Notes

Introduction

1. On Austro-Hungarian and Austro-Galician Jews assimilating into German culture, see Lois Dubin, The PortJews ofHabsburg Trieste: Absolutist Politics and Enlightenment Culture (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1999); Peter Hanak, The Garden and the Workshop: Essays on the Cultural History of Vienna and Budapest (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1998), 44-62, 174-172; William McCagg, Jr., A History of Habsburg Jews, 1670-1918 (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1989); Hillel J.

Kieval, The Making of Czech Jewry: National Conflict and Jewish Society in Bohemia, 1870-1918 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1988); Marsha Rozenblit, TheJews of Vienna, 1867-1914: Assimilation and Identity (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1983); Jerzy Tomaszewski, ed., Najnowsze dzeje zyddw z Polsce w zarysie (Warszawa: Wyd. Panstwowe Naukowe, 1993), 79-122. On the Jews from Russian Empire assimilating into Russian culture, see John D. Klier, Imperial Russia’s Jewish Question, 18gg-1881 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995); Benjamin Nathans, Beyond the Pale: The Jewish Encounter with Late Imperial Russia (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2002); Alexander Orbach, New Voices of Russian Jewry: A Study of the Russian-Jewish Press of Odessa in the Era of Great Reforms, i860-1871 (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1980); Michael Stanislawski, For Whom Do I Toil?: Judah Leib Gordon and the Crisis of Russian Jewry (New York: Oxford University Press, 1988); Steven Zipperstein, The Jews of Odessa: A Cultural History, 1794-1881 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1986).

2. Israel Bartal, The Jews of Eastern Europe, 1772-1881 (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2002), 80 - 81; Steven Beller, Vienna and theJews, 1867-1938: A Cultural History (Cambride: Cambridge University Press, і989), і8і - і83; Scott Spector, Prague Territories: National Conflict and Cultural Innovations in Franz Kafka’s Fin de Siecle (University of California Press, 2000), 165-168, 172-173.

3. Sarah Abrevaya Stein, Making Jews Modern: The Yiddish and Ladino Press in the Russian and Ottoman Empires (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2004), 15; Matthias Lehman, Ladino Rabbinic Literature and Ottoman Sephardic Culture (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2005), 27.

4. Hillel J. Kieval, The Making of Czech Jewry: National Conflict and Jewish Society in Bohemia, 1870-1918 (New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1988), 21.

5. Michael Graetz, The Jews in Nineteenth-Century France: From the French Revolution to the Alliance Israelite Universelle (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1996); Simon Schwarz- fuchs, Napoleon, the Jews and the Sanhedrin (London: Routledge & Keagan Paul, 1979); and especially the discussion of the rise of the “state Jews” (Juifs d’Etat) in Pierre Birnbaum, Destines Juifs: De la Revolution fran(aise a Carpentras (Paris: Calmann-Levy, 1995), 49-69.

6. Todd Endelman and Tony Kushner, Disraeli’s Jewishness (London: Vallentine Mitchell, 2002), 168.

7. Joe Berkovitz, Rites and Passages: The Beginning of Modern Jewish Culture in France, 1630-i860 (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2004), 103.

8. See Kinga Frojimovics, Ha-Zeramim ha-datiyim be-Yahadut Hungaryah: ortodoksya, neologyah ve-status kvo ante: ben ha-shanim 1868/1896-1930 (Ramat Gan: Universitat Bar Ilan, 2002); Ezra Mendelson, On Modern Jewish Politics (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993); idem., The Jews of East Central Europe between the World Wars (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1983); Antony Polonsky and Michael Riff, “Poles, Czechoslovaks and the ‘Jewish Question,’ 1914-1921: A Comparative Study,” in Germany in the Age of Total War, ed. Volker Berghann and Martin Kitchen (London: Croom Helm, 1981), 63-101; Sarunas Liekis, A State within a State? Jewish Authonomy in Lituania, 1918-192y (Vilnius: Versus aureus, 2003); Jerzy Tomaszewski, Zarysdziejow IIydow w Polsce w latach 1918-1939 (Warszawa: Wydawnictwa Uniwersytetu Warszawskiego, 1990).

9. For a standard survey of the nineteenth-century representation of Jews in Polish literature, see, e.g., Mieczyslaw Inglot, Postac zyda w literaturzepolskiejlat, 1822-1864 (Wroclaw: Wyd. Uniwersytetu Wroclawskiego, 1999) as well as Magdalena Opalski and Israel Bartal, Poles and Jews: A Failed Brotherhood (Hanover, NH: University Press of New England, 1992); for the first half of the twentieth-century contribution, see Eugenia Prokop-Janiec, Polish- Jewish Literature in the Interwar Years, trans. Abe Shenitzer (Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 2003); an insightful conceptual framework for Polish-Jewish rapprochement is offered in Ryszard Low, Znaki obecnosci: o polsko-hebrajskich i polsko-zydowskich zwiazkach literackich (Krakow: Unviersitas, 1995); for the most recent collection of the Jewish contribution to Polish literature, see Contemporary Jewish Writing in Poland: An Anthology, ed. Antony Polonsky and Monika Adamczyk-Garbowska (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2001) as well as IZydzi w Polsce: antologia literacka, ed. Henryk Markiewicz (Krakow: Universitas, 1997).

10. Spector, Prague Territories, 217.

її. Antonio Gramsci, Further Selections from the Prison Notebooks of Antonio Gramsci (London: ElecBook, 2001), 225.

12. On Biadulia’s role in the creation ofBelorussian-Jewish identity, see Zmitrok Biadu- lia, Zhydy na Belarusi: bytavyia shtrykhi (Minsk: A. Ia. Grinblat, 1918) and Ia. Sadouski, K. Tsvirka, ed., Uspaminy pra Zmitraka Biaduliu (Minsk: Mastatskaia literatura, 1988), 3-28.

13. I am using the metaphor of Craig Ireland, see his The Subaltern Appeal to Experience: Self-Identity, Late Modernity, and the Politics of Immediacy (Montreal: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 2004), 22.

14. On modern Jewish perception of Ukrainians and Jewish Ukrainophobia, see Zvi Gitelman, “Perceptions of Ukrainians by Soviet Jewish Emigrants,” Soviet Jewish Affairs 3 ^(ї9⁸'7^): 3-^ї8.

15. See Shimon Redlich, Together and Apart in Brzezany: Poles, Jews, and Ukrainians, 1919-1945 (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2002).

16. Taras Hunczak, “A Reappraisal of Symon Petliura and Ukrainian-Jewish Relations, 1917-1921,” Jewish Social Studies 31 (1969): 163-183, later expanded into a book, Taras Hunczak, Symon Petliura ta ievrei (Kyiv: Lybid', 1993).

17. See Howard Aster and Peter Potichnyj, Jewish-Ukrainian Relations: Two Solitudes (Oakville, Ont.: Mosaic Press, 1987) and Peter Potichnyj and Howard Aster, eds., Ukrainian- Jewish Relations in Historical Perspective (Edmonton: Canadian Institute of Ukrainian Studies, University of Alberta, 1988).

18. See, e.g., George Grabowicz, Do istorii ukrains’koi literatury: doslidzhennia, esei, polemika (Kyiv: Krytyka, 2003), 218 -236; Paul Robert Magocsi, A History of Ukraine (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1996), 146-147, 199-202, 299 - 300, 337-344, 366 - 3⁶7^, 393^-395^, 4²3^-4²4^{, 62}9^-633.

19. See Yohanan Petrovsky-Shtern, “In Search of a Lost People: Jews in Present-Day Ukrainian Historiography,” East European Jewish Affairs ι (2003): 67-82.

20. See Annie Coombes, “The Recalcitrant Object: Culture Contact and the Question of Hybridity,” in Colonial DiscoursefPostcolonial Theory, ed. Francis Barker, Peter Hulme, and Margaret Iversen (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1994), 89-114.

21. Roger Brubaker and Frederick Cooper, “Beyond ‘Identity,'” Theory and Society 29 (2000): і- 47, here 18.

22. Zenon E. Kohut, The Question of Russo-Ukrainian Unity and Ukrainian Distinctiveness in Early Modern Ukrainian Thought and Culture (Washington, DC: Kennan Institute, 2001), 15.

23. Timoty Brennan, “From Development to Globalization: Postcolonial Studies and Globalization Theory,” in The Cambridge Companion to Postcolonial Literary Studies, ed. Neil Lazarus (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004), 120-138, here 134.

24. See Douglas Northrop, Veiled Empire: Gender and Power in Stalinist Central Asia (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2004), 14-24, esp.

19-22.

25. Terry Eagleton, “Afterword: Ireland and Colonialism,” in Terrence McDonough, Was Ireland a Colony? Economics, Politics, and Culture in Nineteenth-Century Ireland (Dublin: Irish Academic Press, 2005), 327-333, here 323.

26. Robert J. C. Young, Postcolonialism: A Historical Introduction (Oxford: Blackwell, 2001), 389 - 392.

27. Arcadius Kahan, Essays in Jewish Social and Economic History, ed. Roger Weiss (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, і986), 3 -26; Ivan Koropeckyj, ed., Ukrainian Economic History: Interpretative Essays (Cambridge: Harvard University Press for the Harvard Ukrainian Research Institute, 1991), 233 - 243, 245, 272, 340; Iakov Lestshchinsky, Ha- tefutsah ha-yehudit: ha-hitpathut ha-hevratit ve-ha-kalkalit shel kvutsei ha-yehudim be-europa u-va-america ba-dorot ha-ahronim (Jerusalem: Mosad Byalik, i960), 102-130.

28. Volodymyr Zhabotyns'kyi, Vybrani statti z natsional’noho pytannia (Kyiv: Respub- likans'ka asotsiatsiia ukrainoznavtsiv, 1991), 100-101.

29. On Kesar Bilylovs'kyi, see chap. і; for Hurovych, see a brief editorial preface to the publication “Z poezii H. Hurovycha,” Literaturno-naukovyi vistnyk (hereafter LNV) 25 (1904): 100-101; for Hekhter, see his “Za syntezom (storinka z istorii rosiis'koho ievreistva),” LNV 43 (1908): 84-99; for Frenkel, see Lesia Ukrainka, Zibrannia tvoriv v 12 tt. (Kyiv: Naukova dumka, 1975-79), 11:48, 72, 73, 167, 176, 177, and commentaries on pp. 370, 395, and 424.

30. See, e.g., Liber Rabinovych, “Shaia-traktoryst,” Nova heneratsiia 5-6 (1926): 53; “Vesni,” U myslyvtsiv ta rybalok 4 (1930): 35; “Sonety,” Chervonyi shliakh 11-12 (1932): 25.

Chapter і. A Prayer for Ukraine: The Improbable Identity of Hryts’ko Kernerenko

1. I do not refer here to Russian-language publications that randomly published some materials in Ukrainian, such as Gubernskie vedomosti (established in southwestern provinces in 1838). For more detail, see Paul Robert Magocsi, A History of Ukraine (Toronto: University ofToronto Press, 1996), 366 -367.

For the analysis of the tsarist governmental policies toward Ukraine at that period, see Alexei Miller, The Ukrainian Question: The Russian Empire and Nationalism in the Nineteenth Century (Budapest: Central European University Press, 2003), 60- 95.

2. For the English translation of these anti-Ukrainian documents, see Magocsi, History of Ukraine, 369-370, and Miller, Ukrainian Question, 267-269. Olga Andriewsky discusses these decrees in the context of the “politicization” of the Ukrainian question in the Russian Empire after the 1863 Polish revolt, see her “The Russian-Ukrainian Discourse and the Failure of the ‘Little Russian' Solution, 1782-1917,” in Andreas Kappeler et al., eds., Culture, Nation, and Identity: The Ukrainian-Russian Encounter, 1600-1945 (Edmonton: Canadian Institute of Ukrainian Studies Press, 2003), 182-214, esp. 208-213. For a brief discussion of the negative Russian imperial attitude to the languages that, according to the patronizing authorities, “generally lacked a literary standard,” see Andreas Kappeler, “Mazepintsy, Mal- orossy, Khokhly: Ukrainians in the Ethnic Hierarchy of the Russian Empire,” in Kappeler et al., Ukrainian-Russian Encounter, 166-167.

3. In the 1890s, a meager circulation of several periodicals, such as Zoria and Liter- aturno-naukovyi vistnyk (LNV), was allowed to be sent by mail to a number of Russian cities, but in the late 1890s and in early 1900s the authorities enforced the ban, preventing the circulation of some 400 issues of Zoria and some 150-200 of LNV See Ivan Franko, “Zaborona Literat.-Nauk. Vistnyka v Rosii,” LNV16 (1901): 94-98.

4. Iaroslav Hrytsak, Narys istorii Ukrainy: formuvannia modernoi ukrains’koi natsii XIX-XX stolittia (Kyiv: Heneza, 1996), 70. For more detail, see chaps. 9 and 10 of Miller, Ukrainian Question, і79 -2і0. On the persecution of Ukrainian ethnography, particularly of one of its founders, Pavlo Chubyns'kyi (1839- 84), see Fedir Savchenko, Zaborona ukrainstva 1876 r., reprint of the 1930 Kiev edition, ed. Omeljan Prytsak (Munich: Wilhelm Fink Verlag, і970), index.

5. See Anna Barvinok, “S Volyni,” Osnova і (і86і): 282-292; Panteleimon Kulish, “Drugoi chelovek (iz vospominanii bylogo),” Osnova 2 (1861): 64-67; Nikolai Kostomarov, “Iudeiam,” Osnova і (1862): 38-58.

6. See Panas Myrnyi, Tvory vp’iaty tomakh (Kyiv: Derzhvydav, і960), 2і6-2∑7∙ For the anti-Jewish Galician Ukrainian publications, see Hromada 2 (і878): 50-$і, 62-63, 77-78; 357-359; 4 (і879): 23-24; 5 (і88з): 2-5, 253-258. Austrian context is discussed in detail in Israel Bartal and Antony Polonsky, “The Jews in Galicia under Habsburgs” and Jozef Buszko, “The Consequences of Galician Autonomy after і867,” Polin: A Journal of Polish-Jewish Studies 12 (1999): 3-24 and 86-99; Ivan L. Rudnytsky, Essays in Modern Ukrainian History (Cambridge: Harvard University Press for the Harvard Ukrainian Research Institute, 1987), ²99 ^- 314.

7. For Bilylovs’kyi’s complaints about Kulish’s bigotry in his letter to Mykhailo Lo- bodovs’kyi, see Viddil rukopysiv Instytutu literatury Natsional’noi akademii nauk Ukrainy, the Department of Manuscripts of the Institute of Literature of the National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine (hereafter VRILNANU), f. 182 (the letter is dated February 3, 1895; unprocessed collection of Ieremiia Aizenshtok). For a detailed analysis of Kulish-Bilylovs’kyi relations and the reasons for their quarrel, different from those indicated by Bilylovs’kyi, see Stepan Zakharkin’s commentary on Bilylovs’kyi’s memoirs, Kyivs’ka starovyna ι (2003), 152153 n50, and the extensive bibliography Zakharkin amasses there.

8. On Franko’s stance on ethnic problems in Galicia, see Yaroslav Hrytsak, “A Ukrainian Answer to the Galician Ethnic Triangle: The Case of Ivan Franko,” Polin: A Journal of Polish- Jewish Studies 12 (1999): 137-146.

9. Vynnychenko’s philosemitic writings have not been subjected to scholarly analysis. Among the most important pieces containing complex, contradictory, yet in most cases positive Jewish images, see his short story “Talisman” and his plays “Mizh dvokh syl” (Between Two Powers) and “Pisnia Izrailia (Kol Nidrei)” (The Song of Israel). Vynnychenko seems to have been one of the first who traced parallels in the mistreatment of the Jews and Ukrainians in the Russian Empire. See his “Otkrytoe pis’mo k russkim pisateliam” (An Open Letter to the Russian Writers), Ukrainskaia zhizn 10 (1913): 29- 33. For the later development of Vynnychenko’s philosemitic stance, see his 1923 essay “Ievreis’ke pytannia na Ukraini” (Jewish Question in Ukraine), reproduced in Suchasnist' 8 (1992), 116-125.

10. I rely on Patricia Herlihy’s insightful observation that the bigger the city in the nineteenth century Ukraine, the less it was Ukrainian. See her “Ukrainian Cities in the Nineteenth Century,” in Ivan Rudnytsky, ed., Rethinking Ukrainian History (Edmonton: Canadian Institute of Ukrainian Studies, 1981), 135-149. For Chykalenko’s observation, see Ievhen Chykalenko, Spohady (1861-1907) (Kyiv: Tempora, 2003), 213-214.

її. Max Weinreich, History ofthe Yiddish Language, trans. Shlomo Noble (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1980), 548- 550, 587- 595.

12. On Jabotinsky’s sympathies to the Ukrainian cause and his criticism of Russian chauvinists, see Israel Kleiner, From Nationalism to Universalism: Vladimir (Ze’ev) Jabotinsky and the Ukrainian Question (Edmonton: Canadian Institute of Ukrainian Studies, 2000) and Alexei Miller’s review of this book in KRITIKA: Explorations in Russian and Eurasian History ї (2003): 232-238; Olga Andriewsky, “‘Medved’ iz berlogi: Vladimir Jabotinsky and the Ukrainian Question, 1904-1914,” Harvard Ukrainian Studies 3-4 (1990): 249-267. For Jabotinsky’s Ukrainophile essays, see Volodymyr Zhabotyns’kyi, Vybrani statti z natsion- al’noho pytannia, trans., preface, and commentary by Izrail Kleiner (Kyiv: Respublikans’ka asotsiatsiia ukrainoznavtsiv, ї99ї).

13. Ihor Kachurovs’kyi, “Pro Hryts’ka Kernerenka,” Khronika 2000: Ukrains’kyi kul'- turolohichnyi al’manakh 21-22 (1998): 174-176; Oleksa Kovalenko, ed., Ukrains’ka muza. Po- etychna antolohiia (Kiev: n.p., 1908), 797. This anthology of Ukrainian poetry has been reprinted partially (Buenos Aires: Vydavnytstvo ukrains’koho katolyts’koho universytetu, 1973), and in full (Kyiv: Oberehy, 1993) with a preface and edited by Fedir Pohrebennyk. These scarce biographic details go back to a short autobiography that Oleksa Kovalenko commissioned Kernerenko to write for his anthology Rozvaha, see Chernihivs'kyi istorychnyi muzei (Chernihiv Local History Museum (hereafter ChIM), Al 52-147/1 /539 (Kernerenko to Kovalenko, December 26, 1906), ark. ι-ιob.

14. See references to places where his early poems were written in Hryts'ko Kernerenko, Nevelychkyi zbirnyk tvoriv (Khar'kov: Zilberberg, 1880), 22, 24.

15. See A. V. Belash and V. F. Belash, Dorogi Nestora Makhno: istoricheskoepovestvovanie (Kiev: Proza, 1993), 577n2; R. I. Goldshtein, Materialy k istorii evreiskoi obshchiny Dne- Propetrovshchiny (Dnipropetrovs'k: Dnipro, 1992), 9.

16. Anatol Hak (Martyn Zadeka), VidHuliai-polia do N^,iu-Iorku: spohady (Philadelphia: Novyi Ulm, 1973), 24, note.

17. Ibid., 24-25.

18. Ibid., 26-30.

19. Ivan Franko, ed., Akordy: antoliohiia [sic] Ukrains’koi liryky vid smerti Shevchenka (L'viv: Ukrains'ko-rus'ka vydavnycha spilka, 1903), 274. Published by Mykhailo Il'nyts'kyi in a facsimile edition (Kyiv: Veselka, 1993); Ukrains'kyi deklamator: rozvaha. Artystychnyi zbirnyk poezii, opovidan v prozi, monolohiv, zhartiv i humoresok naivydatnishykh ukrains’kykh poetiv ipys’mennykiv (Kyiv: Kul'zhenko, 1905 and 1908), 1:89-93, 271; 2:226-227, 268, 330; Oleska Kovalenko, ed., Ukrains’ka muza: Poetychna antolohia od pochatku do nashikh dniv (Kyiv: n.p., 1908 [1909]), 797-806. Zerov mentions it among the last pre-1920s anthologies of Ukrainian poetry. See Mykola Zerov, Ukrains’ke pys’menstvo (Kyiv: Osnovy, 2003), 228. On Kernerenko-Kovalenko relations, see Kernerenko's letters to Oleksa Kuz'mych Kovalenko in the ChIM, Al 52-147/1/539 (Kernerenko to Kovalenko, December 26, 1906), ark. 1-2; Al 52-147/5/539 (December 26 [in fact, November 27], 1906), ark. 1; Al 52-147/2/539 (February 2, 1907), ark. ι-ιob., Al 52-147/3/539 (November 10, 1908), ark. 1; Al 52-147/4/ 539 (November 5, 1907), ark. ι-2a; B. Lepkyi, Struny: antoliohiia ukrains’koipoezii vid nai- davnishykh do nynishnikh chasiv, 2 vols. (Berlin, 1922), 2:74-76.

