The Decline of Kyiv

Following Prince Mstislav s death in 1132 Kyiv continued to experience prosperity and growth, and by the beginning of the 12th centurythe city had become the largest urban complex in Europe, outside of Greece and Italy.

By the early 12th centurythe Great Princes of Kyiv were also beginning to secure the southern territories along the Dnipro River with its two lucrative trade routes: the Greek Route to the Black Sea and Constantinople, and the Grape Route to the Crimea and the Sea of Azov.

Kyiv s growth and prosperity was driven by trade, manu­facturing and rich agricultural land, which had introduced a money economy to Rus, based on silver and gold coinage. As trade became more lucrative a greater control over the flow and distribution of wealth and property became important. The rise of the state and the struggle for supremacy and trade routes introduced a virtually constant state of warfare between Riurik s princely descendants, as well as with rulers of foreign lands. With the coming of state institutions, Kyiv and Rus also began to increase in size and complexity, and with more economic functions to be fulfilled we see divisions into social groupings and social strata. The princes senior men-at-arms, the boyars, rose in prominence and a military aristocracy began to emerge, based on service to the prince and the hereditary ownership of land. At first, during pagan days privileged positions and ac­quired wealth were not necessarily handed down to offspring, but as wealth and titles became hereditary we see the emergence of a ruling class, supported by force of arms and the Church,

itself a key member of the feudal state.

One of the most important parts of the Kyiv state was the princes “druzhina,” hand-picked by the prince himself, which formed his bodyguard and close companions, and was respon­sible for maintaining law and order. The “druzhina” normally divided into two parts, a junior and a senior part. The senior members were experienced military personnel who had distin­guished themselves in war and in the princes council. They filled the highest positions in the armed forces and administra­tion and could command sizeable forces of their own financed by war booty, trade, or land grants from the prince. The junior members were young men-at-arms who aspired to senior po­sitions. Theywere generally picked on military merit and per­sonal prowess and could be of any social background, including freed slaves. As the prince s personal companions, “druzhina” members could become a part of the court (“dvor”) or the princely household, and were indispensable to his ability to rule. Although Kyivprovided the model for future principalities a single state did not emerge and conditions tended to vary lo­cally. Thus in Novgorod, for example, the native nobility main­tained its separate identity from the “druzhina,” and at times even clashed with the prince and his men. The druzhina system generally prevailed, and by the second half of the 12th century about IOO princes had their own well-armed retainers.

It is impossible to overestimate the influence which con­stant warfare had on east European society. Most able-bodied men would take part in a military campaign at least once in their life, and the maintenance of the prince s men-at-arms required resources which were obtained by either taxation or booty fol­lowing a military victory.

20th century.³ Meat could also be preserved in a cooked coil or a “kolbassa,” and in the late summertime or autumn a red beet soup called “borsch” was probably also common, with its diverse ingredients that would vary with the regions.

Besides the feudal nobility the other indispensable part of the state was the Orthodox Church, modeled after that of the Eastern Roman Empire, at times referred to as the “Greek Church.” It played an important role in Societybyproviding lit­eracy, education, and a common cultural influence. Also the Archbishop of Kyiv and Rus, who was appointed by the Patri­arch of Constantinople, took a direct part in the selection of the Great Prince of Kyiv, and the Church provided a metaphys­ical justification for the prince and the boyar nobility. As a result, besides its economic and military supremacy Kyiv enjoyed a political and religious hegemony, as the seat of the senior (“The Great”) prince as well as the head of the Church, the Metro­politan of “Kyiv and all of Rus.” By the 12th century the Met­ropolitan held sway over all city states headed by Volodimer the Great s descendants, and the Church became the only in­stitution under a single leadership which was common to all principalities.

As in other Christian kingdoms, slavery was legal and slaves formed one of the more valuable exports of Rus. A slave or a “chiliad” in good condition could fetch as much as five grivna compared to a mare which could be bought for three.⁶ Slaves usually came from prisoners of war and captives taken during the many conflicts, and were often sold abroad in both Christian and Muslim lands. Following Prince Volodimer s conversion, state authorities seem to have frowned on enslaving Christians, and with the spread of Christianity the practice di­minished but nevertheless persisted throughout the Middle Ages.

