Zatonsky, Volodymyr, 122 Zbruch River, 100

Zhdanov, Andrei, 258-9 Zhukov, Georgi, 250 Zinoviev, Grigory, 134