20. Ievhen Chykalenko, Spohady (1861-1907) (New York: Ukrains'ka vil'na akademiia u SShA, 1955), 238. For Aleksandrov's Ukrainian folklore endeavors, see Narodnyipisennyk z naikrashchykh ukrains’kykh pisen, iaki teper naichastish spivaiutsia, z notamy (Khar'kov: Mikhailov, 1887). For his short biography, see Zerov, Ukrains’kepys’menstvo, 983. For archival material, see Putivnyk po fondu viddily rukopysiv Instytutu literatury (Kyiv: Spadshchyna, 1999), 23-25, and VRILNANU, f. 22, spr. 11-13, 37, 38, 49, 50, 54-56, 87, 88, 90-96, 157 (for 1877-92). Alexandrov's own verse, imbued with romantic motifs, is indebted to Schiller, Heine, Lermontov, and their epigones. See his Skladka: almanakh (Khar'kov: Adolf Darre, 1886), 5 - 6, 44, 46, 69, 81,91, 169, 218.

21. VRILNANU, f. 72 (Kesar Bilylovs'kyi), spr. 243, ark. 1-2. On Bilylovs'kyi, see P. A. Dehtiarev, “Zaliublenyi v krasu ridnoho slova,” in Kesar Bilylovs'kyi, V charakh kokhannia (Kyiv: Radians'kyi pys'mennyk, 1981), 3-24; idem., “Kesar Bilylovs'kyi,” in Pys’mennyki ra- dians’koi Ukrainy: Literaturno-krytychni narysy 13 (1987): 38-112, and Isai Zaslavs'kyi and Stepan Zakharkin, “Spohady Kesaria Bilylovs'koho,” Kyivs’kastarovyna ι (2003): 134-154; 2 (2003): 84-102; 3 (2003): 118-145. Bililovs'kyi used Jewish motifs in his poetry, see, e.g., his “Zhyteis'ka mudrist'” (Life Wisdom), “Zhyteis'kyi dosvid” (Life Experience), “Chervonyi shliub” (The Red Wedding), “Daite-bo zhyt'!” (Let Me Live), and “Elehia” (Elegy), in Ukrains’kyi deklamator, 263 -264, 305-306, 384-385, 411, 486-487. Also see Bilylovs'kyi's ethical and didactical poems with some Judaic flavor, such as “Desiat' dariv na sviti” (Ten Wordly Gifts), “Klym Haneba,” and “Daite-bo zhyt'” (Let Me Live!) in Aleksandrov, ed., Skladka: almanakh, 7, 82-84, 131-132.

22. The collaboration between Kernerenko and Bilylovs'kyi did not bring fruit because in 1897 Bilylovs'kyi stopped publishing the Skladka almanac. On Skladka, see Zakharkin's detailed commentaries to Bilylovs'kyi's memoirs, Kyivs’ka Starovyna 2 (2000): too-ιoι, nι28- 139; and 3 (2000): t4t-t42, n23t. For an unknown reason, Bilylovs'kyi did mention Ker- nerenko among Aleksandrov's circle of Ukrainian intellectuals in his much-detailed memoirs, see “Spohady Kesaria Bilylovs'koho,” Kyivs’ka starovyna 2 (2000): 90-9t.

23. For an example of a Ukrainian recruit drafted into the army despite his married status, see D. Mordovtsev, “Saldatka,” [sic] Osnova 4 (t86t): t5 - 32. Kernerenko could have been well familiar with this text since he worshipped Mordovtsev as the champion of the Ukrainian cause after the death of Taras Shevchenko and Panteleimon Kulish. See his dedication to Mordovtsev in his panegyric poem “Lyst do D. L. Mordovtsia” (A Letter to D. L. Mordov- tsev), in Hryts'ko Kernerenko, Menty natkhnennia (Huliai-Pole: N. Libman, t9t0), 84.

24. SeeVRILNANU, f. 70 (Kantseliariia Kyivs'koho okremoho tsenzora), spr. 57, ark. t- 37 (first version, November t8, t887), f. 70, apr. 58, ark. t- 38 (second version, February t, t896).

25. See censor's marks in VRILNANU, f. 70, spr. 57, ark. 3-5, t2, 33-34.

26. Timothy Snyder, The Reconstruction of Nations: Poland, Ukraine, Lithuania, Belarus, 1369-1999 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2003), t22-t32; Magocsi, History of Ukraine, 436 - 457; Rudnytsky, Essays in Modern Ukrainian History, 3t5 - 352.

27. In his letter to LNVKernerenko wrote: “I reverently beseech the respected Editorial Board to publish my translations from N. Minskii and Sully-Prudhomme and a couple of my own verses that I am sending you now. Soon I will send you my dramatic etude for here it has been twice forbidden for publication.” See VRILNANU, f. 3 (Ivan Franko), spr. t620, ark. t4t-t42 (June t3, t899). For Kernerenko's first publications in this journal, see LNV9 (t900): tt6-tt7; t2 (t900): t25. For Kernerenko's letters to Franko, see VRILNANU, f. 3, spr. t620, ark. 2t9-220, 463 - 464.

28. In the t880s, Franko penned a number of articles on Jewish emancipation and its harbingers, e.g., on Moses Mendelsohn and European Jewish Enlightenment, Zoria 7 (April t /13, t886): tt4-tt5, and on Jewish poet and folklorist, Wolf Ehrenkrantz (Zbyraski), LNV 32 (t905): 87-94. For the literary aspects of Franko's interest in Zionism, see Asher Wilcher, “Ivan Franko and Theodor Herzl: To the Genesis of Franko's Moisej,” Harvard Ukrainian Studies 2 (t982): 233-243. The most significant, though somewhat outdated, article on the issue is Pavlo Kudriavtsev, “Ievreistvo, ievrei ta ievreis'ka sprava v tvorakh Ivana Franka,” Zbirnyk prats’ ievreis’koiistoryko-arkheohrafichnoikomisii, 2 vols. (Kyiv: Vseukrains'ka Akademia Nauk, t929), 2: t-8t. For Franko's keen interest in Judaism, see his notes on and from the Hebrew Bible and the Talmud in his private notebook, VRILNANU, f. 3, spr. 202, ark. 4-tt.

29. See VRILNANU, f. 3, spr. t630, ark. 527-530, “Hryts'ko Kernerenko to Ivan Franko,” January t7 (30), t906. Significantly, Franko did not follow Kernerenko's stylistic “innovation” and changed the Ukrainian “Khyvria” back to the Yiddish “Reizi.” See Ker- nerenko's translation of Sholem Aleichem's tale “Diad'ko Pini ta titka Reizia” in LNV 33 ^(t9°^6): 544^-55^t.

30. Kernerenko appeared regularly in LNV, e.g., see his short story “Tsiliushche zillia” (The Healing Herb), in LNV 28 (t904): 95 -99; the translation of Nadson's “Mrii” (Dreams),

LNV33 (1906): 280-283, of Sholem Aleichem's tale “Diad'ko Pini ta titka Reizia,” LNV33 (1906): 544-550; of Frug's “Z ievreis'kykh melodii: rebro Adama” (From the Jewish Melodies: Adam's Rim), LNV 34 (1906): 264; of Frug's “Z ievreis'kykh melodii: Spad- shchyna” (From the Jewish Melodies: Heritage) and “Pisok ta zirky” (Sand and Stars), LNV 35 (1906): 28, 212; of Frug's “Dvi Troiky” (Two Troikas), LNV 37 (1907): 495-496, and “Novyi rik” (The New Year), LNV41 (1908): 187. For Kernerenko's correspondence with LNVpublishers, see VRILNANU, f. 3, spr. 1630, ark. 623-624 (February ιι, 1904), ark. 525 - 526 (January 4 [17], 1906). For Franko's contribution to the editing of the foreign literature section of LNV, see Iu. G. Shapoval, “Literaturno-naukovyi vistnyk” (1898-1932): tvorennia derzhavnoi ideolohii Ukrainstva (L'viv: Ministerstvo osvity i nauky Ukrainy; L'vivs'kyi natsional'nyi universytet, 2000), 58 - 59.

31. See ChIM, Al 52-147/4/539 (letter of Kernerenko to Kovalenko, November 5, 1907), ark. ι-ιa.

32. I am grateful to Liubov Hryhorivna Hen'ba, the director of the Huliai-pole local museum (Kraieznavchyi muzei) for this information.

33. Hryts'ko Kernerenko, Pravdyva kazka (Khar'kov: M. F. Zilberberg, 1890); there were at least two editions of this small fifteen-page book.

34. See Taras Shevchenko, Tvory v triokh tomakh (Kyiv: Khudozhnia literatura, 1955), 222-228.

35. Shevchenko, Tvory, 172-200, 333-347, 438-446.

36. Ibid., 335, 461-462, 580-582.

37. Kernerenko, Pravdyva kazka, 9.

38. Ibid., 11-12.

39. See “Ave Mariia: kontsert M-lle H.” (Ave Maria: The Concert of M-lle H.), “Do ptashky” (To a Bird), “Usi drazhniat' mene ‘shliondra'” (Everybody Dubs Me a “Whore”), “U Basurmans'komu poloni” (In a Turkish Bondage), “Pro mene” (Will Pass Over), “Rivochtsi K.” (To Little Rivka K.), “Dolia” (A Fate), in Menty natkhnennia, 17, 31, 45, 46, 66, 77, 86, 96.

40. See “Moia Muza” (My Muse) in Kernerenko, Menty natkhnennia, 5.

41. For the romantic lachrymose theme of the vanished love and youth, see also Kernerenko, Menty natkhnennia, 17, 52, 66, 67-68, 133.

42. Ibid., 127-138, 141-146, 149-164.

43. For more Heine-esque themes in Kernerenko, see, “Mynule” (The Past); “Pisnia: Z Nimets'koho” (A Song: From German); “Napys na fotohrafichnii kartsi: Zakharovu” (An Inscription on a Photo: To Zakharov); and a Ukrainian version of Heine “Iunak liubyt' divku” (The Boy Got in Love with a Girl), in Menty natkhnennia, 37, 44, 54, 97.

44. See VRILNANU, f. 3, spr. 3354, ark. 401/78 (January 12, 1899). Earlier D. Mor- dovtsev published Kernerenko's piece anonymously in the Russian-language newspaper, see Novosti, February 26, 1896.

45. Pavlo Hrabovs'kyi, Vybrani tvory v dvokh tomakh (Kyiv: Dnipro, 1985), 2:105-109.

46. See LNV12 (1900): 116-117.

47. SeeVRILNANU, f. 35 (Sabo), spr. 48, ark. 19-21; Kernerenko, Menty natkhnennia, 26.

48. Rada 47 (1907); Kernerenko, Menty natkhnennia, 27; for the original, see VRIL- NANU, f. 35 (Sabo), spr. 48, ark. 5 -6.

49. The imagery of a sower imbued with biblical and Christian connotations is characteristic of many poets of that period, such as Franko, Aleksandrov, Hrynchenko, and others. See Iryna Betko, Bibliini siuzhety і motyvy v ukrains’kii poezii: XIX—pochatku XX Stolittia (Zielona Gora: WSP, 1999).

50. For the complex imagery of “Haidamaky,” see the nuanced analysis in Ivan Dziuba, “Shevchenko i ‘Haidamaky’ z vidstani chasu,” Suchasnist' 6 (2004): 67-92.

51. Kernerenko, Menty natkhnennia, 69.

52. See VRILNANU, f. 3, spr. 3353, ark. 10-ιι (a collection of verse sent to Ivan Franko), and Menty natkhnennia, 51.

53. In some cases Kernerenko rebuked his editors, demanding that they should correct the mistake indicating that a poem published under his name was written by Frug. See, e.g., VRILNANU, op. 3, spr. 1630, ark. 537-538 (December 26, 1906). In the context of Kerne- renko’s attachment to Ukraine, one should bear in mind that Frug’s poems are also permeated with a profound sense of spiritual attachment to Ukraine. See S. G. Frug, Polnoe sobranie sochinenii, 3 vols. (Odessa: Sherman, 1916), 1:94-96, 2:63-65, 3:194-196.

54. “Dve troiki” (Two Troikas) in LNV27 (1907): 495-496, see also VRILNANU, f. 35, spr. 48, ark. 43-46. Cf. Sh. Frug, Ale shriftn, 3 vols. (New York: Hebrew Publishing, 1910), 1:12-15.

55. “Novyi rik” (New Year) in LNV41 (1908): 107, see also VRILNANU, f. 35, spr. 48, ark. 47-48. Cf. Yiddish text in Frug, Ale shriftn, 1:81- 82.

56. Frug, Ale shriftn, 1:43. For Kernerenko’s version, see Ukrainska muza: poetychna an- tolohiia (Kyiv: Petro Bars’kyi, 1908), 804-805.

57. See LNV8 (1902): 7.

58. Ukrains’ka khata 3-4 (1909): 207. See VRILNANU, f. 35, spr. 48, ark. 49-50. For the Yiddish version, see Frug, Ale shriftn, 2:20.

59. On the family metaphors in Shevchenko’s poetry and their function in his Weltanschauung, see Kornei Chukovskii, Litsa i maski (St. Petersburg: Shipovnik, 1914), 40-75.

60. See the commentary to this “dropped” preface in Heinrich Heine, Werke und Briefe, ed. Hans Kaufmann, 10 vols. (Berlin: Aufbau-Verlag, 1961), 1:752-773.

61. SeeVRILNANU, f. 35, spr. 48, ark. 37-38. Kernerenko’s notebooks indicate that the poem was written in Huliai-pole in 1909. It was published in Rada (1908) and Menty natkhnennia, 25.

62. “M.K.,” the author of a review of Kernerenko’s collection is identified as Mykhailo Komarov (1844-1913), Ukrainian bibliographer, critic, folklorist, and doctor. See Hra- bovs’kyi, Tvory, 2:309.

63. M[ykhailo] K[omarov], review of “V dosuzhyi chas. Lyrna poeziia Hryts’ka Kerne- renka,” Zoria 15 (August 1-15, 1891): 338-339.

64. See Hrabovs’kyi, Tvory, 2:107.

65. Iurii Luts’kyi (George Luckyj), Literaturnapolityka v radians’kii Ukraini, 1917-1934 (Kyiv: Helikon, 2000), 33.

66. Mykola Ievshan, Krytyka: Literaturoznavstvo. Estetyka, ed. Natalia Shumylo (Kyiv: Osnovy, 1998), 240 -241, 248 -250.

67. See S[erhii] Ie[fremov], [review of Menty natkhnennia: Tvory Hryts’ka Kernerenka], Rada 164 (1910): 4. On Rada in the context of Ukrainian press, see O. V. Lysenko, “Rol’ presy u formuvanni ukrains’koi natsional’noi idei,” Problemy istorii Ukrainy XIX—pochatku XXst. i (2000): 217-227.

68. The words in parentheses are in Russian with a derogatory sense. See Khrystia [Khrystyna Alchevs'ka], [Review of Hryts'ko Kernerenko, Menty natkhnennia, Huliai-Pole, 1910.—288 P.], in Ukrains’kakhata ι (1910): 75-76. For the contextual analysis of Ukrains’ka khata, see Oleh S. Ilnytzkyj, Ukrainian Futurism, 1914-1930 (Cambridge: Harvard University Press for the Harvard Ukrainian Research Institute, 1997), 3, 12, 21.

69. At the same time Shapoval found Kernerenko's verse lacking originality and negligent toward contemporary poetic innovations. See M[ykyta] Shapoval, “Novyny nashoi liter- atury (Menty natkhnennia Hryts'ka Kernerenka),” LNV4 (1910): 124-129. On Shapoval's role in Ukrainian literature, see Kachyrovs'kyi, Promenysti siΓvety, 103.

70. Struny: antoliohia ukrains’koi poezii, 74.

71. The Israeli award-winning writer David Markish is the son of the famous Yiddish poet Perets Markish, known for his strong pro-Ukrainian sympathies. See Vadim Skura- tovskii, “Ukrainskaia literatura” in Kratkaia evreiskaia entsiklopediia, 10 vols. (Jerusalem: Keter, 1976 - 99), 8:1274-1275.

72. On Makhno's stance on Jewish issues, see Moshe (Mikhail) Goncharok, Vek voli: russkii anarkhizm i evrei (XIX-XXvv.) (Jerusalem: Mishmeret shalom, 1996), 29-62.

73. David Markish, Poliushko-pole. Donor: romany (Moscow: Izvestiia, 1991), 40-41.

74. Petro Rebro, Zaporizka pravda, April 20, 1999.

75. See Ivan Kushnirenko and Volodymyr Zhylins'kyi, Literatura HuliaipiTshchyny (Na pruhkykh vitrakh), 2 vols. (Dnipropetrovs'k: Dnipropetrovs'kyi natsional'nyi universytet, 2002), 1:11-20. Among the selected Kernerenko's texts were “On the 37th Anniversary of Shevchenko's Death,” “To a Certain Friend,” “Monopoly,” “Everything Has Its Own Season,” “A Vain Expectation,” “In the Foreign Land,” “The Sand and the Stars,” “Madchens Wunsch,” see ibid., 16-21.

76. Vadym Skuratovs'kyi, “Na perekhrestiakh dushi” (At the Crossroads of the Soul), Suchasnist' 12 (1996): 86-89.

Chapter 2. Between Two Fires: The National-Communist

Utopia of Ivan Kulyk

1. Volodymyr Vynnychenko, Tvory v dvokh tomakh (Kyiv: Dnipro, 2000), 1:514-579. On the importance of this play in Ukrainian-Jewish discourse, see George Grabowicz, Do is- torii ukrains’koi literatury: doslidzhennia, esei, polemika (Kyiv: Krytyka, 2003), 235 -236. For the discussion of a contradictory stance ofVynnychenko on the issues of Ukrainian revivalism and socialism, see Ivan L. Rudnytsky, Essays in Modern Ukrainian History (Cambridge: Harvard University Press for the Harvard Ukrainian Research Institute, i987), 4i7-435.

2. VRILNANU, f. 159, spr. 41 (The Biography of I. Kulyk), ark. 1-2.

3. Z. M. Voloshenko, “‘Na krutomu provulku:' spohady pro dytiachi roky I. Iu. Ku- lyka,” TsDAMLMU, f. 302, op. i, spr. 174, ark. 2-3.

4. Nadiia Surovtsova, Spohady (Kyiv: Vydavnytstvo im. Oleny Telihy, 1996), 136.

5. For a description of the Uman massacre and a copy of the lamentation, written in the form of an acrostic, see V. Ivashchenko, Istoricheskii ocherk Umani i tsaritsyna sada “Sofievka” (Kiev: S. N. Kulzhenko, 1895), 44 - 46.

6. The Sofiivka Park inspired many Polish, Russian, and Ukrainian literati, among them Nikolai Andreev, Ivan Dolgorukii, Leonid Smilians'kyi, Iurii Smolych, Olimpiada Shishkina, and Stanislaw Trembecki. See A. P. Rohotchenko, Umanskoe chudo (Kiev: Budivel'nyk, 1980), 10-20, and Stanislaw Trembecki, Sofijowka, ed. Jerzy Snopek (Warsaw: “Pro Cultura Litteraria,” 2000).

7. Ivan Kulyk, Virshi tapoemy: vybrane (Kyiv: Radians'kyi pys'mennyk, 1962), 198.

8. See Voloshenko, “Na Krytomu provulku,” TsDAMLMU, f. 302, op. і, spr. 174, ark. 6-8.

9. When released from prison, YosefKulyk could not come to grips with the reactionary atmosphere in post-1905-revolution Russia and committed suicide. See Mykhailo Kulyk, “Rozmova tryvaie” (The Conversation Continues) in Poet revoliutsii: Spohady pro Ivana Ku- lyka, ed. Iukhym Beider (Kyiv: Radians'kyi pys'mennyk, 1971), 16-23.

10. Kulyk, Virshi tapoemy, 206.

ιι. A. Leites and M. Iashek, Desiat' rokiv ukrains’koi Iiteratury, ιgι7-ιg27, 2 vols. (Kharkiv: Derzhavne vydavnytstvo Ukrainy, 1928) 1:268-269; also see TsDAMLMU, f. 302, op. і, spr. 5, ark. 2 (Surovtsova, “Ivan Kulyk”) and TsDAMLMU, f. 302, op. і, spr. 46, ark. 4 (Surovtsova, “Na provesni”).