Several other more minor socio-economic categories ex­isted in the Middle Ages in Rus. The “Vdachi,” for example, were people who had received as subsidy (“Dacha”) from a landowner Usuallyfollowing some personal catastrophe, such as destruction by a military conflict. The subsidy was a gift and not a loan, but the “Vdachi” had to work for the benefactor for a specific period of time. Landless workers known as “riado- vichi” could also enter into a contract (“riad”) with a proprietary to work for a period of time at an agreed upon recompense. The proprietor had no hold on the “riadovich” who still remained free to be paid at the end of the contract. Lastly, there were the “izgoi” or men who had lost their position or function in society, but could not find another. Theywere the medieval equivalent of unemployables, and were usually taken under the protection of the Church where they were put to work for some religious institution, such as a monastery. Other more adventuresome “izgoi” became highway robbers or jointed the “Brodniki” (Wanderers) who roamed the steppes as freebooters. The “izgoi” included men such as freed slaves, illiterate sons of priests and insolvent merchants. Later by the second half of the Ilth century some sons of princes who were prevented by the rules from inheriting a princedom also became “izgoi.” When a ruling prince died his oldest surviving brother would succeed him. Should the younger brother die first (and would not in­herit), and without other brothers the succession would go to the next brother, skipping the dead prince s son(s), who then became “izgoi.” The rule was often contested and led to endless warfare between uncles, nephews, and brothers.

The majority of individuals in Rus and adjoining princi­palities were freemen. Besides members of state institutions such as the prince s court and the Church, most urban inhabi­tants were merchants, artisans and craftsmen who had always retained their freedom. Unlike in western Europe serfdom did not exist and the bulk of the population engaged in agriculture, the so-called “smerdy” who were free peasants. These were the descendants of the Slavic tribes who still lived in extended fam­ilies in communal villages or the “mirs,” but were now subject directly to the prince s authority and protection. Thus a “smerd” could not be arrested or deprived of his land without the prince s explicit permission. There is no surviving document (s) spelling out land tenure, but based on surviving records we can infer that a “smerd” had the right to farm the land in perpetuity. As the conqueror of the original tribe, however, the land be­longed to the prince and when a “smerd” had no sons to inherit it reverted to the prince, after a share was assigned to the peas­ant s unmarried daughters. The tax or “tribute” was paid by the senior member of the clan on behalf of all members, and it was he who managed most aspects of daily life. The “smerdy” had another important responsibility—they were charged with breeding and raising horses for the prince s druzhina and his regiments.

Mstislav I was the last Great Prince of Kyiv to impose his rule on the princes, and his death signaled a power struggle for the throne of Kyiv and Rus. While continuing to thrive Kyiv was beginning to lose its position of influence and power. By now there were ten city states each with its own capital and a developed local identity. Of course, feelings of a common bond amongst members of Riuriks dynasty was still pervasive even as late as the turn of the 13th century, when the Olgovichi branch of Chernihiv complained against Prince Vsevolod of Vladimir-Suzdal that “we are not Hungarians or Liakhs (Poles) but grandsons of one grandfather.” Nevertheless the principal­ities were developing separate orientations and a sense of dis­tinctiveness. Actually in spite of a commonly understood lan­guage and shared religion there never had been a single and consistent authority amongst Riuriks descendants since the time of Volodimer the Great. Occasionally a prince such as Monomakh the Wise would capture the throne of Kyiv after a bloody struggle and impose his will on the other princes. But with a Great Princes death the conflicts would begin anew, growing longer and more frequent as the number of princes multiplied. It is therefore misleading to think of Rus as a single political entity or even as a loose (confederation, as at times is assumed by traditional Russian historians. The Orthodox Christian city states of Eastern Europe did not even have a com­mon name, the term “Rus” being reserved for the area around Kyiv, Chernihiv and Pereiaslav in what is today north-central Ukraine and parts of southern Belarus.⁷