12. Rada 17 (January 29, 1914): 2. Jewish ethnography was also on the agenda of the Uman branch of the Society of the Preservation of the Monuments, yet apparently Kulyk was not interested in it. See TsDAMLMU, f. 302, op. і, spr. 5, ark. 3.

13. See the memoir of Esfir Kulyk “Boiova molodist' brata” (My Brother's Combative Youth), in Beider, Poet revoliutsii, 9. Surovtsova supports this legend, see TsDAMLMU, f. 302, op. і, spr. 5, ark. і (Nadia Surovtsova, “Ivan Kulyk”).

14. Kulyk, Virshi ta poemy, 201.

15. Fr[anciszek] Ravita, Het’manMazepa: istorychnapovist', trans.Vasyl' Rolenko (L'viv: Delo [Dilo], 1893), 149-163, 195-196. The name of the translator “Vasyl' Rolenko” appears only at the end of the text, p. 275. Kulyk liked Ravita (Pol.: Rawita-Gawrofiski) as a Polish writer and historian who wrote extensively on Ukraine and who revised the biased Polish attitude to the Ukrainian struggle against Polish oppression. See, e.g., Franciszek Rawita- Gawroilski, Historya ruchow hajdamackich (w. XVIII) (Brody: F. West, 1899); idem., Bohdan Chmielnicki (L'viv: H. Altenberg, 1906-9); idem., Sprawy i rzeczy Ukraiskie: materyaly do dzejow kozaczyzny i hajdamaczyzny (L'viv: Jakubowski, 1914).

16. For Mazepa's separatist stance, his clash with Peter the Great, Peter's designation of Mazepa as “the new Judas,” and Mazepa's role in the Charles XII's campaign, see Orest Sub- telny, The Mazepists: Ukrainian Separatism in the Early Eighteenth Century (New York: Columbia University Press for Boulder East European Monographs, 1981), 37-52.

17. Cited in Mykola Komarnyts'kyi, “Z dytiachykh ta iunats'kykh rokiv Ivana Kulyka,” see Beider, Poet revoliutsii, 34.

18. RalfK. Rolinato [Ivan Kulyk], Pryhody Vasylia Rolenka (v kraini feikeriv) (Kharkiv: Proletarii, і929), 6.

19. See Franz Kafka, America: roman (Munich: K. Wolff, 1927). Kulyk disguised his authorship twice: not only did he put the name of Vasyl' Rolenko on the title page as the author, but he also sent the manuscript to the Soviet Embassy in Canada from a certain Ralf Rolinato with his, Rolinato's, letter of recommendation. See a detailed commentary in VRILNANU, f. 159, spr. 159∕1-II, ark. 389 - 393.

20. Ralf K. Rolinato [Ivan Kulyk], Pryhody Vasylia Rolenka (v kraini feikeriv) (Kharkiv: Proletarii, 1929), 14-15, 24, 35, 85, 104.

21. [Ivan Kulyk], “Zhen’ka-pochtalion: iz vospominanii detstva R. Rolinato,” Novyi mir (May 27-28, 1915).

22. Robitnyk, May 24, 1917. For Kulyk’s publications in the American workers’ Ukrai- nian-language press, see VRILNANU, f. 159, spr. 18. Here Kulyk once again underscores his fascination with Ukrainian folklore, which he calls the “beautiful adornment of the people’s art” (krasne namysto narodnoho mystetstva), see VRILNANU, f. 159, spr. 18, ark. 170. Kulyk’s other publications in the American press testify to his sensitivity to the manifestations of anti- and philosemitism among Ukrainians. See, e.g., his depiction of a Ukrainian elder (starshyna) defending a Jew against the Cossacks during a pogrom, Ivan Kulyk, “Amerykans’ky lam- polizy,”VRILNANU, f. 159, spr. 159∕1-II, ark. 176-185.

23. R. Rolinato [I. Kulyk], “Pisni emihrantiv (etnohrafichnyi narys),” Kalendar “Robit- nyk,” 1916 (Cleveland, Ohio), 165-170, here i66;VRILNANU, f. 159, spr. 28.

24. Ivan Kulyk, “Staryi Leizer,” Novyi mir (December 15, 1915). See VRILNANU, f. 159, spr. 159∕1-II, ark. 338 - 342.

25. See his short story “Diadia Arsen” (Uncle Arsen), Novyi mir (December ii- i2, i9i6).

26. VRILNANU, f. 159, spr. 42 (The Biography of I. Kulyk), ark. 6; Beider, Poet revoli- utsii, 46. For the context of his early Bolshevik activities (and quotes from his presentations) see Taras Hunczak, ed., The Ukraine, 1917-1921: A Study in Revolution (Cambridge: Harvard University Press for the Harvard Ukrainian Research Institute, i977), i05 - i06, i07- i08.

27. See Kulyk’s unpublished “Iz shchodennyka chervonoho partyzana,” (From the Diary ofa Red Partisan), VRILNANU, f. 159, spr. 159∕1-II, ark. 82-96, here 83.

28. The Kyiv Soviet periodical, Izvestia Ispolkoma Kievskogo Soveta Rabochikh Deputa- tov, reported on March 7, 1919: “In Ukraine, before Great Russia [Velikorossiia], they organized the first Red Army unit.” VRILNANU, f. 159, spr. 42 (typewritten copies of the documents on I. Kulyk’s activities in i9i8 - i9i9), ark. i0. See also Kulyk’s own account of the formation of the First Red Cossack Kurin [Regiment], in VRILNANU, f. 159, spr. 159∕1-II, ark. i72- i74. In i9i7, Kulyk was still too leftist to subscribe to Ukrainian revivalism, which he considered “chauvinistic.” For the context of his early Bolshevik activities (and quotes from his presentations), see Hunczak, Ukraine, i05- i06, i07-i08.

29. For the original in Russian, see VRILNANU, f. 159, spr. 42 (typewritten copies of the documents on I. Kulyk’s activities in 1918-1919), ark. 2.

30. TsDAMLMU, f. 302, op. i, spr. 46, ark. 15 (Surovtsova, “Na provesni”).

31. Ivan Kulyk, “Iak pochynalasia sprava v Halychyni” (How It Began in Galicia), see VRILNANU, f. 159, spr. 159∕1-II, ark. 125-127. See Iu. Milov (Iu. Beider), “Redahue Ivan Kulyk,” Radianske Podillia 28 (February 10, 1968). In the repository ofTsDAMLMU, f. 364, op. i, spr. 748 (no pagination).

32. Hryhorii Kostiuk, Zustrichi iproshchannia: spohady. Knyhapersha (Edmonton: Canadian Institute of Ukrainian Studies, 1987), 57.

33. See “Spilka proletars’kykh pys’mennykiv Hart,” Ukrainski robitnychi visti 43 (April 9, 1925). For Kulyk’s key role in organizing the literary group of Ukrainian writers in North America, see his letters to the poet Mykola Tarnovs’kyi written between i924 and i926, in TsDAMLMU, f. 364 (Tarnovs’kyi), op. i, spr. 503, ark. i-6. On the Hart and its role in the literary life of Ukraine, see V. Blakytnyi, “Bez manifestu,” and “Statut proletars’koi spilky Hart,” in Shliakhy rozvytku ukrains’koi proletars’koi Iiteratury: Iiteraturna dyskusia, 192ζ- 1928, ed. S. Fedchyshyn and B. Kovalenko (Kharkiv: Ukrains’kyi robitnyk, 1928), 256-266 and 267-270.

34. Iu. Kulyk, “Partkerivnytstvo literaturoiu” (On the [Communist] Party Management ofLiterature), in Shliakhy rozvytku ukrains’koiproletars’koi literatury, 337-339.

35. Ilnytzkyj, Ukrainian Futurism, 132.

36. For example, in his unpublished memoir Iurii Smolych calls Kulyk, “one of the bosses of the whole cultural life in Ukraine” and tells a story about Kulyk’s attempts to cancel the premiere of Smolych’s antinationalist play “On the Other Side of the Heart.” See TsDMALMU, f. 169, op. 2, spr. 85, ark. 249-259. In addition, see the plea of Ivan Myky- tenko, the second head of the Union of the Soviet Writers, who asked Kulyk to help the proletarian Revolution Theater acquire the status of the nationalist Berezil Theater. See TsDAMLMU, f. 657, op. ι, spr. 113, ark. 1-2 (Mykytenko to Kulyk, July 17, 1933).

37. On the ambiguity of Ukrainization, see Paul Robert Magocsi, A History of Ukraine (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1996), 547; Orest Subtelny, Ukraine: A History (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2000), 380-402; G. Y. Shevelov [Sheveliov], “L’ukrai- nization: Une politique sovietique (1925-1932),” La Renaissance nationale et culturelle en Ukraine de 191p aux annees 1930: Actes du colloque (Paris: INALCO, 1986), 39- 66.

38. See Lazar Kaganovych, “Iz dopovidi na X z’izdi KP(b)U,” in Shliakhy rozvytku ukrains’koi proletars’koi literatury: literaturna dyskusiia, 192ζ-1928, ed. S. Fedchyshyn and B. Kovalenko (Kharkiv: Ukrains’kyi robitnyk, 1928), 212-215 (diagram on p. 213); Ivan Koshelivets, Mykola Skrypnyk (Munich: Suchasnist’, 1972), 95-114; Shevelov [Sheveliov], “L’ukrainization,” 47-50.

39. For a nuanced contextualization ofSkrypnyk’s key role in balancing the Ukrainian revivalism, see Myroslav Shkandrij, Modernists, Marxists and the Nation: The Ukrainian Literary Discussion of the 1920s (Edmonton: Canadian Institute of Ukrainian Studies Press, 1992), 111-125.

40. See George Luckyj, Literary Politics in the Soviet Ukraine, 191γ-1934 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1956). See also the Ukrainian edition: Iurii Luts’kyi, Literaturna polityka v radians’kyi Ukraini, 191γ-1934 (Kyiv: Helikon, 2000); Iurii Lavrynenko, Rozstri- liane vidrodzhennia: Antolohiia, 191γ-1933 (Kyiv: Prosvita, 2001); for a paramount bibliographic guide, see Leites and Iashek, Desiat rokiv; Ivan Koshelivets’, Rozmovy v dorozi do sebe:frahmenty spohadiv ta inshe (Munich: Suchasnist’, 1985); and the now indispensable Terry Martin, The Affirmative Action Empire: Nations and Nationalism in the Soviet Union, 1923-1939 (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2001).

41. See “Z tsyklu ‘Kanada’” (From the Series “Canada”), in Kulyk, V otochenni (Kharkiv: Derzhavne vydavnytstvo Ukrainy, 1927), 18-19.

42. See his “Kaunawaga,” in Kulyk, Votochenni, 31.

43. See Beider, Poet revoliutsii, 77-78.

44. See TsDAMLMU, f. 364, op. ι, spr. 503, ark. 2-2ob. (Kulyk to Tarnovs’kyi, September 13, 1926).

45. See Anon. [I. Kulyk], “Taras Shevchenko—borets’ za vyzvolennia bidnoty,” Ukrain- s’ki robitnychi visti 22 (March ιι, 1924). According to Petro Kravchuk, Kulyk published a literary opera as Ivan Kulyk, feuilletons as Vasyl’ Rolenko, and political essays as I. Viktor. See Beider, Poet revoliutsii, 109. For Kulyk's activities in the preservation of material Ukrainian culture, see V. A. Voinalovych, “Holova UKOPK (I. Iu. Kulyk),” Represovane kraieznavstvo (20 -30-ti roki) (Kyiv: Ridnyi krai, Instytut istorii Ukrainy, i99i), 320- 324.

46. Volodymyr Sosiura, Tretia rota: roman (Kyiv: Ukrains'kyi pys'mennyk, 1997), 275.

47. See the editorial “Kanada naperedodni rozpochattia torhivli z Ukrainoiu,” Ukrain- ski robitnychi visti 19 (March 4, 1924).

48. See his explicitly Ukrainophilic essay signed by pen name Vasyl' Rolenko, “Mohutnia kul'turna zbroia,” Ukrainski robitnychi visti 113 (October 9, 1924), and a more balanced assessment of the same trend, I. Iu. Kulyk, “Za sim lit,” Ukrainski robitnychi visti 126 (November 8, 1924).

49. See “Tov. Iv. Kulyk pro ekonomichne polozhennia na radians'kii Ukraini,” Ukrain- ski robitnychi visti 21 (March 8, 1924).

50. Vasyl' Rolenko [Ivan Kulyk], “Suchasna ukrains'ka kul'tura,” Ukrainski robitnychi visti 31 (April i, 1924).

51. See Myroslav Shkandrij, Modernists, Marxists and the Nation: The Ukrainian Literary Discussion of the 1920s (Edmonton: Canadian Institute of Ukrainian Studies Press, 1992), 32.

52. Vasyl' Rolenko [Ivan Kulyk], “Suchasna ukrains'ka kul'tura (prodovzhennia),” Ukrainski robitnychi visti 32 (April 3, 1924).

53. I[van] Kulyk, “Sviato ukrains'koi kul'tury” (The Celebration of the Ukrainian Culture), Ukrainski robitnychi visti 134 (November 7, 1925).

54. Vasyl' Rolenko [Ivan Kulyk], “Suchasna ukrains'ka kul'tura (zakinchennia),” Ukrainski robitnychi visti 33 (April 5, 1924).

55. See M. Ravych-Cherkas'kyi [review of the book: I. Kulyk, M. Iavors'kyi, “Narysy istorii Komunistychnoi Partii (Bil'shovykiv) Ukrainy”], Chervonyi shliakh 2 (1923): 286-288.

56. See his “Vidpovid' ukrains'kym chornosotentsiam i zhovtoblakytnykam: Lyst tov. I. Iu. Kulyka” (An Answer to the Ukrainian Chauvinists and Yellow-Bluish [Nationalists]: The Letter of I. Iu. Kulyk,” in Ukrainski robitnychi visti 52 (May 20, 1924) and 61 (June 10, 1924).

57. Voloshenko, “Na Krutomu provulku,” ark. ii. Cf. the same text in the censored version, Beider, Poet revoliutsii, 24-30.

58. Kulyk, Virshi tapoemy, 196.

59. VRILNANU, f. 159, spr. 20, ark. 1-2 (“Dokladnaia zapiska o poezdke v Umanskii uezd. Kulyk. May 28, i9i9”).

60. What Oswald Burghardt (Iurii Klen) sharply criticized as the residual traces of Russian phraseology, syntax, and grammar in Kulyk's translations from American English were most probably some rudimentary Yiddishisms that surreptitiously made their way into Ku- lyk's Ukrainian. Osw. Burghardt (Iurii Klen), [review of the book: I. Kulyk, “Antolohiia amerykans'koi poezii, 1855-1925”], Chervonyishliakh ii (1928): 275-276.

61. After Kulyk pointed out the importance of Mike Gold, Ukrainian literati made efforts to introduce his prose to the reader, see Maikl Gold, Saidski novely, trans. M. Iogansen, P. Petrov, and V. Mysyk (Kharkiv: Derzhavne vydavnytstvo Ukrainy, i930).

62. There were at least three different editions of this text, yet I managed to identify only the second book edition, Lev Kvitko, Porosiata, trans. Ivan Kulyk (Kharkiv: Ditvydav, i936). See also VRILNANU, f. i59, spr. i59/ i-I, ark. 33i- 332. This poem helped Jewish children overcome their millennia-long religiously inculcated prejudice against pigs.

63. [I.Iu. Kulyk], “Tov. Ivan Iu. Kulyk pro ‘kontr-revoliutsiini aliarmy'” (Comrade Ivan Kulyk on Counterrevolutionary Alarms) Ukrains’ki robitnychi visti 23 (March 13, 1924). See the continuation of this discussion in Ivan Kulyk, “Shche pro ‘Ievreis’ku respubliku’” (Again on the “Jewish Republic”), Ukrains’ki robitnychi visti 104 (September 18, 1924).

64. See “Doklad I. Iu. Kulika o literature USSR,” Pervyi vsesoiuznyi s’ezd sovetskikh pisatelei: stenograficheskii otchet (Moscow: Khudozhestvennaia literatura, 1934), 38-49, here 48.

65. Kulyk, Virshitapoemy, 35.

66. On the mildly anti-Ukrainian stance of Gorky on the translation of his novel Mat’ (Mother) into Ukrainian, which he called “a dialect,” see Luts’kyi, Literaturnapolityka, 135, and Ilnytzkyj, Ukrainian Futurism, 105n4.

67. For example, he mocks the gullibility, haughtiness, and snobbishness that shaped the attitude of Catherine II toward Ukrainians (Little Russians) during her tour through the empire with Count Potemkin. See Ivan Kulyk, Zapysky konsyla (Kyiv: Radians’kyi pys’mennyk, ⁱ95⁸)> ⁱ39^-141.

68. James Willard Schultz, My Life as an Indian: The Story of a Red Woman and a White Man in the Lodges of the Blackfeet (London: J. Murray, 1907), 382. For the multiple examples of Riel’s consistent effort to conceptualize the Metis and Indians as the new Hebrews, see Thomas Flanagan, Louis ‘David’ Riel: “Prophet of the New World” (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1979), 43, 74, 8i-84, 86, 91-92, ii6, 156.

69. Kulyk, V otochenni, 43 - 44.

70. See I. Iu. Kulyk, “Predstavnyk radians’koi Ukrainy v Kanadi v oboroni M. Dra- homanova,” Ukrains’ki robitnychi visti 30 (March 29, 1924).

71. See Richard Popkin, “The Rise and Fall of the Jewish Indian Theory,” in Menasseh ben Israel and His World, ed. YosefKaplan et al. (Leiden: Brill, 1989), 63 -82.

72. Kulyk, Zapysky konsula, 16.

73. Ibid., 15.

74. On Babel’s Ukrainian and Yiddish ingredients, see my essay, “Isaak Vavilonskii: iazyk i stil v ‘Odesskikh rasskazakh’ Babelia,” Yehupets 14 (2004): 88-100.

75. As if continuing the same line of thought, in one of the short stories written during her stay with Kulyk, her husband, in Canada, Luciana Piontek unites Krik, the Odessa Jewish gangster, and Kruk, a Canadian Indian, in the image of Kruk, a Ukrainian rural bandit. See L. Piontek, “Bandytykha,” Ukrains’ki robitnychi visti 105 (September 20, 1924): 3 (for the whole story, see ibid., 106 [September 23, 1924] and 107 [September 25, 1924]).

76. Ivan Kulyk, Zapysky konsyla (Kyiv: Radians’kyi pys’mennyk, 1958), 20. Balagola is the Yiddish for a cabman.

77. I. Iu. Kulyk, Antolohiia amerykans’koi poezii, 18yy-192y (Kharkiv: Derzhavne vy- davnytstvo Ukrainy, 1928), 10-18.

78. Ibid., 221, 305, 323-324.

79. Carl Sandburg, Dym i krytsia: vybrani poezii (Smoke and Steel: Selected Poetry), trans. and with preface by Ivan Kulyk (Kharkiv: Literatura i mystetstvo, 1931), 27-28.

80. This stereotype survived the Bolshevik revolution and found its way into the writings of some Ukrainian literati. See Petro Panch, U mistechku Be: opovidannia (Kharkiv: Knyhos- pilka, 1925), 4-19. For a different treatment of the Jew, see his Holubi eshelony (Kharkiv: Derzhavne vydavnytstvo Ukrainy, 1928), 5 - 92, esp. 80 - 8i.

81. See M. Levyts’kyi, “Shchastia Peisakha Leidermana: opovidannia likaria,” in Khrestomatia novoi ukrains’koi Iiteratury, ed. Mykola Plevako (Kharkiv: Derzhavne vydavnyts- tvo Ukrainy, 1926), 348 - 353.

82. Stepan Vasyl’chenko, “Pro zhydka Marchyka, bidnoho kravchyka” (On a Little Jew Marchyk, Poor Tailor, 1919), in his Opovidannia: Povisti: Dramatychni tvory (Kyiv: Naukova dumka, 1988), 214-221.

83. Ibid., 215, 217, 218.

84. Volodymyr Hzhyts’kyi, Mutsa: povist’ (Kharkiv: Derzhavne vydavnytstvo Ukrainy, 1928), 104.

85. Arkadii Liubchenko, Vybrani tvory (Kyiv: Smoloskyp, 1999), 41-45.

86. Kost Kotko, “Sviatyi, Anhel i Shlioma,” Chervonyishliakh 8-9 (1929): 8-17, here 14.

87. Iurii Smolych, Kinets mista za bazarom (Kharkiv: Derzhavne vydavnytstvo Ukrainy, 1924), see esp. 24 -26.

88. See the chapter “Myr vsim,” in Iurii Smolych, Dytynstvo (L’viv: Biblioteka “Dila,” 1939), 4^2-7².

89. See Dovid Hofshteyn, “Af Shevchenkos keyver” (On Shevchenko’s Grave), Der Shtern, September 14, 1938; Perets Markish, “Kobzar,” Proletars’ka pravda, March 6, 1939; Itsik Fefer, “Balada pro pozhezhu: prysv’iachuet’sia T G. Shevchenku,” BiVshovyk, February 6, 1939; L. Biesov, “Kazka pro Sholom-Aleikhema: virshi,” Bil’shovyts’ka pravda, April 18, 1939; Teren' Masenko, “Sholom-Aleikhem: virshi,” Sotsialistychna Kharkivshchyna, April 15, 1939; T Odud’ko, “Sholom-Aleikhem u Vinnytsi v 1908 r.” Bil’shovyts’ka pravda, April 18, 1939.

90. See “Iak Zbruch-richku prokhodyly” (When We Crossed the River of Zbruch), in

I. Kulyk, Moi kolomyiky. Zbirnychok poezii (z halyts’koho al’bomu) (Kharkiv: Vseukrains’ke Derzhavne vydavnytstvo, 1921), 23.

91. It is very likely that in his short story “Vin ne pomih” (It Did Not Help, 1920), My- roslav Irchan depicted some idiosyncratic features of his good friend Ivan Kulyk, while telling the story of a baptized Jew, Vasyl’, from Uman. Like Ivan Kulyk, Irchan’s Vasyl’, born Froym (Efraim) Fridman, was always in the front lines and trenches, always looked like a fifteen-year- old girl and not a soldier, and was always kind and smiling. It should be mentioned that Irchan dedicated his short story Apostoly (1927) “To comrade I. Iu. Kulyk in memory of the Canadian prairies.” See Myroslav Irchan, Tvory v dvokh tomakh (Kyiv: Dnipro, 1987), 273 -276, 330. Irchan shared Kulyk’s admiration for Riel. See his reference to the republic of rebels led by Riel in Irchan, Tvory v dvokh tomakh, 418.

92. In the original, boliuche-solodko. See I. Iu. Kulyk, Zelene sertse (Kharkiv: Derzhavne vydavnytstvo Ukrainy, 1921), 9 (emphasis added).

93. I. Iu. Kulyk, Votochenni: zbirka tretia (Kharkiv: Derzhavne vydavnytstvo Ukrainy, ¹9²7), 7.

94. Ibid., 72-73.

95. The final words of Kulyk’s long poem are as follows: “Ta tse vzhe ne z Chornoi epopei— / Tse—z Chervonoi” (But this is already not from the Black Epic, / This is from the Red One). See Kulyk, Virshi ta poemy, 185.

96. See Leonid Pervomais’kyi, [Preface], in Ivan Kulyk, Poezii (Kyiv: Radians’kyi pys’- mennyk, i967), i7- i8, and Stepan Kryzhanivs’kyi, Khudozhni vidkryttia: statti z teorii ta is- torii literatury (Kyiv: Radians’kyi pys’mennyk, i965), 28i -283.

97. Cf. Tychyna’s poem penned in i9i8: “Iak upav zhe vin z konia, / Ta i na bilyi snih. / Slava! Slava!”—Pokotylos’ / Ta i liahlo do nih” (When he fell down from his horse / On the white snow / Glory! Glory! It rolled /And lay down at his feet). See Pavlo Tychyna, Zibrannia tvoriv u dvanadtsiaty tomakh (Kyiv: Naukova dumka, 1983), ι: 93.

98. Kulyk, Zelene sertse, 9.

99. Ibid., 10.

too. Kulyk, Votochenni, 67.

ιoι. Ibid., t7.

to2. Ibid.

t03. Some scholars consider this period as the genocide of the Ukrainian nation, see, e.g., Taras Hunczak, Ukraina: pershapolovyna XXstolittia: narysypolitychnoi istorii (Kyiv: Lybid’, t993), t95-203; Subtelny, Ukraine, 403-424. Other scholars see this period as marking a change in the central government’s attitude toward national communism across the country in general and in Ukraine in particular. For a well-balanced and archival-based analysis of the repressions in Ukraine, see Martin, Affirmative Action Empire, 345 - 356.

t04. In the original: “Ale khiba Moskva na myt’ iedynu letom / Zahaialas' u vys,’ koly pir- nula vhlyb?/Ni, ia ne perestav tsvisty iipoetom.” (literally—“her poet”; emphasis added). See Ivan Kulyk, Zmuzhnila molodist’: poezii (Kyiv: Molodyi Bil’shovyk, t935), 4.

t05. Here and elsewhere I owe the differentiation between the all-Russian as imperial, the Russian ethnic and the Ukrainian ethnic as national to an insightful essay by Oleh Ilnytzkyj. See his “Cultural Indeterminacy in the Russian Empire: Nikolai Gogol’ as a Ukrainian PostColonial Writer,” in A World of Slavic Literatures: Essays in Comparative Slavic Studies in Honor of Edward Mozejko, ed. Paul D. Morris (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2002), ^t53^-t7^t.

t06. See TsDAMLMU, f. 302, op. t, spr. 5, ark. t0.

t07. Kulyk, Zmuzhnila molodist’, 20.

t08. See his poems “Lyst V” (The Fifth Letter), “Promova” (Presentation), “Pisnia pro moriaka i pilota” (A Song on a Sailor and an Aviator), “Z poemy ‘Bilomor’ia’” (From the Long Poem “The White Sea”), in Kulyk, Zmuzhnila molodist’, 3-15, 20-23.

t09. Luts’kyi, Literaturna polityka, t26, t30, t37. A keen observer of Kulyk’s behavior during the Ukrainian writers’ meeting with Stalin corroborates Kulyk’s sycophantic gestures, seeVolodymyr Sosiura, Tretia rota: roman (Kyiv: Ukrains’kyi pys’mennyk, t997), 270.

tt0. The original Ukrainian is even more suggestive: “I nyshchyty neshchadno do kintsia!” See Kulyk, Zmuzhnila molodist’, t5.

ttt. See Shkandrij, Modernists, Marxists and the Nation, 36 and 38. See also Kulyk’s lengthy essay dedicated to Blakytnyi’s memory in Ukrainski robitnychi visti, January 9, t926; January t2, t926; January t4, t926.

tt2. See Oleksandr Bilets’kyi, “Dvadtsiat’ rokiv novoi ukrains’koi liryky,” Pluh t (t924): 158-t85, here t82.

tt3. See M. Zerov’s review, see Holosdruku t (t92t): 203-204.

tt4. Iu. Poletyka, [review of the book: I. Kulyk, Zelene sertse], Russkii sovremennik 4 (t924): 250-25t.

tt5. A. Khutorian, “Novyna proletars’koi poezii (I. Kulyk, “V otochenni”),” Literaturna hazeta 15 (October 25, t927).

tt6. M. Dolenho, “Zhovtneva liryka,” Chervonyi shliakh t0 (t924): t63 - t73, here t70.

tt7. M. D. [Dolengo], review of I. Kulyk, Votochenni, in Hart 4- 5 (t927): t3t-t32.

118. Volodymyr Koriak (pseud.: real name—Vol'ko Blumshtein, 1889-1937) was in the early 1920s the head of the Commissariat of Education, and later a member of the Hart, the head of the Department of Ukrainian Literature at the Kharkiv Institute of People's Education, and the director of the cabinet of the post-1917 Ukrainian literature at the Shevchenko Institute of Literature. Accused of “bourgeois nationalism,” he was shot in 1937.

119. Volodymyr Koriak, Ukrains’ka Iiteratura: konspekt (Kharkiv: Derzhavne vydavny- tstvo Ukrainy, 1928), 168.

120. See M. Dolengo, “Kyiv ta Kharkiv—literaturni vzaiemovidnoshennia,” Chervonyi shliakh 6-7 (1923), 154-157, here 156. “The Worker Shura” was translated by Aleksandr Gatov into Russian (the translator did not like Kulyk's poem) and included in a representative Russian-language anthology Antologiia ukrainskoi poezii v russkikh perevodakh, ed. A. Gatov and S. Pilipenko, pref. A. Beletskii (Kiev: Gosizdat, 1924), 126-127.

121. Two others were lengthy poems “Na spolokh” and “Oduzhannia” (Recovery). See M. Plevako, Khrestomatiia novoi ukrains’koi literatury (Kharkiv: Rukh, 1926), 510- 513.

122. See Pavlo Hruns'kyi, “Literaturni sharzhi,” Chervonyishliakh 2 (1923): 67.

123. See Osv[ald] Burghardt (Iurii Klen), [review of the book: I. Kulyk, Antolohiia amerykans’koipoezii, ι8gg-1925], Chervonyishliakh ιι (1928): 274-276.

124. I. Raid, [review of the book: I. Kulyk, “V otochenni”], Molodniak 10 (1927): 129-131.

125. Hr. Maifet, “‘Chorna epopeia' I. Iu. Kulyka,” Chervonyishliakh 3 (1930): 105-123. (Maifet also included the critique of all other reviews of Kulyk's “The Black Epic.”)

126. See Natal'ia Gromova, Uzel. Poety: druzhby i razryvy. Iz literaturnogo byta kontsa 20kh—30-khgg. (Moscow: Ellis Lak, 2006), 305-306.

127. TsDAHOU, f. 263, op. i, spr. 37630, ch. i, ark. 173-173zv.

128. Ibid., ark. 97-126.

129. On this issue, see the article by Luciana Piontek (most likely, by Kulyk himself) entitled “Five Years of the Work at the All-Ukrainian Academy of Sciences,” see “Piat' lit roboty Vseukrains'koi akademii nauk,” Ukrains’ki robitnychi visti 108 (September 27, 1924) and 109 (September 30, i924).

130. In the mid-1920s, Vynnychenko planned to return to Ukraine, especially since the Rukh and Knyhospilka publishing houses started to issue his complete works (almost thirty volumes). See B. Podoliak [Hr. Kostiuk], “Ostannia rezydentsiia V. Vynnychenka,” in Volodymyr Vynnychenko (statti i materialy) (New York: Ukrains'ka vil'na akademiia nauk u SShA, 1953), 17-18. For Kulyk's explanatory note, see TsDAHOU, f. 263, op. i, spr. 37,630, ch. i, ark. 97-126, here 104. Other sources corroborate Kulyk, see Mykyta Shapoval, Shcho- dennyk, 2 vols. (New York: Ukrain'ska hromada im. M. Shapovala, 1958), 2:9.

131. VRILNANU, f. 159, spr. 37 (Postupal'skyi's letter to the CPSU Central Committee, January 26, 1957).

132. See, e.g., Stepan Kryzhanivs'kyi, Khudozhni vidkryttia: statti z teorii i istorii liter- atury (Kyiv: Radians'kyi pys'mennyk, i965), 264-265.

133. Oleksandr Bilets'kyi, “Zhyttia—tvorchist'—revoliutsiia” (Life, Creativity, Revolution), in Poet revoliutsii, ii9.

134. For the picture of the plaque, see Iu. Beider, “Uvichnennia pamiati,” Radians’ke Podillia 135 (July 9, 1967).

135. Beider's book vanished in the drawers ofDnipro Publishers.

136. For seventeen of Leonid Pervomais'kyi's letters to Iukhym (Haim Vol'kovych) Beider written between 1966 and 1972, see Beider's private collection in possession of his widow, Eva Lodzernik (Brooklyn, NY), and son, Vladimir Beider (Jerusalem). The following discussion is based on these unpublished letters.

137. See Iurii Smolych, “Rozpovidi pro nespokii,” in his Tvory v vos’my tomakh (Kyiv: Dnipro, 1986), 7:271 and 7:273-74. Smolych, however, acknowledges Kulyk's delicate and diplomatic management of the literary groups, pp. 574- 575.

Chapter 3. Writing the Body: The Passion and Freedom of Raisa Troianker

1. See TsDAMLMU, f. 169, op. 2, spr. 109 (“Intymna spovid'”), ark. 28-34, here ark.

29. Smolych's memoir partially appeared in Iurii Smolych, “Raia,” Komentar 3 (2003): 15 (published by Iaryna Tsymbal and Mykola Klymchuk). Smolych (1900-1976), a creator of Ukrainian fantasy novels, befriended many Jewish writers and was among very few Ukrainians who penned memoirs on them. Among these unpublished texts is his insightful memoir on Der Nister, TsDAMLMU, f. 169, op. 2, spr. 84 (“Rik v Alma-Ati ta inshi [spohady]”), ark. 175-201. For the examples of conscientious philosemitism of Smolych, see Iurii Smolych, Ia vybyraiu Iiteraturu in his Tvory v vos’my tomakh (Kyiv: Radians'kyi pys'mennyk, 1970), 8:58- 59. Smolych's stance, which did not remain unchanged through his career, was forged by his experience of an actor in a Jewish amateur theater, see ibid., 256, and his Rozpovid' pro nespokii in his Tvory u vos’my tomakh (Kyiv: Dnipro, 1986), 7:333.

2. Based on Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak, A Critique of Postcolonial Reason: Toward a History of the Vanishing Present (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1999), 144, 271, 273.

3. The Troiankers' fate was idiosyncratically Eastern European and Jewish. One of Raisa's brothers was murdered in the civil war pogroms. Her sister Maria lost her mind in late 1910, during a pogrom in Uman, when she saw soldiers raping her friend. Three other members of the family were murdered in the Babi Yar in September i94i. Troianker's granddaughter (the daughter of Olena/Elena Turgan and the Moscow painter Merkulov), a professional actress, performed at Moscow's Sovremennik Theater (Neelova theater cast), appeared in seven feature films (psychological dramas) in the 1980s, and in 1990 settled with her family in Berlin, where she became active as a Russian art journalist and the reporter for the Moscow journal Kultura. Personal correspondence with Alexandra Turgan, December 7, 2004. Private collection of Elena Turgan, courtesy of Alexandra Turgan. Hereafter ETPC.

4. Raisa Troianker, Horyzont (Kharkiv: Derzhavne vydavnytstvo Ukrainy, 1930), 9-10.

5. Raisa Troianker, Povin (Kharkiv: Pluzhanyn, 1928), 23.

6. For her poems based on Jewish themes, see Troianker, Povin, 3 -4, 23 -24, 27-28, and Horyzont, 9-16.

7. See “The School, Where I Learned to Read, Is No More” (Toi shkoly net, / Gde ia chitat' uchilas'), in Raisa Troianker, Surovaia lirika (Murmansk: Poliarnaia pravda, 1942), 40. I thank the Rare Book Division at the Russian National Library for providing me with a copy of Troianker's Russian poetry collection. The copy in National Library bears a handwritten dedication, “To the tender Aleksandr Zharov in memory of the Arctic meetings over one war winter. Raia Troianker. March 17, 1942. Murmansk, on the other side of the Polar Circle.”

8. For an account of Troianker's favorite poets, see Elena Turgan, “Podvig materi” (unpub. essay, i979), l. 6, ETPC.

9. Elena Turgan, “Rasskaz o nepokoe,” an unpublished memoir essay triggered by the publication of Iurii Smolych's memoir “Opovid' pro nespokii” (typescript, ca. 1969), ll. 2-3, ETPC.

10. Troianker, Horyzont, 10.

її. See “Raisa Troianker: Zapadnyi front: Pis'mo ukrotitelia tigrov Dzhordani,” copy by Elena Turgan, ll. i- 3, here l. 3, ETPC.

12. Raisa Troianker, “Zhadka,” Avanhard: Mystets’ki materialy (Kharkiv: n.p., 1929), 91.

13. For the Ukrainian translation of Whitman's poem, see I. Iu. Kulyk, Antolohiia amerykans’koi poezii, 1855-1925 (Kharkiv: Derzhavne vydavnytstvo Ukrainy, 1928), 47-48.

14. Raisa Troianker, “Kapitan i kytaianka,” Biuleten Avanhardu (Kharkiv, 1928), 15. Lio- niu is the vocative of Lionia, the diminutive of Leonid. It is not impossible that this poem had also another addressee, namely, Leonid Chernov (Maloshyichenko), who together with Troianker was a founder and active member of Polishchuk's Avanhard group: Chernov in fact traveled in Indonesia and India. See Iurii Smolych, Rozpovid' pro nespokii, in his Tvory u vos’my tomakh (Kyiv: Dnipro, 1986), 7:248-255.

15. See “Raisa Troianker: Zapadnyi front: Pis'mo ukrotitelia tigrov Jordani” (typescript copy by Elena Turgan), ll. i-3, here 2-3, ETPC. I omitted the most explicit lines.

16. See Smolych, “Intymna spovid',” TsDAMLMU, f. 169, op. 2, spr. 109, ark. 28; corroborated in Elena Turgan, “Rasskaz o nepokoe,” typescript, l. 4, ETPC. See also a photo of Sosiura among Uman-based writers and poets made in July 1926, in TsDAMLMU, f. 44, op. i, spr. 1194, ark. ι-ιzv.

17. See Troianker, Povin', 7-8, and Volodymyr Sosiura, Rozstriliane bezsmertia: Virshi ta poemy (Kyiv: Ukrains'kyi pys'mennyk, 2001), 112-113.

18. See Elena Turgan, “Za strokoi nekrologa: Il'ia Ivanovich Sadofiev” (typescript, unpub. essay, ca. 1969), ll. 1-10, here l. 8, ETPC. In addition to their purported encounter around 1925, Sosiura and Troianker remained good friends, and most likely it was Troianker, already a Leningrad dweller, whom Sosiura met again in Leningrad under funny erotic circumstances. See Sosiura, Tretia rota, 272-273. For Onoprii Turhan, the earliest bibliography is Iv[an] Kapustians'kyi, “Pluzhans'ka tvorchist'” in Pluh 2 (1926): 266-293. Turhan's entry is on p. 289.

19. Troianker, Povin', 23-24.

20. Mordechai Altshuler, Soviet Jewry on the Eve of the Holocaust: A Social and Demographic Profile (Jerusalem: Hebrew University of Jerusalem, 1998), 72-74.

21. See his groundbreaking book Beingfor MyselfAlone (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2005).

22. See memoirs containing analysis of the Berezil Theater in Iurii Sherekh, “Les' Kur- bas i Kharkiv,” in his Poza knyzhkamy i z knyzhok (Kyiv: Chas, ї998), ї73 - ї84; and Iurii Smolych, Rozpovid' pro nespokii in his Tvory u vos’my tomakh (Kyiv: Dnipro, 1986), 7:59-65, 281-333.

23. B. Sim, “Kul'turno-mystets'kyi Kharkiv siohodni,” Chervonyi shliakh ii (1928): 266 -268; for Kharkiv as a new center of Yiddish theater and literature, see Gennadi Estraikh, In Harness: Yiddish Writers’ Romance with Communism (Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 2005), 122-123; for literary impressions of Kharkiv, see Teren' Masenko, Roman pam’iati (Kyiv: Radians'kyi pys'mennyk, i970), 97.

24. Volodymyr Kulish, Slovopro budynok “Slovo:”spohady (Toronto: Homin, 1966), 34- 39, 46, 66 - 67.

25. Masenko, Romanpam’iati, 73-74.

26. See Luts'kyi, Literaturna polityka, 70-78; Vasyl' Myn'ko, Spovid' kolyshnioho pluzhanyna (Kyiv: Radians'kyi pys'mennyk, 1972), 44 - 46, 79 - 80; Smolych, Tvory u vosmy tomakh, 7:239-244.

27. Masenko, Roman pamiati, 94-95; Hryhorii Kostiuk, Zustrichi i proshchannia: Spohady, 2 vols. (Edmonton: Canadian Institute of Ukrainian Studies, 1987), 1:257-258.

28. Leonid Pervomais'kyi, “Kharkiv,” in his Proloh do hory (Kharkiv: Molodyi bil'- shovyk, 1932); Pervomais'kyi changed the last two lines of the poem to “Like a window—wide open—into eternity.” See TsDAMLMU, f. 133, spr. ι (author's corrections of 1945).

29. See D. Feldman, “Prohulianky,” trans. E. Raisin, Literaturnyi iarmarok 9 (1929): 136.

30. Yiddish: fun a nisht vert ayesh geboyrn. See Der Nister, Hoypshtet: fartseykhenungen (Kharkiv: Literatur un kunst, 1934), 7.

31. See Ben-Yaakov [pseud.; real name—Kalman Zingman], In der tsukunft shtot “Edenya” (Khar'kov: Yiddish, 1918), reprinted in a bilingual Hebrew Yiddish edition in Ben- Yaakov, Ba-ir-he-atidedenya: roman (Tel-Aviv: Eked, 1996).