Three groups Ofprincipalities began to emerge during the middle of the 12th century. Novgorod, Staraia Ladoga, Pskov and Smolenskin the north; Rostov, Vladimir and Suzdal in the northeast; and Galicia and Volin in the southwest. Other north­eastern cities such as Riazan, Murom and Iaroslavl also began to grow in importance. Kyiv was no longer able to impose its hegemony—indeed no city state would be able to do so—and for the next century constant conflict and warfare became the norm. And for the first time in its history Kyivwas attacked and pillaged by a coalition of princes as the surrounding principali­ties began to acquire the crafts and manufacturing technology and were able to reduce their dependence on the great city. Fur was also becoming a valuable commodity in western Europe, and once again Novgorod became the chief supplier with trading posts ranging to the Arctic Ocean and the Ural Moun­tains. In the 1120s and 1130s a simpler method of manufacturing in Novgorod made possible a sharp increase in the production of blades, axes, and shears which could be bartered with the northern hunters. We know that during the second half of the 12th century Novgorod began to experience great prosperity, as indicated by the twenty churches built during this time, all extensively decorated with frescoes. Also in 1136 the Novgorod republic took a major step towards independence by expelling the late Prince Mstislav’s son Vsevolod, the last prince from Kyiv to preside in Novgorod and its subject territories.

To the west lay the new principalities of Volin and Galich which were becoming important due to the north-south and east-west trade routes which linked them to central Europe, the Baltic Sea, the Eastern Roman Empire, and Kyiv.⁸ Volin and Galicia were also ruled by members of the Riurik dynasty and had accepted Eastern Christianity following Volodimer the Great’s conquest in 981 of Przemysl (Peremyshl), Cherven and Cholm. The Donets-Buh river region was the territory of the Dulibi, Ulichi and Tivertsi Slavic tribes, and would change hands several times with Poland and Hungarybefore becoming a part of later “Rus.” In 992-93 the conquest was extended to the territory of the White Croats, up to the Carpathian moun­tain range where the city of Galich would be built. Before his death in 1054 Iaroslav the Wise gave Galicia to his grandson Rostyslavwhile following his death, his son Mstislav assigned Volin to his brother Andrei. Both territories were held as per­sonal domains of the Kyiv princes and could be disposed of at will, and the princes’ rights to the principalities were confirmed at the Liubych conference, held by the princes in 1097 to resolve problems of inheritance. Volodimer Monomakh’s offspring soon discovered that Galicia had its own traditions which were not the same as the other principalities. While Riuriks Scan­dinavian princely model could be imposed on the Dulibian tribesmen of Volin, this was achieved with great difficulty in Galicia. Here landowning boyars had evolved from tribal warrior chieftains, who had appropriated common land to be­come a powerful and independent nobility, something which was unknown in the other Riurik principalities.

The third area of major importance was the northeast with the cities of Suzdal, Vladimir and Rostov under Prince Yuri Dolgorucky (“George of the Long Hand”) who would be the first prince to organize an anti-Kyiv coalition. The early Ilth Centuryhad experienced a warming trend, and the fertile Opale region around Vladimir and Suzdal had attracted settlers from Rus. These were also the lands of the Viatichi tribe, which had conquered and pushed out the original Finnic inhabitants but who continued to harbor hostility towards Kyiv and its ruling class. Many of the tribesmen still followed pagan traditions while paying lip-service to Christianity and the Church. Founded in the first half of the Ilth century by the rulers of Kyiv, the towns and cities of the northeast were experiencing prosperity, mainly due to the renewed trade along the Volga River with the Muslim world.

Kyiv, however, continued to experience a gradual decline compared to the growing principalities of the northeast, Cherni­hiv, and the west, although it still remained the most wealthy and prosperous city in Eastern Europe, and its Golden Throne would be contested fiercely for decades to come, right up to the Mongol invasion.