32. See TsDAMLMU, f. 271 (Plevako), op. 2, spr. 15, ark. 15 (V. Polishchuk, “Auto- biohrafiia”), esp. ark. ι-4.

33. This emphasis on the specific, individual, and personal made Polishchuk, among other things, reject the mechanical Bohr-Reserford model of the atom, claiming that even atoms should be different from one another. See Valer'ian Polishchuk, “Koly zhyty—hordo zhyty!” Literaturna spadshchyna: Spohady pro ValePiana Polishchuka (Rivne: Azalia, 1997), 107, 120-128.

34. See Zinovii Sukhodub, “Portret zibranyi po krupynkakh (zamist' peredmovy),” in Polishchuk, “Koly zhyty—hordo zhyty,” 3; Myn'ko, Spovid' kolyshnioho pluzhanyna, 79.

35. Polishchuk compared creative writing and artistic inspiration to erotic ecstasies, see his diaries, TsDAMLMU, f. 136, spr. 7, ark. ι-ιzv.

36. For example, in a poem imitating the Ukrainian song he depicted the irresistible charms of Olena-Rachel and Lida: “Oh, my beautiful sisters, / I have strength to love both / I will live and love, / Once as a lover, once as a brother.” Later Iolon'ka (Olena-Rachel) Konukhes became his legal wife. See Valer'ian Polishchuk, Blazhen, khto mozhe hority, ed. Zinovii Sukhodub (Rivne: Azalia, 1997), 23, and Vitalii Krykunenko, Filosof z holovoiu khlopchyka: Za malovidomymy storinkamy tvorchoi spadshchyny Valer’iana Polishchuka (Moscow: Biblioteka ukrains'koi literatury, 1997), 57.

37. SeeValer'ian Polishchuk, Blazhen, khto mozhe hority, 61-91; for his Talmudic quotes, see pp. 67-68; for his utopian novel, see “Na shliakhu do velykoho maibutnioho: Roman-fantasia” (On the Road toward the Great Future), in TsDAMLMU, f. 136, spr. 95; for his biblical apocrypha, see Valer'ian Polishchuk, Kozub iahid: opovidannia, aforyzmy, bryzky mysli i tvor- chosti, stezhky dumok i alehorii liudyny, iaku zhyttia pryperchylo (Kharkiv: Derzhavne vy- davnytstvo Ukrainy, 1927), 36 -40, and Valerian Polishchuk, Vybukhy syly, poezii 1921 roku (Kyiv-Katerynoslav, n.d.), 7-18. His contemporaries sharply criticized his apology of “onanism and chaotic coitus”; see M. Iohansen, “Erotyzm v novii ukrains'kii poezii,” Zhovten': zbirnyk, prysv’iachenyi rokovynam velykoi proletars’koi revoliutsii (Kharkiv: Vseukrains’kyi Iiteraturnyi komitet khudozhnioho sektora Holovprosvity, 1921), 98 - 99. Accused of pornography, Polishchuk was eventually expelled from the literary group of Ukrainian proletarian writers (VUSPP), see Ilnytzkyj, Ukrainian Futurism, 156.

38. TsDAMLMU, f. 136, spr. 95, ark. 7 (“Na shliakhu do velykoho maibutnioho: romanfantasia”).

39. Oksana Heorhievna Chykalenko, oral communication, May 27, 2005.

40. “Polishchuk with Chernov and Troianker founded the Avanhard, antagonistic to the VUSPP, and to the Politfront, and to the Nova heneratsiia.” See Iurii Smolych, Tvory u vos’my tomakh: Rozpovidpro nespokii (Kyiv: Dnipro, 1986), 7:129. For a sharp criticism of the Avanhard group and Polishchuk’s leadership, see “Avanhardo,” Literaturna hazeta 24 (1928): 2.

41. Hryhorii Kostiuk, Zustrichi iproshchannia: Spohady (Edmonton: Canadian Institute of Ukrainian Studies, 1987), 1:264.

42. TsDAMLMU, f. 271 (Plevako), op. i, spr. 141 (V. L. Polishchuk, Biohrafichni ta bib- liohrafichni vidomosti), ark. 10.

43. Krykunenko, Filosof z holovoiu khlopchyka, 21; TsDAMLMU, f. 136, spr. 4, ark. ι zv.; Masenko, Roman pam’iati, 97; V.M. [Vasyl’ Mysyk] [review of Raisa Troianker, Povin’], in Pluh 10 (1928): 73; Smolych, Tvory u vos’my tomakh, 7:129.

44. See Smolych, “Intymna spovid,’” TsDAMLMU, f. 169, op. 2, spr. 109, ark. 31.

45. Raisa Troianker, Horyzont (Kharkiv: Derzhavne vydavnytstvo Ukrainy, 1930).

46. The way Troianker transcribes Yiddish—Olte un Inge [sic]—reflects the specificali- ties of her oral Yiddish characteristic to Volhynia dialect, the so-called Volhynian Yiddish, see Max Weinreich, History of the Yiddish Language, trans. Shlomo Noble (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1980), 386 - 387, 578 - 580, 681-718.

47. Cf. Iosif Utkin’s Povest o ryzhem Motele, gospodine inspektore, ravine Isaie i komissare Blokh (A Story on Ginger Motele, Mister Inspector, Rabbi Isaiah, and Commissar Blokh), in Iosif Utkin, Stikhotvoreniia i poemy (Moscow: Sovetskii pisatel, 1966), Bol’shaia biblioteka poeta series, 267-287.

48. Cf. Troianker’s somatic metaphors with which she depicts a newly erected edifice in “Moie kokhannia” (My Love), Horyzont, 49 - 50. Cf. technocratic utopianism in Valer’ian Polishchuk, “Radio,” Pluh ι (1928): 38-39, and his Metalevyi tembr: poezii industrial’noi doby (Metalic Timbre: The Poetry of an Industrial Epoch) (Kharkiv: Derzhdrukarnia, 1927), 16- i^{8, 2}5 ^- 39^, 53 ^- 59.

49. Troianker, “Moie siohodennia,” in Horyzont, 52-53.

50. Troianker, “Moia mriia,” in Horyzont, 5i.

51. Ia. Khomenko, [review of Raisa Troianker, Povin’], Krytyka 10 (1928): 138-i4i;V.M. [review of Raisa Troianker, Povin’ ], Pluh 10 (1928): 72-73. Characterization ofVasyl’ Mysyk is from Kostiuk, Zustrichi i proshchannia, 32i.

52. D. Zahul, “Zhinocha liryka,” in Literaturna hazeta i (1929): 5; O. Mak [I. Momot], “Literaturni budni (Shcho spivaiesh, zhovta mandolyno?”) Komsomolets’ Ukrainy (September 22, 1928): 5.

53. Iakiv Savchenko, “Mertve i zhyve v ukrains’kii poezii,” Zhyttia i revoliutsiia i (1929): 118-138; 2 (1929): 122-138. Savchenko made a presentation on this topic in the Blakytnyi House; see a positive review of his appearance that mentions Troianker’s book in Literary Chronicle rubric, Literaturna hazeta 24 (i928): 8.

54. M. Dolengo, “Notatky pro nashu liryku,” Krytyka 9 (1928): 30 -31.

55. Stepan Kryzhanivs'kyi, Spohad i spovid z XXStorichchia (Kyiv: Stylos, 2002), 60.

56. See Iurii Lavrynenko, Rozstriliane vidrodzhennia: Antolohiia, 1917-1933 (Kyiv: Prosvita, 2001), 277-281.

57. M. Bulatovych, “Berdychiv,” in Chervonyishliakh 8-9 (1933): 82-86.

58. O. Lan, “Vinnyts'kii lerusalymtsi,” Zhyttia irevoliutsia 2 (1930): 79-80. For the most representative collection of Lan's poetry, see O. Lan, Vybranipoezii (Cherkasy: Siiach, 1997).

59. David Shneer, Yiddish and the Creation of Soviet Jewish Culture (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004), 112-113.

60. Troianker, Horyzont, 15 -16. Mind the interchangeability of references to two Jewish towns, as if their names convey one and the same meaning: the shtetl.

61. On the Jewish context of this poem, see Leonid Katsis, Osip Mandelshtam: Muskus iudeistva (Moscow: Gesharim; Mosty kultury, 2002), 70-79.

62. Among the eight lines that appeared in the first journal publication but excluded from the book version, Troianker introduced the “black synagogue on festive days,” “the old Jehovah,” a “colorless day,” and a “black [burial] cover.” See Raisa Troianker, “Spohady,” in Shkval 21 (1929): ιι.

63. Troianker, Horyzont, 9-10.

64. Babel, “Gedali,” in his Konarmia: Rasskazy. Zakat (St. Petersburg: Kristall, 2001), ²9 ^- 31.

65. Troianker, Horyzont, 11-12.

66. Ibid., 10.

67. Taras Kuzio, Ukraine: State and Nation Building (London: Routledge, 1998), 218.

68. Iurii Klen (Oswald Burghardt), Vybrani tvory (Drohobych: Kameniar, 2003), 215-216; Oleksa Vlyz'ko, Vybrane (Kyiv: Dnipro, 1988), 30, 38, 74; Volodymyr Sosiura, Mazepa: Poema; Liryka (Kyiv: Dnipro, 2001), 136, 167, 211, 213. On Sosiura's national symbolism, see Serhii Halchenko, “Fenomen talantu, abo zakhaliavna tvorchist' Volodymyra Sosiury,” in Volodymyr Sosiura, Rozstriliane bezsmertia (Kyiv: Ukrains'kyi pys'mennyk, 2001), 5-17, here 12.

69. Ukr.: syniavo-zolotyi, see Horyzont, ιι.

70. Troianker, Povin, 23-24.

71. Ibid., 24.

72. Elena Turgan's four memoir essays were written in the 1960s and 1970s and never published, whereas Iurii Smolych's memoir was written in 1945 -46 and published partially only in 2004. See Elena Turgan, “Rasskaz o nepokoe,” l. 4, ETPC.

73. For more detail, see Smolych, “Intymna spovid,'” TsDAMLMU, f. 169, op. 2, spr. 109, ark. 29 - 30.

74. See Carleton, Sexual Revolution, 38 -47.

75. See “Dyskusia pro ‘kokhannia,'” Zhyttia i revoliutsia 4 (1926): 53-56.

76. Smolych, “Intymna spovid,'” See TsDAMLMU, f. 169, op. 2, spr. 109 (“Intymna spovid'”), ark. 28.

77. Kostiuk, Zustrichi iproshchannia, 1: 204.

78. Dokiia Humenna, Dar Evdotei: Ispyt pam’iati (Baltimore: Smoloskyp, 1990), 253. Humenna mistakenly refers to Luciana Pionteck as Ludmyla.

79. Sosiura, Tretia rota, 237. Sosiura had in mind Iakiv Savchenko's article “Mertve i zhyve v ukrains'kii poezii,” Zhyttia i revoliutsia ι (1929): 118-138; 2 (1929): 122-138.

80. Smolych, “Intymna spovid,’” See TsDAMLMU, f. 169, op. 2, spr. 109 (“Intymna spovid’”), ark. 29 and 31.

81. Troianker, Povin, 7-8.

82. Anna Akhmatova, Stikhotvoreniia ipoemy (Leningrad: Sovetskii pisatel’, 1976), 26-27.

83. Ibid., 34.

84. Ibid., 38.

85. Troianker, Horyzont, 24.

86. Ibid., 26-27.

87. Ibid., 12.

88. Troianker, Povin, ιι.

89. Troianker introduces her poem “Evening” (Vechir) by resorting to a Kiplingesque epigraph from Oleksa Vlyz’ko: “Nam treba kozhnoho soldatom / Na nashi budni i fronty” (Everyone has to be a soldier / On our everyday and on our fronts). See her Povin, 21.

90. Cf. Troianker’s “Leaves Are Falling” and Sosiura’s tango-rhythm poems, such as “Swallows in the Sun” (“Lastivky na sontsi,” 1922) and “Mad Streets, Beloved Streets” (“Vulytsi shaleni, vulytsi kokhani,” 1923). See Sosiura, Rozstriliane bezsmertia, 47.

91. Troianker, Povin, 5.

92. This poem seems to be inspired by a poem Sosiura apparently dedicated to Troianker. He writes: “You are already somebody else’s wife / While I am the famous Ukrainian poet.” Cf. Troianker: “I am now somebody else’s wife. / You have overcome your love.” See Sosiura, Mazepa: liryka, 122, and Troianker, Povin, 18-19.

93. Troianker, Povin, 15.

94. Troianker, “Na paroplavi” (On a Steamship), in Avanhard: Mystets’ki materialy (Kharkiv: n.p., 1929), 92.

95. See “Nichna rozmova,” in Troianker, Horyzont, 41-42.

96. Raisa Troianker, “Nevelychka poema pro staroho profesora,” Mystets’ki materialy avanhardu (Kharkiv: n.p., 1928), 44-45.

97. On Sadofiev in the context of the 1920s Russian literary milieu, see Nikolai Chukovskii, Pravda ipoeziia (Moscow: Pravda, 1987), 23; Nikolai Poletika, Vidennoe iperezhi- toe: iz vospominanii (Tel Aviv: Biblioteka-Aliia, 1982), 243; Igor Diakonov, Kniga vospominanii (St. Petersburg: Evropeiskii dom, 1995), 252.

98. The three other members of the delegation were Boris Lavrenev, Nikolai Braun, and Konstantin Fedin. On their visit to Kharkiv, see Smolych, “Intymna spovid,’” TsDAMLMU, f. 169, op. 2, spr. 109, ark. 30. On Sadofiev’s visit to Kharkiv, see Myn’ko, Spovid’ kolyshnioho pluzhanyna, 114.

99. Smolych recalled that when he met with Troianker and Sadofiev after their marriage, Raia confessed that Sadofiev’s powerful and insatiable sexuality once and for all dissuaded her from having affairs outside of wedlock. See Smolych, “Intymna spovid,’” in TsDAMLMU, f. 169, op. 2, spr. 109, ark. 33.

100. For the relations between Troianker and Sadofiev, see Elena Turgan, “Za strokoi nekrologa: Il’ia Ivanovich Sadofiev” (Behind the Lines of the Eulogy), pp. 1-10. Also see two unpublished Russian poems Troianker dedicated to Sadofiev, “Ia ne mogu uiti ot etikh sten” (I Cannot Leave These Walls, 1934); “Ia, dorogoi, ni o chem ne zhaleiu” (I, Darling, Do Not Regret Anything, 1935), and seven Sadofiev dedicated to Troianker (“Industrial’naia svirel’,” “Ne vsiakii mozhet uviazat’,” “Gde ty,” “Na severnom vetru,” “Raike-liubke,” “Zachem zhestokim nakazaniem,” “Triolety,” ca. 1934-35), typescript, no pagination, in ETPC.

101. Ilnytzkyj, Ukrainian Futurism, 178.

102. Sosiura, Tretia rota, 274.

103. Carleton, Sexual Revolution, 220 -221.

104. See the eight-page children’s book L. Kvitko, Tramvai. Pereklad R. Troianker (Kharkiv: Molodyi bil’shovyk, 1931).

105. Elena Turgan, “Podvig materi” (The Deed of a Mother, a memoir essay, typescript, 1979), ll. 4-7, ETPC.

106. A. A. Sinkliner, Na Vermane “boi mestnogo znachenia”: zapiski voennogoperevodchika (Murmansk: Murmanskoe knizhnoe izdatel’stvo, 1981), 39 - 40, see other quotes from Troi- anker’s poetry, ibid., 54-55.

107. Iu. Zhuchkov, “Zvezda kapitana Khabarova,” Poliarnaiapravda, January 9, 1982.

108. Elena Turgan, “Zolotaia koroleva severa,” l. 4, ETPC.

109. Ibid., l. 3.

110. See her Russian poem “Iz proshlogo,” in Meter, Oktiabrev, Troianker, Koretskii, Sanovich, Khlebnikov, Ermilov, Polishchuk, Radius avangardovtsev: literaturnyi sbornik rus- skoi sektsii (Khar’kov: Izdanie avtorov, 1928), 16.

in. Troianker, Surovaia lirika, 41.

112. For the English version, see Ilia Ehrenburg, Russia at War (London: Hamilton, ⁱ943).

113. “Eto bylo u tikhogo Dona,” (It Was Near the Quiet Don), in Troianker, Surovaia lirika, 54.

114. Unfortunately, the photo of Troinaker and Simonov from the Turgan’s family archive was not recovered, personal interview with Alexandra Turgan, January 26, 2005.

115. Troianker, Surovaia lirika, 40-41. Another example of Troianker’s juxtaposition of the Ukrainian and the Jewish in her Russian lyrics is the poem “on a Jewish girl [Liuba] tortured by fascists in Kiev,” that one of Troianker’s Murmansk colleagues remembered by heart. I was not able to find this poem, and it does not appear in her Russian collection Surovaia lirika. See Irina Kol’tsova’s memoir in Elena Turgan, “Zolotaia koroleva Severa,” l. 3.

116. “Literaturnaia peredacha iz tsikla ‘Muza v voennoi shineli’: Raisa Troianker,” l. 13, ETPC.

117. Alexandra Turgan to Yohanan Petrovsky-Shtern, personal correspondence, December i, 2004, YPSPC.

118. “Neugomon’,” the copy of this poem was preserved in Troianker’s archive. ETPC.

119. See Konstantin Belkhin, Stikhi iz soldatskikh bloknotov (Murmansk: Murmanskoe knizhnoe izdatel’stvo, i965), 57-68 (“Laplandiia” cycle).

120. See the script “Literaturnaia peredacha iz tsikla ‘Muza v voennoi shineli’: Raisa Troianker,” ll. i4-15, ETPC.

121. During the war, Elena Turgan worked in the Murmansk military evacuation hospital no. i44i and was awarded a medal “for the defense of the Soviet Transpolar Region.” See her unpublished memoir essay, “Evakogospital N i44i” (i979), ll. i-4 (44-47).

122. See the literary script “Literaturnaia peredacha iz tsikla ‘Muza v voennoi shineli’: Raisa Troianker” (i979), ll. i -i7, ETPC.

123. See Televidenie i radio (Murmansk) 15 (April 7-i3, 1980).

124. Ivan Turchak, “Poetessa iz Umani,” Raduga ιι (1988): 172; Mykola Sulyma, “Raisa Troianker: ‘Siohodni stalos',” Lel': iliustrovanyi literaturno-khudozhnii ta naukovo-populiarnyi zhurnal pro kokhannia 2 (2000): 5; Oleksandr Kryvenko, “Mii nizhnyi, smuhastyi li- ubovnyku,” in Postup: suspiΓno politychnyi chasopys tovarystva Leva 3-4 (1991): ii. Iurii Smolych, “Raia,” Komentar 3 (2003): 15.

125. Sosiura, Tretia rota, 343n22.

126. See Svitlana Matvienko, “Bereh literatury,” Komentar 3 (2004): 14.

Chapter 4. Being for the Victims: Leonid Pervomais’kyi’s Ethical Responses to Violence

1. Ivan Koshelivets', Rozmovy v dorozi do sebe: frahmenty spohadiv ta inshe (Munich: Suchasnist', 1985), 407; Vadim Skuratovskii, “Ukrainskaia literatura,” in Kratkaia evreiskaia entsiklopediia, 10 vols., ed. Naftali Prat et al. (Jerusalem: Keter, 1976 - 92), 8:1278.

2. See TsDAMLMU, f. 169, op. 2, spr. 1332, ark. 13-14 (December 24, 1942).

3. See Leonid Pervomais'kyi, Khai lyshaet’sia vohon': z neopublikovanoi spadshchyny: Poezii, proza, notatky, lysty (Kyiv: Radians'kyi pys'mennyk, 1983), 134-139.

4. Sergei Parkhomovsky's private collection (hereafter SPPC) includes the whole corpus of Pervomais'kyi's postwar correspondence; his literary drafts; original proofs with author's corrections; unpublished plays such as “The History Teacher, or a Retired Soldier on One Foot”; original papers; memoirs by his daughter; and other invaluable documents. While this chapter was being written, negotiations were underway on the possibility of transferring the archive to Kyiv and placing it under the auspices of the Shevchenko Institute of Literature of the National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine.

5. See Leonid Pervomais'kyi, Tvory v semy tomakh (Kyiv: Dnipro, 1985), 1:165-168, here i66.

6. Ivan Senchenko, Opovidannia, povisti, spohady (Kyiv: Naukova dumka, 1990), 192- i94.

7. Leonid Pervomais'kyi, “Tretia zhinka (miniatiura)” (The Third Woman: A Miniature), Literaturnyi iarmarok: almanakh 2 (January 1929): 137-139, here 137.

8. Pervomais'kyi, Tvory, 1:261-264, here 262; “Z pisen moei materi” (From My Mother's Songs), 7:38i-383; (another essay under the same title), 7:40i -402; also see his variations on the themes of Ukrainian songs, idem., 1:325 -328.

9. TsDAMLMU, f. 133, d. 18 (February 27-November 24, 1949).

10. Leonid Pervomais'kyi, “Zemlia obitovana,”Molodniak i (1927): ii-35; 2(1927): 3- 18, here Molodniak 2 (i927): i3- i5.

11. Apparently Pervomais'kyi discovered Taras Shevchenko through his mother. He recalled that as a child he became an avid reader of “books about great people, about Washington and Franklin, about the Kholmogory moujik Lomonosov, about the blind poet Milton, about the serf Shevchenko.” See Pervomais'kyi, Tvory, 3:i06.

12. See Leonid Pervomais'kyi, “V paliturni,” Molodniak 4 (i928): 7i-80, here 72.

13. “Z Pisni Pisnei: rapsodia,” in Pervomais'kyi, Tvory, 3:94-ii4.

14. Leonid Pervomais'kyi, “V paliturni,” 7i.

15. Babylonian Talmud, Menakhot 29b.

16. Pervomais’kyi, “V paliturni,” 76 (emphasis added). This passage disappeared from later editions of the story. Cf. Pervomais’kyi, Tvory, 3:20.

17. Mention should be made of Isaac Fraifeld (nicknamed “Spartacus”), Pervomais’kyi’s close friend, the only one in his Komsomol milieu who did not mock his poetic talents and who encouraged him to pursue a career in poetry. See Khai Iyshaetsia vohori, 180-181, 192193.

18. “My moloda nevmyrushcha syla, / Nam do staroho nema vorottia” (We are a young immortal force, / There is no return to the past). See Pervomais’kyi, Tvory, 1:46. For an unknown reason, the first edition was co-signed with Ivan Senchenko.

19. Pervomais’kyi, “Zemlia obitovana,” Molodniak 2 (1927): 18.

20. On Pervomais’kyi’s close relations with, and adoration of, these two major literary figures, see his essays “Poezia Ivana Kulyka” and “Iz spohadiv pro Ivana Mykytenka,” in Pervomais’kyi, Tvory, 7:78-88, 88-116.

21. See Sava Holovanivs’kyi, Memorial: spohady (Kyiv: Radians’kyi pys’mennyk, 1988), 14; Pervomais’kyi, Khai lyshaeitsia vohon’, 241 -242.

22. On Pervomais’kyi’s reading his “Kommol’tsi” to Kulyk, see Leonid Pervomais’kyi: Dramaturgi Sovetskoi Ukrainy (Khar’kov: Gosudarstvennyi teatr Russkoi dramy, 1935), 133.

23. For the literary manifesto of the Molodniak group, see Leites, Iashek, Desiat rokiv ukrains’koi literatury, 2:218-219.

24. Oksana Chykalenko, May 14, 2005. Born in 1908, Oxana Chykalenko is the widow of Levko Chykalenko, the secretary of the Central Rada; she served in the late 1920s and 1930s as a Kharkiv-based stenographer of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of Ukraine.

25. “Pochatok Zhyttia: Komsomol’tsi,” See Pervomais’kyi, Tvory, 3:592-657 (first version, “Komsa”). Pervomais’kyi found this play immature, yet he mentioned how its popularity and success was triggered, according to him, by the “repertoire hunger” of Ukrainian theaters in the early 1930s.

26. Pervomais’kyi, Tvory, 3:594-595, 599, 634, 636-637.

27. Leonid Pervomais’kyi, Mistechko Ladeniu (typewritten autograph), ark. 9, SPPC.

28. Pervomais’kyi explained in a note, as he used to do in many cases when he was introducing Jewish terms and notions: “kadish—mourner’s prayer.” See Leonid Pervomais’kyi, Den novyi (Kharkiv: Pluzhanyn, 1927), 7.

29. Jorge Luis Borges, Textos Cautivos: Ensayosy resenas en “ElHogar” (Barcelona: Tus- quets, 1986), 202-203.

30. For more detail, see Yohanan Petrovsky-Shtern, “Odissei sredi kentavrov: evrei i kazaki v KonarmiiBabelia,” Yehupets 9 (2001): 219-228, and idem., “Isaak Vavilonskii: iazyk i stil v Odesskikh rasskazakh Babelia,” Yehupets 13 (2004): 88-100.

31. Leyb Kvitko, Liam un Petrik (Khar’kov: Melukhe-farlag fun Ukraine, 1930); Avrum Veviorka, Der Step Brendt: pyese in drey aktn (Kiev: Kulturlige, 1930); on Jewish Soviet agricultural settlements in southern Ukraine, see Jonathan Dekel-Chen, Farming the Red Land: Jewish Agricultural Colonization and Local Soviet Power, 1924-1941 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2005). For the literary reflections of the “decaying shtetl,” see David Shneer, Yiddish and the Creation of Soviet Jewish Culture, 1918-1930 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004), 185-201.

32. I. Shkarovs’kyi, “Literaturni siluety ievreis’kykh pys’mennykiv,” Literaturna hazeta 1^{2 (l}9²9^): 5.

33. See Leonid Pervomais’kyi, Zemlia obitovana (Kharkiv: Derzhavne vydavnytstvo Ukrainy, 1927); 2d ed., same publishing house, 1930; 3d ed., adapted for children, Kharkiv: Molodyi bil’shovyk, 1931. There were no reprints of this text after 1931, and it was not included in any of the postwar editions of Pervomais’kyi’s writings.

34. Pervomais’kyi, “Zemlia obitovana,” Molodniak 2 (1927): 5.

35. For an analysis of Bogrov’s novel and his Ierukhim, see Yohanan Petrovsky-Shtern, Evrei v russkoi armii, 1827-1914 (Moscow: Novoe literaturnoe obozrenie, 2003), 370-376.

36. Pervomais’kyi, “Zemlia obitovana,”Molodniak ι (1927): ii.

37. On the Ukrainian famine, see Iurii Shapoval, 55 in Soviet Ukraine: A Documentary Collection, trans. Marta D. Olynyk (Kingston, Ont.: Kashtan Press, 2005); Lubomyr Luciuk, Not Worthy: Walter Duranty’s Pulitzer Prize and the New York Times (Kingston, Ont.: Kash- tan Press, 2004); Serhii Bilokin, ed., Holod 19g2-19gg rokiv v Ukraini: prychyny ta naslidky (Kyiv: Naukova dumka, 2003).

38. See Yohanan Petrovsky-Shtern, “Do ievreis’ko-ukrains’koho dialohu: Roman Rakhmannyi,” Yehupets 14 (2004): 353-362.

39. Pervomais’kyi, “Zemlia obitovana,” Molodniak 2 (1927): 16-17.

40. Ibid., 15.

41. A Marxist critic reviewing Pervomais’kyi’s novel published in book format noted that the author portrays his Jewish ghetto with warmth and sympathy. See Vol. Pokal’chuk [review of Pervomais’kyi’s Zemlia obitovana, Kharkiv: DVU, 1927], in Chervonyishliakh 9-10 (1927): 254-255.

42. The play Mistechko Ladeniu appeared in print for the first (and last) time in Leonid Pervomais’kyi, Dramatychni tvory (Kyiv: Molodyi bil’shovyk, 1935), 135-316. I was not able to locate this edition and used Pervomais’kyi’s typewritten copy from SPPC. For the critical feedback on this play, see the Russian-language edition Leonid Pervomaiskii (Khar’kov: Khar’kovskii gosudarstvennyi teatr russkoi dramy, 1935), 40 - 41, 72-73, 82. On failed attempts to put the play on stage at Chernivtsi Musical Drama Theater after World War II, see TsDAMLMU, f. 211, op. 4, spr. 177 (Kazakovs’kyi to Pervomais’kyi, April 3, 1963).

43. Pervomais’kyi, Mistechko Ladeniu, ark. 28, SPPC.

44. All quotes are from ibid., ark. 71-73, 76.

45. For more detail, see Ana Shternshis, Soviet and Kosher (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2006), 27-35, here 34.

46. All quotes are from Mistechko Ladeniu, ark. i, 3-13, 22, SPPC.

47. Both quotes are from ibid., ark. 74.

48. On the phenomenon of surzhyk, a Ukrainian-Russian concoction of first-generation urban dwellers in Ukrainian towns, see Michael Flier, “The Rules of Engagement,” in Zvi Gitelman et al., Cultures and Nations of Central and Eastern Europe: Essays in Honor of Roman Szporluk (Cambridge: Harvard University Press for the Harvard Ukrainian Research Institute, 2000), 113-136.

49. See [Ol.] [review of Leonid Pervomais’kyi, Zemlia obitovana, Kharkiv: DVU, 1927] Chervonyishliakh 9-10 (1927): 254-255.

50. Literaturna hazeta 6 (1927): 5.

51. See Ia. Berdichevskii, “P’iesy Leonida Pervomaiskogo,” in Leonid Pervomais’kyi, Dramaturgisovetskoi Ukrainy (Kharkiv: Teatr Russkoi Dramy, 1935), 41, and A. Bartoshevich, “Siluet dramaturga,” in ibid., 72-73.

52. Pervomais’kyi, Tvory, 3:3-140. Recall that Iliusha was Pervomais’kyi’s real Jewish name.

53. “V paliturni,” in Pervomais’kyi, Tvory, 3:14-27.

54. ^lbid., 74.

55. As the result of this imposition, the Russian (and common Slavic) evrei (Jew), coming from the language of the metropolis, acquired positive or neutral connotations, whereas the Ukrainian and Polish zhyd (yid), originating from a “lower” colonial substratum, turned negative and insulting. On the connotations of “yid” and “Jew,” see John D. Klier. “‘Zhyd,’ the Biography of a Russian Epithet,” Slavonic and East European Review ι (1982): 1-15. Also, see how a leading western Ukrainian writer residing in the Diaspora explains the offensive connotations of the word yavrei and neutral zhyd in Ivan Bahrianyi, Publitsistyka: dopovidi, statti, pamflety, refleksii, esse (Kyiv: Smoloskyp, 1995), 283. For an analysis of these two concepts defining Jews in both the Ukrainian and Russian mentalite, see the somewhat biased yet indispensable publication, Zynovii Knysh, “Ievrei” chy “zhydy” [“Jews” or “Yids”] (Toronto: Sribna surma, 1984); for the discussion of the terms zhyd and evrei in the context of the identity shift from Ruthenians to Ukrainians, see chapter 24 of Yevhen Nakonechnyi, Ukradene im’ia: Chomu rusyny staly ukraintsiamy (L’viv: L’vivs’ka naukova biblioteka im. V. Stefanyka NAN Ukrainy, 2001).

56. A. Klochchia, “Khystkyi mistok” [review of L. Pervomais’kyi, Den’ novyi: opovidan- nia, Pluzhanyn, 1927], Literaturna hazeta 6 (1927): 5.

57. Pervomais’kyi, Tvory, 3:4.

58. Ibid., 3:6.

59. See Iuliia Mirmovich, comp., Obzordokumental’nykh istochnikovpo istorii evreiskoi lit- eratury v fondakh arkhivokhranilishch Kieva (Moscow: Evreiskoe nasledie, 1996), 20-22, “Jewish archive” series, available at http://www.jewish-heritage.org/sea6.htm.

60. TsDAMLMU, f. 211, op. 2, spr. 69, ark. ι-ιι (“Parasol’ka Pinkhusa-Moti,” a typewritten copy with the author’s corrections, 1926; 1958).

61. A comparison of Pervomais’kyi’s final drafts to the texts published in his collected works proves that Soviet censorship meticulously eliminated references to Jewish themes and topics in Pervomais’kyi’s works, even if they were to Komsomol members, Red Army soldiers, or proletarians of Jewish descent. The censor (or the editor) blotted out some explanations from Pervomais’kyi’s eulogy-memoir dedicated to Aron Kopshtein—in particular, those that spelled out Jewish names in Kopshtein’s poetry. See TsDAMLMU, f. 211, op. 2, spr. 147, ark. 4, 6 (“Aron Kopshtein,” February 6, 1941). In certain cases, Pervomais’kyi’s “inner censor” removed some bold descriptions: for instance, he took out a note about David Kanevs’ky’s perception of time as a forthcoming catastrophe, as if it could have provided the impression of a young Jewish poet who prefigures a future unknown to the party and the government. See TsDAMLMU, f. 211, op. 2, spr. 149, ark. 3 (“David Kanevs’kyi”).

62. Iurii Lotman and Boris Uspenskii, “Mif—imia—kultura,” in Uchenye zapiski tar- tuskogo gosudarstvennogo universiteta 308 (1973): 283-303. (Trudy po znakovym sistemam, vol. 6.)

63. Among them Molodniak, Chervonyishliakh, Literaturnyi iarmarok, UZh, Mystetstvo i zhyttia.

64. In the 1920s, Ivan Mazepa (1639-1709) appeared in textbooks in a positive light, as a redeemer of Ukraine; see M. N. Pokrovskii, History of Russia: From the Earliest Times to the Rise of Commercial Capitalism, trans. and ed. J. D. Clarkson and M. R. M. Griffiths (New York: International Publishers, 1931). The book was last published in 1933 and taken out of circulation immediately afterwards.

65. See Dokiia Humenna, DarEvdotei: Ispytpam’iati(Baltimore: Smoloskyp, 199o), 182, 197-212.

66. Pro Leonida PervomaisEoho: spohady, statti, lysty, narysy (Kyiv: Radians’kyi pys’men- nyk, 1978), 31, 116, 158.

67. Pro Leonida PervomaisEoho, 107.

68. See Pervomais’kyi, Tvory, 1:387.

69. For a discussion of Kipling’s characters becoming “cog[s] in the imperialist wheel,” see Zohreh T. Sullivan, Narratives of the Empire: The Fictions of Rudyard Kipling (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993), particularly p. 176.

70. Among the most renowned Russian followers of Kipling’s poetics (perceived through the medium of Nikolai Gumilev, shot in 1919 for an allegedly plotting an anti-Bolshevik coup) were Eduard Bargritskii (1895-1934), Pavel Kogan (1918 - 42), Mikhail Kul’chitskii (1919 - 43), Vladimir Lugovskoi (1891-1957), Nikolai Otrada (1918-40), Konstantin Simonov (1915-79), Boris Slutskii (1919 - 86), Nikolai Tikhonov (1896-1979).

71. Among Ukrainian poets who imitated Kipling were Maksym Ryl’s’kyi, Volodymyr Sosiura, Vasyl Mysyk, Oleksa Vlyz’ko, David Kanevs’kyi, Sava Holovanivs’kyi, Oleh Ol’zhych, and Olena Teliha. See Ihor Kachurovs’kyi, Promenysti sylvety: Lektsii, dopovidi, statti, esei, rozvidky (Beaming Silhouettes: Lectures, Reports, Articles, Essays, Research) (Munich: Ukrainische Freie Universitat, 2002), 437-446.

72. See “Ostannia zustrich” (The Last Meeting, 1937) devoted to Mate Zalka’s death, “V hodyny radisti i smerti” (In the Times of Joy and Death, 1937), “Mozhlyvo v doshch, mozh- lyvo v stuzhu i snih” (Perhaps in Rain, Perhaps in Cold and Snow, 1937) in Pervomais’kyi, Tvory, 1:58 - 60, 114-117, 131-134.

73. Pervomais’kyi, Tvory, 1:130.

74. Cf. Pervomais’kyi’s refrain “The sentinels should not sleep” in ibid., 1:58-60.

75. See “Snih letyt’” in ibid., 1:176.

76. See “Pislia boiv” in ibid., i :240.

77. “Saper i smert.’” See ibid., 1:180-181.

78. Ibid., 1:173-175.

79. Ibid., 1:192 and 1:249.

80. Pervomais’kyi befriended Vlyz’ko, who lived in Kyiv, at one of the Molodniak group meetings during one of Vlyz’ko’s visits to Kharkiv. On their relationship and Pervomais’kyi’s attitude to Vlyz’ko’s poetry, see his memoir “Obitsiannia i zdiisnennia” (Promises and Fulfillment) in Pervomais’kyi, Tvory, 7:116-132.

81. For other Kiplingesque poems, see Pervomais’kyi, Tvory, 1:58-60, 114-117, 131134, 176, 240 -242.

82. Leonid Pervomais’kyi, UchyteT istorii: narys (n.p.: Ukrvydav TsK KP(b)U, 1943), 4. See TsDAMLMU, f. 211, op. 4, spr. 4.

83. TsDAMLMU, f. 211, op. 4, d. 156 (Pervomais’kyi’s “Certificate on the active military service,” i942), ark. i.

84. This piece of earth has been preserved and is now part of the Pervomais’kyi exhibition at the Central National Archive Museum of Literature and Art of Ukraine (TsDAMLMU). For the text of the poem, see Pervomais’kyi, Tvory, 1:512.

85. TsDAMLMU, f. 2ii, op. 2, spr. 195 (“The Inventory Book of the Red Army Commander,” 1945), ark. i.

86. See Pervomais’kyi’s Order Certificates—the Medal for the Defense of Stalingrad, the Medal for the Taking of Budapest, the Medal for the Taking of Vienna, the Medal for the Victory over Germany, the Order and the Medal of the Great Patriotic War of the First Rank, the Medal for the Defense of Kiev—in TsDAMLMU, f. 211, op. 4, spr. 158, ark. i, 4, 5, 6, 7, 9.

87. Il’ia Ehrenburg, “Babii iar,” Stikhotvoreniia i poemy, series “Novaia Biblioteka po- eta” (St. Petersburg: Akademicheskii proekt, 2000), 514.

88. See Szuszana Ozsvath, In the Footsteps of Orpheus: The Life and Times ofMiklos Rad- noti (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2000); George Gomori and Clive Wilmer, eds., The Life and Poetry of Miklos Radnoti (Boulder: East European Monographs, distributed by Columbia University Press, 1999); George Emery, The Poetry of Miklos Radnoti: A Comparative Study (New York: Karz-Cohl, 1986); Shimon Markish, “Primer Miklosha Radnoti (ob ukhodiashchikh),” in his Babel i drugie (Moscow: Gesharim, 1997), 169-180.

89. See Marina Chukovskaia, “Schastlivoe vdokhnovenie,” in Vospominania o Leonide Pervomaiskom (Moscow: Sovetskii pisatel, i986), 284-290, here 289.

90. Pervomais’kyi, Khai lyshaiet’sia vohon, 219 (emphasis in the original). An excerpt from this letter was included in Pervomais’kyi’s selected works as an independent reflection on Radnoti. See Pervomais’kyi, Tvory, 7:409-410.

91. David Samoilov, “Fantasia o Radnoti,” in his Za tret’im perevalom (St. Petersburg: Zhurnal “Neva,” 1998), 30 - 31.

92. Leonid Pervomais’kyi, “V Babynim Iaru,” in Tvory, i:373.

93. Vassili Grosman, Sobranie sochinenii v chetyrekh tomakh, ed. S. Lipkin (Moscow: Vargius/Agraf, 1998), 2:401-414.

94. See Leonid Pervomais’kyi, “Vulytsia Mel’nykova,” in Pervomais’kyi, Tvory, 3:416- 429, and cf. Boris Iampols’kii, “Desiat’ liliputov na odnoi krovati,” in his Iarmarka (Moscow: Vargius, i995), i9i -200.

95. Pervomais’kyi, Tvory, 3:429. Klava’s desire to pass Nastia’s boy for her own apparently is Pervomais’kyi’s oblique reference to the biblical child of Ruth born “to Naomi.” Book of Ruth, 4:16-17.

96. Pervomais’kyi, Tvory, 4:156-162, 197-210.

97. Ibid., 251-252.

98. Ibid., 328.

99. N. Stepanov, “Soldatskoe serdtse (tvorchestvo Leonida Pervomaiskogo), Znamia 5- 6 (1945): 167-172; M. Ushakov, “Zhar-ptytsia,” Literaturna hazeta 23 (September 13, 1945); A. Tarasenkov, “Poet bratskoi Ukrainy,” Izvestiia 305 (December 23, 1945).

100. Literaturnaia gazeta 5 (January 27, 1946); Stepan Kryzhanovskii, “Podvig poeta,” Stalinskoe plemia, February 3, 1946; Leonid Khinkulov, “Voenna proza poeta,” Ukrainian Daily News, June 8, 1947. For more critical responses, see TsDAMLMU, f. 211 (Pervo- mais’kyi), op. 4, spr. 2i5 (critical articles from the newspapers) and TsDAMLMU, f. 2ii (Per- vomais’kyi), op. 2, spr. i97 (articles on Pervomais’kyi’s writings).

101. See references to Pervomais’kyi in A. Korneichuk, O vypolnenii Soiuzom Sovetskikh Pisatelei Ukrainypostanovleniia TsK VKP(b) o zhurnalakh “Zvezda”i “Leningrad”: dokladna plenume SSPU ιg-20 sentiabria 194γg. (Kyiv: Radians'kyi pys'mennyk, i947), 29; O. Korni- ichuk, Stan i cherhovi zavdannia ukrains’koi radians’koi literatury: dopovid’ na Druhomu z’izdi Spilky Radianskykh Pys’mennykiv Ukrainy 6 hrudnia 1948 r. (Kyiv: Radians'kyi pys'mennyk, ¹948), 45.

102. See Jeffrey Veidlinger, “Soviet Jewry as a Diaspora Nationality: The ‘Black Years' Reconsidered,” East European Jewish Affairs i (2003): 4 -29.

103. Holovanivs'kyi also found himself at the epicenter of the campaign. See TsDAMLMU, f. 404, op. 3, spr. 340, ark. i. The state security organs had good reasons to attack Holovanivs'kyi: his telephone book contained phone numbers of the arrested top officials of the Jewish Anti-Fascist Committee, see TsDAMLMU, f. 404, op. 3, spr. 172, ark. 123 and 132 (Sava Holovanivs'kyi, “Zapysni knyzhky, 1939-1943”).

104. See TsDAMLMU, f. 404, op. 3, spr. 124 (A presentation on the meeting of the writers in Minsk, December 24, i948), ark. 2-3.

105. Zarkhiviv VUChK, GPU, NKVD, KGB 3-4 (1998): 50.

106. Sergei Parkhomovsky, oral communication, May 12, 2005.

107. See “Pro odnu antypatriotychnu hrupu teatral'nykh krytykiv,” Radianske mystets- tvo 5 (February 2, i949); this was a reprint from Pravda of January 28, i949.

108. “‘Pidsumky XII plenumu pravlinnia SRP SRSR ta stan i zavdannia teatral'noi i lit- eraturnoi krytyky na Ukrainini,' dopovid' L. D. Dmyterka na II plenumi Pravlinnia SRPU 28 liutoho 1949 r.” Radianske mystetstvo 9 (March 5, 1949).

109. Due to the 1949 accusations, in later publications of the poem Pervomais'kyi had to provide “Sinaia” with a footnote mentioning its geographic location. In addition, he had to eliminate the final stanza, which had particularly irritated the literary and party boss. See Pervomais'kyi, Tvory, 1:225 -226.

110. See Leonid Pervomais'kyi, Bl’oknot blukan’ (Kharkiv: Derzhavne vydavnytstvo Ukrainy, 1931), 3-12, here 11-12.

111. “Rezoliutsia II plenumu Pravlinnia SRPU,” Radians’ke mystetstvo ii (i949). These materials widely circulated among the Ukrainian reading public. See, e.g., Literaturna hazeta 9 (March 5, 1949) and ii (March 17, 1949). Other vicious attacks against Pervomais'kyi followed, see S. Ivanov, “V poloni shkidlyvykh kontseptsii i porochnykh pohliadiv,” (Imprisoned by Harmful Concepts and Offensive Opinions), Vitchyzna 6 (i949): i68-i79.

112. Zarkhiviv VUChK, GPU, NKVD, KGB 3-4 (i998): 64.

113. Stanislav Tsalik and Pylyp Selihei, interview with Bela Kipnis. I thank them for allowing me to use this information from their book project on the Rolit and its famous dwellers.

114. TsDAMLMU, f. 44 (Volodymyr Sosiura), op. 2, spr. 64 (Epigrams), ark. i.

115. For his epigrams written between i949 and i953, see Leonid Pervomais'kyi, Dykyi Pehas (Kyiv: Alterpress, 2004), 65 (the epigram on Lubomyr Dmyterko, the head of the Union of Soviet Writers of Ukraine), 66 (on Pavlo Hapochka, in the late i940s assistant to the CPSU secretary on ideology), 67-68 (on Sheremet et al.), 69-70 (on Lubomyr Dmyterko and Mykola Shamota, one of the most reactionary literary bureaucrats), 70 and 7i (anonymous epigrams on his opponents).

116. Leonid Pervomais'kyi, “Z dytiachoi knyzhky,” Literaturna hazeta 4i (November 25, I953)∙

117. For a very sharp (and objective) portrayal of Sheremet, see Hryhorii Kostiuk, Zus- trichi i proshchannia. Knyha persha (Edmonton: Canadian Institute of Ukrainian Studies, 1987), 156-158.

118. Leonid Pervomais'kyi, “Smert' liryky,” Literaturna hazeta 15 (1929).

119. Mykola Sheremet, “Rozmova z Sel'vins'kym: vidpovid' Pervomais'komu,” Liter- aturna hazeta 16 (1929).

120. Judging on the basis of the epigrams and parodies directed against Sheremet, one may want to argue that in addition to Pervomais'kyi, Sheremet also attacked Ivan Kulyk. See Literaturna hazeta 3 (1930).

121. “Khlib Pana Sheremeta” appeared for the first time in Leonid Pervomais'kyi, Dykyi Pehas, 1924-1964 (Kyiv: Alterpress, 2004), 112-132. All further quotes are from this edition.

122. “Deutschland: Ein Wintermarchen,” in Heinrich Heine, Werke undBrieve (Berlin: Aufbau-Verlag, 1961), 435 - 507.

123. The Complete Poems of Heinrich Heine: A Modern English Version by Hal Draper (Cambridge, Mass.: Suhrkamp / Insel Publishers Boston, 1983), 677-688. Heine's “Disputation” is based on the historically attested 1263 Disputation in Barcelona between Rabbi Nachman (Nachmanides) of Gerona and the cleric Pablo Christiani.

124. Pervomais'kyi, Dykyipehas, 112.

125. “Bo svit tsei—mii, tsei obshyr—mii, / Moia—tsia chorna skyba, / Mii trud, mii khlib—i ty ne smii / Torkatys' tsioho khliba.” Pervomais'kyi, Dykyi Pehas, 118.

126. This it most likely an allegoric reference to the Itzik Fefer's Yiddish translations from Pervomais'kyi's Ukrainian lyrics. See Leonid Pervomays'kyi, Mayn muntere yugnt: Lider (Kharkiv: Literatur un kunst, 1934).

127. This idea is replicated in Pervomais'kyi's notes on the origins of human language, see Tvory, 7:381.

128. TsDAMLMU, f. 404, op. 3, spr. 188 (Letters of Holovanivs'kyi to Ehrenburg, December 22, 1962), ark. 2 (original in Russian).

129. See Margarita Aliger, “Sorok let,” in Vospominaniia o Leonide Pervomaiskom, 196- 213, here 204.

130. Cf. Pervomais'kyi's letter to Antokol'skii, February 6, i960, in Khai lyshaet’sia vo- hon^,, 179.

131. Mykola Umnyk, “Z hlybyn poezii” (From the Depth of the Poetry), Radians’ka Ukraina 205 (September i, 1957); Stepan Kryzhanivs'kyi, “Uiavlennia pro shchastia” (The Image of Happiness), Literaturna hazeta 38 (May 16, 1958); Mykola Rudenko, “Shliakh do vershyn” (A Road to the Pinnacles), Literaturna hazeta 38 (May 16, 1958); Leonid Vy- sheslavs'kyi, “Hlyboka poezia” (A Profound Poetry), Radians’ka Ukraina 115 (May 17, 1958); Sava Holovanivs'kyi, “Pro Leonida Pervomais'koho” (On Leonid Pervomais'kyi), Radians’ka kul’tura 40 (May 18, 1958). See TsDAMLMU, f. 211, op. 2, spr. 197 (articles on Pervo- mais'kyi's creative writings).

132. See Leonid Pervomais'kyi, “Po maisterniakh myttsiv,” Literaturna hazeta 10 (March 8, 1956); “Po maisterniakh myttsiv: u Dmytra Shavykina,” Literaturna hazeta ii (March 15, 1956); “Po maisterniakh myttsiv: u Volodymyra Kostets'koho,” Literaturna hazeta 13 (March 28, 1956); “Peizazhi Mykoly Hlushchenka,” Literaturna hazeta 25 (June 21, 1956).

133. On the popularity of Heine in Russian culture, see the three-volume work by Iakov Gordon, Geine v Rossii: 1830-1860-e gody (Dushanbe: Irfon, 1973); idem., Geine v Rossii: 1870-1917 (Dushanbe: Donish, 1979); idem., Geine v Rossii, XX vek (Dushanbe: Donish, 1983). See also the seven-hundred-page bibliography of Heine's translations into Russian and secondary sources on his impact on Russian literature in A. G. Levinton, ed., Genrikh Geine: bibliografiia russkikh perevodov i kriticheskoi Iiteratury na russkom iazyke (Moskva: Vsesoiuz- naia Biblioteka Inostrannoi Literatury, 1958); on a unique case of Heine-esque Soviet poetry in the 1920s, see Miron Petrovskii, “Vladimir Maiakovskii i Genrikh Geine,” Voprosy liter- atury 7 (1983): 154-180.

134. The essay was written in September 1928 and published in Leonid Pervomais'kyi, “Romantychni zustrichi,” Hart 10 (1928): 67-83, here 83.

135. See L. Pervomais'kyi, “lakhta ‘Adnan,'” Chervonyishliakh 2 (1930): 45.

136. See Leonid Pervomais'kyi, “Novyi chotyrytomnyk Heine ukrains'koiu movoiu,” in his Khai lyshaet’sia vohon’, 153-164.

137. See his letter to A. Deytch of April i, 1971. Ibid., 222-223.

138. See his letter to Ie. Tardova of November 13, 1971, where he mentions “14,000 lines” that he has to edit for this project. Ibid., 242-243.

139. Pervomais'kyi, Khai lyshaetsia vohon, 34-35.

140. See “Nepodolanyi,” dedicated to Heinrich Heine, Pervomais'kyi, Tvory, 1:448-450.

141. See “Voskresy, mene, maibutnie” (Revive Me from the Dead, the Future) in Pervomais'kyi, Khai lyshaeitsia vohon, 27-29. Written in 1964 and published posthumously in 1983, this unnamed poem was dedicated to the Babi Yar, according to Sergei Parkhomovsky.

142. See Pervomais'kyi, Tvory, 1:363, 367.

143. Ibid., 1:364, 365-366, 402.

144. Pervomais'kyi was harshly criticized for this poem. See O. Mykhalevych, “Vslukh- aiuchys' v khody 1958-ho,” Literaturna hazeta, July 18, 1958. An official literary biographer of Pervomais'kyi laments Perovmais'kyi's “decadent” motifs and finds solidarity with this critique. See A. Kudin, “Leonid Pervomaiskii," in Literaturnye portrety: kritiko-biograficheskie ocherki, 2 vols. (Kiev: Radians'kyi pys'mennyk, i960), 1:589-619, here 618. See also Pervo- mais'kyi's bitter complaint in his letter to V. Zviagintseva, October 13, i960, in Ievhen Pri- sovs'kyi, “Z lystuvannia Leonida Pervomais'koho,” Slovo i chas 6 (1996), 64-69, here 65.

145. “Zasnizhylo, prymorozylo,” in Pervomais'kyi, Tvory, 1:349-350 and “Mertva knyha,” ibid., 1:415-416.

146. See “Nemov po zaminovanomu poliu,” in ibid., 1:455-456.

147. See “Koly b meni korylysia slova,” in ibid., i :399.

148. Pervomais'kyi, Tvory, 1:361.

149. Ibid., 1:364.

150. Pro Leonida Pervomais’koho, 72.

151. See Uroky poezii in Pervomais'kyi, Tvory, 1:396-397. Here I am citing Peter Tempest's translation from Poetry of Soviet Ukraine’s New World: An Anthology (Woodchurch, Ashford, Kent: Paul Norbury Publications for UNESCO, 1986), 113.

152. See “Servantes v Alzhiri,” in Pervomais'kyi, Tvory, 1:384-385.

153. Besides the texts already discussed, there are a number of others that must be included in any more extensive discussion of Pervomais'kyi's contribution to the Ukrainian- Jewish literary tradition. Among others, one should consider the Jewish ballads from the collection From the Depth: The Ballads of the Peoples of the World (Pervomais'kyi, Tvory, 5:180-185); the translations from Heine (Pervomais'kyi, Tvory, 6:249-324); the image of Gedalia from the drama Oleksa Dovbush (1941), an innkeeper who hides from persecution the leader of a Ukrainian peasant revolt (Pervomais’kyi, Tvory, 2:371-518, particularly 419- 436); Jewish literary figures in the selected memoirs, e.g., Eduard Bagritskii (ibid., 7:98-100); Aron Kopshtein, a Ukrainian-Jewish poet who perished in the Russo-Finnish war (ibid., 7:142-148); David Kanevs’kyi, a poet and war correspondent who perished in Hungary (ibid., 7:148-153); Zinovii Tolkachev, a renowned etcher and painter (ibid., 7:361-368). Some of Pervomais’kyi’s essays on Jewish themes were not incorporated into his seven-volume Selected Writings, e.g., his preface to Oswiecim, the album of Zinovii Tolkachev’s pictures (mentioned in Tolkachov’s memoir essay, see Pro Leonida Pervomais’koho, 221-222).

154. Pervomais’kyi penned some excellent translations from Yiddish poets, see TsDAMLMU, f. 211, op. 4, spr. 35, ark. 1-12 (Fefer); f. 211, op. 4, spr. 33, ark. i-8 (Hof- shteyn); f. 211, op. 4, spr. 34, ark. ι (Lopata).

155. For a brief discussion of the pogromist article “Paperovi kvity poezii” (The Paper Flowers of Poetry) by Musii Bohuts’kyi, which appeared in the daily Vechirnii Kyiv two months before Pervomais’kyi’s death, see Fishbein, Apokryf: poezii, pereklady, proza (Apocrypha: Poetry, Translations, Prose) (Kyiv: Dovira, 1996), 226 -227.

156. Ibid., 224-29 and a poem devoted to Pervomais’kyi’s memory, ibid., 37.

157. TsDAMLMU, f. 169, op. 2, spr. 1332, ark. 233-234.

Chapter 5. A Messiah from Czernowitz: The Language and Faith of Moisei Fishbein

1. Moisei Fishbein, “The Plane in Search of an Airfield,” interview by Lesia Hanzha, Den 24 (January 10, 1999).

2. All quotes are from Moisei Fishbein, Apokryf: Poezii, pereklady, proza (Kyiv: Dovira, i996), 9, i2.

3. “Moshe, ata lo yehudi, ata ha-yehudi.” Moisei Fishbein, oral communication, September 18, 2005, YPSPC.

4. For the difference between integration, acculturation, and assimilation in the East European Jewish context, see Benjamin Nathans, Beyond the Pale: the Jewish Encounter with Late Imperial Russia (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2002), 11-12.

5. See Steven Zipperstein, Elusive Prophet: Ahad Ha-am and the Origins of Zionism (London: Halban, i993).

6. For the first publication, see Moisei Fishbein, Iambove kolo (Iambic Circle) (Kyiv: Molod, 1974), 14; for the revised version, “Khlib 1947-ho roku” (The Bread of 1947), see his Apokryf, 47.

7. Fishbein, Apokryf, i2i.

8. In the German original, Vierliederland. Auslander implies German, Romanian, Ukrainian, and Yiddish. See Roza Auslender/Rose Auslander, Phonixzeit/Chas Feniksa (Chernivtsi: Molodyi Bukovynets’, 1998), 106-107, 206-207, 208-209.

9. Drozdowski repeatedly draws parallels between Czernowitz and the Austrian Empire, see his Damals in Czernowitz undrundum: Erinnerungen einesAltosterreichers (Klagenfurt: Kleinen Zeitung, 1984). On his multiculturalism, see Petro Rykhlo, “la vse shche viriu, shcho Orfei spivaie,” in Drozdowski, Todi v Chernivtsiakh i dovkola: Spohady staroho avstriitsia (Chernivtsi: Molodyi Bukovynets’, 200i), 8.

10. Moisei Loev, Ukradennaia muza: Vospominania o Kievskom gosudarstvennom evreiskom teatre imeni Sholom-Aleikhema. Khar’kov-Kiev-Chernovtsy, 1923-1950 gg. (Kyiv: Dukh i litera, 2003), 124.

11. See Israel Chalfen, Paul Celan: A Biography of His Youth, trans. Maximilian Bleyleben (New York: Persea, 2001), 42-43.

12. It was built in the Moorish style by L’viv architect Julian Zacharewicz. For a briefdescription of the building and its appearance before and after communist reconstruction, see Dmytro Tanashchyk, ed., Chernivtsi (Chernivtsi: Zoloti litavry, 2000), 42-43.

13. Martin Buber, Mein Weg zum Chassidismus: Errinnerungen (Frankfurt: Rutten & Loening, 1918), 12-13.

14. See Paul Celan, Gesammelte Werke in funfBanden, ed. Beda Allemann und Stefan Reichert (Frankfurt am Main: Suhrkamp, 1983), 3: 229. For a path-breaking collection of documents on Celan’s life in Bukovina, see Axel Gellhaus, PaulAntschel/Paul Celan in Czernowitz, special issue of Marbacher Magazine 90 (2000).

15. See Auslander’s “Czernowitz,” “Der Vater,” “Sadagorer Chassid,” “In Memoriam Chane Rauchwerger,” in Phonixzeit/Chas Feniksa, 30-31,40-41,42-43, 238-239.

16. Fishbein, Apokryf, 16. Cf. “As long as we live, in our night dreams / We will see Cher- nivtsi, if not the Dnieper.” See the poem “Ekzil” (Exile, 1999), in Moisei Fishbein, Roz- porosheni tini (L’viv: Kalvaria; Suchasnist', 2001), 21-22.

17. Itzik Manger, The World According to Itzik: Selected Poetry and Prose, trans. and ed. Leonard Wolf, intro. David Roskies and Leonard Wolf (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2002), i27.

18. See the interview with him “Ich freue mich, das ich ein jiddischer Schriftsteller bin,” in “Czernowitz is gewen an alte, jidische Schtot” (Berlin: Heinrich-Boll-Stiftun, 1999), 16-18.

19. Mosiei Fishbein, oral communication, October 2, 2005, YPSPC.

20. Moisei Loev (Brooklyn, NY), oral communication, September 22, 2005.

21. On the hybrid (fusion language) surzhyk, see Michael Flier, “Surzhyk: The Rules of Engagement,” in Cultures and Nations of Central and Eastern Europe: Essays in Honor of Roman Szporluk, ed. Zvi Gitelman, Lubomyr Hajda, John-Paul Himka, Roman Solchanyk (Cambridge: Harvard Uninversity Press for the Harvard Ukrainian Research Institute, 2000), ιi3-136.

22. Moisei Fishbein, Rannii rai (Kyiv: Fakt, 2006), 374.

23. The theatrical studio of Valentina Bezpoliotova was a springboard for dozens of talented directors, actors, and literati working in Israel, Russia, Ukraine, and so on. On Bezpo- liotova’s contribution to Chernivtsi cultural life, see Chas 2000 16 (2005).

24. Fishbein, Apokryf, 203.

25. Moisei Fishbein, oral communication, September 13, 2005, YPSPC. Names and characteristics of the people mentioned double-checked thanks to the input of Moisei Loev, oral communication, September 22 and 25, 2005.

26. See Alice S. Nakhimovsky, Russian-Jewish Literature and Identity: Jabotinsky, Babel, Grossman, Galich, Roziner, Markish (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, i992). For Galich’s compositions on Jewish themes, see his Sochineniia, 2 vols. (Moscow: Lokid, i999), ^l:3⁰3 ^- 33^1.

27. Later the leader of the popular Rukh movement, in the i990s Drach borrowed Fish- bein’s images comparing Kyiv and Jerusalem, the Dnieper and the Jordan, and developed them in his poetry. See his Sizifiv mech (Kyiv: Ukrains’kyi pys’mennyk, 1999), 5 and 12.

28. See Kyseliov's “la pozabudu vse obidy” (I Will Forget All the Offenses), see Til’ky dvichizhyvemo: virshi, proza, spohady propoeta (We Live Only Twice: Poems, Prose and Memoirs about the Poet) (Kyiv: Dnipro, 1991), 93.

29. See Iaroslav Rozumnyi, “Leonid Kyseliov—fenomen poetychnyi chy psykholohich- nyi?” in Kyseliov, Til’ky dvichizhyvemo, 350-370, here 351.

30. See Ivan Dziuba, “Leonid Kyseliov z druhoi plovyny dvadtsiatoho viku,” in Kyseliov, Til’ky dvichi zhyvemo, 9 -28, here 26. For his anticolonial verse directed against imperial mistreatment of Ukraine and Ukrainians, see his “V piatdesiat vtorom, kholodnom, trudnom” (In 1952, Cold, Hard), “Tsiriul'niki” (Barbers), “Tsari” (The Tsars), “Stikhi o Tarase Shevchenko” (Poems on Taras Shevchenko), “Po loskutkam, po lomtikam,” (By Shreds, by Pieces), in ibid., 71, 109-110, 116-117, 118-119, 139. Perhaps Fishbein's imagery of black and white goes back, among other things, to Kyseliov's classic “Til'ky dvichi zhyvemo” (Only Twice We Live, 1968) while radically changing Kyseliov's axiological parameters.

31. Conversation with Moisei Fishbein, October 2, 2005, YPSPC.

32. See Subtelny, Ukraine, 496-509.

33. Fishbein, Apokryf, 218.

34. See Internationalism or Russification? A Study in the Soviet Nationalities Problem, ed. M. Davies, pref. Peter Archer (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1968).

35. Published for the first time in Slovo 1349, October 8, 1967. It has been reprinted in Suchasnist' it (82) (1967): 32-35, in a number of Dziuba's works in the West, and later in a number of Ukrainian editions, such as Taras Hunczak, ed., Tysiacha rokiv ukrains’koi natsion- al’noi suspil’no-politychnoi dumky, 9 vols. (Kyiv: Dnipro, 2001), 8:224. See also Ivan Dziuba, “Pisliaslovo do publikatsii vystupu v Babynomu Iaru 29 veresnia 1966 roku,” Yehupets i ^(t995^{): 8 -} 9.

36. See Hunczak, Tysiacha rokiv, 8:216-217; Viacheslav Chornovil, Lykho z rozumu (portrety dvadtsiaty “zlochyntsiv”) (Paris: Persha Ukrains'ka Drukarnia u Frantsii, 1968), 83- 9², ^t55^-t5⁶.

37. Leonid Pliushch, Na karnavale istorii (London: Overseas Publication Interchange, 1979), 86- 87, 197 (on his rejection of antisemitism); 194 (on his own early antisemitism); i96 - i97, 343 - 344 (on Babi Yar); 26i, 287-288 (on his participation in the defense of Boris Kochubievs'kyi); 449-452 (on Semen Gluzman).

38. Iosif Zisels, Esli ia tol’ko dlia sebia... (Kyiv: Instytut Iudaiky, 2000), 37-38.

39. See See Bohdan Nahaylo, “Ukrainian Dissent and Opposition after Shelest,” in Ukraine after Shelest, ed. Bohdan Krawchenko (Edmonton: Canadian Institute of Ukrainian Studies, University of Alberta, 1983), 30 - 54.

40. For more detail on the context of the Ukrainian-Jewish rapprochement in the Gulag, see Yohanan Petrovsky-Shtern, “Jews in Ukrainian Thought: Between the 1940s and the 1990s,” Ukrainian Quarterly 3-4 (Fall-Winter 2004): 231-270.

41. For preliminary approaches to this issue, see Israel Kleiner, “The Jewish Question and Ukrainian-Jewish Relations in Ukrainian Samizdat,” in Ukrainian-Jewish Relations in Historical Perspective, ed. Peter Potichnyj and Howard Aster (Edmonton: Canadian Institute of Ukrainian Studies, University of Alberta, 1988), 421-436.

42. Mykola Bazhan started as a Neoclassicist: his early poetry exerted a significant influence on Fishbein. Married to a Jew, Nina Lauer, Bazhan was known as a consistent phi- losemite. He penned a number of texts on Jewish issues, including a long poem on the Babi Yar and an insightful essay on Sholem Aleichem, in which he discussed the impact of Ukrainian culture on the Yiddish writer's language and imagery. See “Iar” (Ravine) in Mykola Bazhan, Tvory v chotyriokh tomakh (Kyiv: Dnipro, 1984), 1:291-293, and “Velykyi ievreis'kyi pys'mennyk (Pro Sholom-Aleikhema)" (The Great Jewish Writer: On Sholem Aleichem), in Mykola Bazhan, Tvory v chotyriokh tomakh (Kyiv: Dnipro, 1985), 4:159-187. Bazhan also translated Henrich Heine's “Disputation" on Jewish themes, was the first to introduce Paul Celan to Ukrainian readers, and suggested that local Chernivtsi literati should look for surviving traces of Celan's Chernivtsi period. See his translations of Celan, “Todesfuge" included; Tvory (Kyiv: Dnipro, 1985), 2:531-536.

43. See Mykola Lukash, Vid Bokachchio do Apollinera: pereklady (From Boccaccio to Ap- polinaire: Translations) (Kyiv: Dovira, 1990). On Fishbein's attitude to Lukash, see his Apokryf, 219-224. See also the most recent essay on Lukash's contribution to Ukrainian culture: Vadim Skuratovskii, “K poiavleniu odnogo bibliograficheskogo ukazatelia" (On the Publication of a Bibliographical Guide), Stolichnye novosti 42 (November 25-December 2, 2003). On Fishbein's attitude to Lukash, see his Apokryf, 219 -224.

44. See Mykola Lukash, “Shpyhachky" (Pins) in Yehupets ii (Kyiv: Instytut Iudaiky, 2003), 289. Consider the change of the one sound that transforms “idesh" (leaving) into “idysh" (Yiddish).

45. Fishbein, Apokryf, 224-225.

46. Ibid., 228 -229. For the official Soviet-style eulogies and the account of the funerals of Leonid Pervomais'kyi, see Literaturna Ukraina 90 (December 14, 1973), 2 (reflections of Mykola Bazhan, Sava Holovanivs'kyi, Viktor Kochevs'kyi, Mykola Nahnybida, Dmytro Pavlychko and others).

47. Fishbein, Apokryf, 223.

48. Ibid., 36.

49. Moisei Fishbein, [Debiut v Vitchyzni], Vitchyzna 12 (1970), 13.

50. Bazhan's preface was eliminated in the second part of the circulation because he compared the younger generation of Ukrainian poets to the “gloomy" Ievhen Pluzhnyk, shot in 1936. The copy Fishbein presented to Dmytro Pavlychko, latter donated to the Kyiv Mohyla Academy library (Pav 821.161.2/189983), does not contain Bazhan's preface.

51. Fishbein, Iambic Circle, ii.

52. See Moisei Fishbein, Iambove kolo: Poezii, pereklady (The Iambic Circle: Poems and Translations) (Kyiv: Molod, 1974), 5, 6, 10, 14, 20, 26, 34.

53. See Zhanna Kovba, Mytropolyt Andrii Sheptytskyi: Dokumenty i materialy. 19411944 (Kyiv: Dukh i litera, 2003). For the discussion of this issue between the champions of the Ukrainian-Israeli dialogue and the Israeli establishment, see the documents gathered by Iakiv Suslens'kyi in the journal Diialohy (Dialogues) 3 - 4 (1983): 65 - 67; 5 - 6 (1984): 49 - 60; 17-18 (1988): 27-37; 11-12 (1986): 80-85.

54. See Fishbein's “Ne pidtrymuvaty siohodni Viktora Iushchenka—tse natsional'nyi mazokhizm," (Not to Support Victor Yuschenko Today Is National Masochism), Ukraina moloda 129 (July 15, 2005).

55. The article on Fishbein written by one of these scholars appeared only after Fishbein reestablished his reputation in Ukraine. See Wolf Moskovich, “The Axis Jerusalem-Kyiv in the Works of the Ukrainian Emigre Poet Moisei Fishbein," Jews and Slavs 6 (1999): 389 - 399.

56. Like Shevchenko, Vasyl' Stus died at forty-seven but never made it out of the colony.

By the time Fishbein spoke with Kheifets, Stus was already deadly sick yet was not allowed to obtain medicine from home. See Khronika taborovykh budniv (Munich: Suchasnist', 1976), 77, 84, 96, ioi, 108, no, 113.

57. Conversation with Moisei Fishbein, October 2, 2003, YPSPC.

58. The Ukrainian version of Kheifets's book was first published as Ukraiins^,ky siliuety (Munich: Suchasnist', 1984) and was reprinted in Ukraine in the almanac Pole vidchaiu i nadii: Almanach (Kyiv, 1994), 137-392.

59. Moisei Fishbein, “Vidstan' piznannia” (The Distance of Knowledge), Suchasnist' 6 (1980): 33-39; see also Moisei Fishbein, Rannii rai (Kyiv: Fakt, 2006), 415-423.

60. For a facsimile of this recommendation, written on 5 January 1976, see Fishbein, Apokryf, 220 -2i.

61. “Also pay attention to M. Fishbein's poems: they are published immediately after M. Vinhranovs'kyi. What a fresh, exquisite poetic talent! This is particularly pleasing because the Jews have not recently supplied Ukrainian culture with significant talents like they did in the 1920s and 1930s, and suddenly—such an unexpected surprise!” (From a letter by Ivan Svitlychnyi to his wife Leonida Pavlivna from correction colony VS 389/35, May 31, 1975. For a facsimile of the letter, see Fishbein, Apokryf, 62).

62. Iurii Sheveliov, “U sprobi nazvaty” (In an Attempt to Name), in Moisei Fishbein, Zbirka bez nazvy (An Unnamed Collection) (Munich: Suchasnist', i984), 7- i4.

63. Victoria A. Babenko-Woodbury, [Moisei Fishbein, Zbirka bez nazvy. New York: Suchasnist, 1984], World Literature Today 2 (1985): 289-290.

64. M. Strikha, “‘Apokryf' Moiseia Fishbeina,” in Khronika-2000: Ukrains’kyi kul’tur- olohichnyi al’manakh 21-22 (1998): 462.

65. For Skuratovs'kyi's writings on Jewish themes, see, e.g., his Problema avtorstva “Pro- tokolov sionskikh mudretsov” (The Problem of the Authorship of the “Protocols of the Elders of Zion”) (Kyiv: Dukh i Litera, 2001), and the review of his book in Yohanan Petrovsky- Shtern, “Contextualizing the Mystery: Three Approaches to the Protocols of the Elders of Zion," KRITIKA: Explorations in Russian and Eurasian History 2 (2003): 395 -409.

66. Vadym Skurativs'kyi, “Na perekhrestiakh dushi” (At the Crossroads of the Soul), Suchasnist' 12 (1996): 86-89.

67. Slovo prosvity 25 (245) (June 17-18, 2004).

68. Viktor Radutskii, “Moisei Fishbein,” Kratkaia evreiskaia entsiklopediia, 8:196-197; Yohanan Petrovsky-Shtern, “Moisei Fishbein,” Encyclopedia of Modern Jewish Culture, 2 vols., ed. Glenda Abramson (London: Routledge, 2005), 1:270 -271.

69. Lesia Hanzha, “Roza s anemonami” (Rose with Anemones), Stolichnye novosti 18 (May i5 -20, 200i).

70. “Vid Moiseia” [Moisei Fishbein], Aferyzmy (Pseudo-Aphorisms) (Kyiv: Fakt, 2003).

71. Moisei Fishbein, “O slavo sviat” (Oh, the Glory of the Holidays), from the poetic series “Shtuchky” (Trifles), October 17, 2005, YPSPC.

72. “Netorkani i zhvaltovani, zuzhyti” (Untouched and Raped, Worn Out), see Apokryf, 12.

73. See Fishbein, Apokryf, 45 (emphasis added). Miriam is not only a biblical reference but also one from Lesia Ukrainka, who portrayed a Judaized Mary by making her into a Miriam who speaks with Jesus (addressed in the poetic drama as “Messiah”). See her “Oderzhyma” (Possessed, i90i).

74. “Shche nimota molytvy na vustakh.” See Fishbein, Apokryf, 23.

75. Translated by Bohdan Boychuk and J. Kates. See Ol’ha Luchuk and Mykhailo Nay- dan, A Hundred Years of Youth: A Bilingual Anthology of Twentieth-Century Ukrainian Poetry (L’viv: Lytopys, 2000), 508- 509. Also see “I solodko vid prysmaku skorboty...” (And It Is Sweet Due to the Taste of Grief), Apokryf, 19. Note that the poem is dated late July 1991, a month before the demise of communism in Ukraine.

76. Note Fishbein’s “dead Christ” and the multiple references to a God who suffers and dies but is not resuscitated. Cf. similar theme of a nonresuscitated Christ in late Pervo- mais’kyi’s poetry, “Zniatie so khresta,” TsDAMLMU, f. 169, op. 2, spr. 1332, ark. 233 -234.

77. In response to a message I wrote in Ukrainian—which I had barely used for years— Fishbein replied in Hebrew: “Ata lo shakhakhta ukrainit. Metsuyan! Kol ha-kavod!” (You have not forgotten Ukrainian. Excellent! Good for you!). Moisei Fishbein to Yohanan Petrov- sky-Shtern, November 3, 2002, YPSPC.

78. Previously elaborated parallels, such as Bulgakov’s, presented Jerusalem and Kiev as two provincial towns of two empires, Roman/Christian and Russian/Eastern Orthodox: they disregarded Israeli/Jewish and Ukrainian features of the two cities. For more detail on Bulgakov’s treatment of Kiev, see Miron Petrovskii, Master i gorod: Kievskie konteksty Mikhaila Bulgakova (The Master and the City: Kiev Contexts of Mikhail Bulgakov) (Kyiv: Dukh i litera, 2001), 270-277. For the alternative vision, see Roman Rakhmannyi, “Dolia Ieru- salymu—dolia Kyeva i L’vova” (The Fate of Jerusalem Is the Fate of Kyiv and L’viv), Nat- sional’na trybuna, December i, 1985. Fishbein certainly knew about Bulgakov’s treatment of Kyiv yet perhaps did not know about Rakhmannyi.

79. See “I vzhe vusta sudomoiu zvelo” and “Shche teploho Velykodnia pora,” in Apokryf, 10-ii. Here translated by Bohdan Boychuk and J. Kates. See Luchuk and Naydan, Hundred Years of Youth, 506 - 507.

80. Blahoslovy: khai lyshat’sia meni—note the plural of the Ukrainian verb, “Oh, bless: may they remain with me.”

81. A more accurate version would be: “As long as we, people, walk the world, as long as we, people, remember.” The translators sacrificed meaning for the sake of two excellent English lines.

82. “Was wir besitzen: eine Klagenwand, / an der die Flute unser Tranen brechen.”

83. Jews as the honey of the bitter bumblebees, “Honig von bitteren Bienen.”

84. Cf. “rika pravichnosti” in Fishbein and “die Zeit fallt / fallt ins Unabsehbare” (Nicht October, Nicht November).

85. “Baume aus heiligen Buchstaben streken Wurzeln / von Sadagora aus Czernowitz.”

86. “Der Jordan mundete damals in der Pruth,” See her “Der Vater” (The Father).

87. Fishbein, Rozporosheni tini, 9.

88. Fishbein claims that he first heard ofCelan in 1971 from Mykola Bazhan, who recited to him his translation of Celan’s Todesfuge. See Fishbein, Apokryf, 197. Skurativs’kyi insightfully noticed that Fishbein’s poetry is the realm where the Ukrainian “death fugue” encounters its Jewish counterpart. See his “Na perekhrestiakh dushi,” Suchasnist' 12 (1996): 87. For Todesfuge, see Paul Celan, Gedichte in zwei Banden (Frankfurt am Main: Suhrkamp Verlag, ⁱ975)> ⁱ^:4ⁱ^-4².

89. Moisei Fishbein, Rannii rai (Kyiv: Fakt, 2006), 17.

90. See “Poezia” (Poetry) in Fishbein, Apokryf, 37.

91. See “A tam pustelia” (And There Is a Desert) in Fishbein, Apokryf, 48.

92. See “Hospody, porozhnio v nashii hospodi,” Yehupets ιι (2003): 258.

93. Paul Celan, Gedichte in zwei Banden (Frankfurt: Suhrkamp Verlag, 1975), ι: 163.

94. See, e.g., his “Suzir’ia Ryby, misiatsia hachok” (The Constellation Pisces, the Hook of the Moon, 1969), Moisei Fishbein, Rannii rai (Kyiv: Fakt, 2006), 106.

95. See Pervomais’kyi, Tvory v semy tomakh (Kyiv: Dnipro, 1985), 1:361.

96. See “Ne dekoratsii khochetsia, a sadu” (I Need the Garden, Not the Scenery), in Fishbein, Apokryf, 59.

97. See “Myt’” (A Moment), in Fishbein, Apokryf, 50-51.

98. See “Touching the Forgotten Cords,” in Fishbein, Apokryf, 60.

99. See “Poskydaimo faini meshty” (Throw off Our Fine Shoes), in Moisei Fishbein, Rannii rai, 24.

100. See “Chumaky puskalysia za silliu,” in Fishbein, Apokryf, 39. This image seems to be a reflection of Celan’s: “Was hab ich / getan? / Die Nacht besamt” (What did I / do? / Seminated the night.” See Paul Celan, Poems, trans. Michael Hamburger (New York: Persea Books, 2002), 194-195.

101. “laki to ruiny...” (What Are Those Ruins?), Moisei Fishbein, Rannii rai, 27. In the third and fourth line Fishbein’s metaphor stems in three homophones that are lost in the English version: Druzy (Druzes), druzi (friends), and druzky (rests).

102. Fishbein, Rannii rai, 63.

103. Ibid., 54-55.

104. Ibid., 28.

105. See “Peresadka, 1948” (Changing Trains, 1948), in Fishbein, Rozporosheni tini, 16.

106. Fishbein, Rozporosheni tini, 15.

107. VidMoiseia: Aferyzmy (OfMoses: Pseudo-Aphorisms) (Kyiv: Fakt, 2003). The collection is dedicated to the memory of Mykola Lukash.

108. Fishbein, Aferyzmy, 12, 34, 44, 110, 65.

109. For scattered biographical details on Fishbein in the 1990s, see his interview, “The Plane in Search of an Airfield” (Litak u poshukakh aerodromu), in Den, February 10, 1999.

110. Zbigniew Brzezinski, not known for his superlatives, observed in December 2004, “The stakes [in Ukraine] are enormous and they go far beyond the issue of democracy in Ukraine itself.” See Zbigniew Brzezinski, “Imperial Russia, Vassal Ukraine,” Wall Street Journal, December i, 2004, A10.

in. Among those popular Fishbein’s aphorisms was “Those who fight with Yushchenko should look for a different people.” See Ukraina moloda 129 (May 15, 2004) and Slovo Prosvity 16 (2005) (June 17-23, 2004); also quoted elsewhere.

112. Moisei Fishbein, oral communication, November 30, 2004, YPSPC.

113. See “Ia vbytyi buv shisnadtsiatoho roku...,” in Fishbein, Apokryf, 13.

114. Consider Fishbein’s continuous references to Tarkovskii’s poem “Pervye svidaniia” (First Date, i962). Fishbein writes in his “Koly my nevmyrushchymy buly” (When We Were Immortal): “Jerusalem shone in crystal... and our City shone on the throne.” See his Roz- porosheni tini (L’viv: Kalvaria, 200i), 9. Cf. Tarkovskii’s: “and you hold a crystal sphere on your palm... and you were sitting on the throne” (emphasis added).

115. For the best examples of Pervomais’kyi’s poetically articulated epistemology of poetry, see Tvory, 1:338, 361-366, 399, 374 - 376, 402, 415 - 416, 466 - 468.

116. Pavlo Tychyna, Zibrannia tvoriv u 12 tt. (Kyiv: Naukova dumka, 1983), 1:91.

Epilogue

1. Ivan Dziuba, “Deiaki problemy i perspektyvy ukrains’koi kul’tury.” A report at the scholarly conference “Stratehiia ekonomichnoho i sotsial’noho rozvytku Ukrainy na 2000 - 2005 roky,” November 13, 2001, in Vistnyk NAN Ukrainy 3 (2001): 18-22, here 22.

2. Avtar Brah, “Diaspora, Border and Transnational Identities,” in Feminist Postcolonial Theory, ed. Reina Ledwis and Sara Mills (Edinburg: Edinburg University Press, 2003), 613- 634, here 619.

3. Barker, Hulme, and Iversen, ColonialDiscourse/Postcolonial Theory, 198.

4. Natalie Zemon Davis, “Iroquois Women, European Women,” in Feminist Postcolonial Theory, ed. Reina Ledwis and Sara Mills (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2003), 135-160, here 136.

5. Brah, “Diaspora, Border and Transnational Identities,” 632.

6. See Antonio Gramsci, Further Selectionsfrom the Prison Notebooks of Antonio Gramsci (London: ElecBook, 200i), 225.

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Source: Petrovsky-Shtern Yohanan. The Anti-Imperial Choice. The Making of the Ukrainian Jew. New Haven; London: Yale University Press,2009. — 384 p.. 2009

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