The Golden Age Continues
Following Iaroslav s death the next half-century was marked by instability and family feuds amongst his sons with a Great Prince of Kyiv, Volodimer Monomakh, emerging to continue the Golden Age.
Iaroslav had introduced a scheme for succession that would determine much of the future development of the main regions resulting in the infighting, which it was designed to avoid. The system—possibly inspired by a steppe tradition—spelled out how his five sons would inherit and share power. The plan called for the three oldest sons to be given the three cities of Rus—Kyiv, Chernihiv and Pereia- slav—while the two youngest would receive the peripheral lands. When a son died, he would be succeeded by his next youngest brother, who would move up the ladder to become prince of the next city in seniority. Once the five brothers had died, they would be succeeded by their sons with the same order of seniority as their fathers. It is interesting that in spite of the Scandinavian and Graeco-Roman influences, the Slavic customs prevailed. There was no Slavic tradition for the eldest son to succeed his father as a single monarch-king and the system never took root amongst the Great Princes of Kyiv. Thus Rus never expanded to become a centralized state ruled by a single king as elsewhere in Europe.50 The Princes of Rus were military rulers who with Church and boyar support were responsible for defense and the maintenance of law and order. Their rule was also dependent on the citizens’ town hall councils or the “Veches,” which could (and did) overthrow and replace unpopular princes. Although some degree of centralization existed up to and including Iaroslav s time (due to the undisputed dominance of Kyiv), a century later it would begin to disappear. The principality of Polotsk ruled by Prince Volodimer s son Iziaslav was in the forefront of princely independence, reserving for itself all freedom of action. Lying between Novgorod and Kyiv on the western Dvina River, Polotsk included roughly most of today s Belarus and extended south as far as Minsk. At Iaroslav s death, Polotsk was ruled by Volodimers great grandson Vsevolod (Iziaslav,s son) and when Iaroslav and Mstislav divided Rus between them, Polotskwas not included.Iaroslav the Wise left Kyiv to his eldest son Iziaslav; the second oldest, Sviatoslav, received Chernihiv; and the third oldest, Vsevolod, was assigned to Pereiaslav. The two junior principalities of Smolensk and Volodimer in Volin went to the youngest brothers, Viacheslav and Igor, respectively. The three major cities of Rus in todays Ukraine were in fact city-states that controlled large territories, as “branch plant” extensions. Kyivwas the largest with its traditional territory of the Poliany and Derevlany tribal lands, Pohoryna, Berestia, and Galicia while the annexes of Chernihivwere the tribal lands of the Sev- eriani and all the towns of the Viatichi and Pereiaslav controlled Pesemia and Kursk. The princes also had their hereditary family domains which they inherited outright but with possession going to the youngest son, and in addition Kyiv and Chernihiv had the traditional trading centers. Novgorod in the north and Oleshe in the mouth of the Dnipro were subject to the prince of Kyiv to preserve the capitals traditional control of the trade route “from the Varangians to the Greeks/’ while Tmutorokan on the mouth of the Don with its territory and eastern trade routes fell to Chernihiv’s traditional domain. In accordance with Iaroslavs Testament the three oldest sons, Iziaslav, Sviatoslav and Vsevolod, formed a triumvirate to oversee his entire domain.
The conflicts with the Turkic tribes continued, pitting prairie nomad horsemen against the agricultural settlements of Rus, and at times a joint effort by the princes was required. In 1060 the three elder brothers joined forces and “by horse and boat” set out against the Torks.
The expedition ended successfully without serious casualties since upon sighting the Rusian forces the Torks retreated, and forced into flight, many of the survivors perished from the cold and lack of food. The Torks had been weakened by the arrival of another coalition of Turkic tribes, the Polovtsi (Cumans). They quickly became dominant in the Ukrainian and south Russian prairies and under Khan Iskal launched their first invasion of southeastern Rus. Prince Vsevolod OfPereiaslavwent out to intercept them and although defeated in battle he succeeded to inflict sufficient casualties on the nomads to force them to retreat back into the steppe. Taking advantage of the discord and fighting amongst members of Ruric s dynasty the Polovtsi would soon have the opportunity to strike again and would play an important role in the history ofEastern Europe.The authority of the triumvirate was soon challenged by two princes who were excluded from Iaroslavs system of succession. The first brothers to die were the two youngest and because neither had reached one of the three senior positions their sons became “izgoi,” that is not eligible to receive any part of Iaroslav s patrimony. One of the “izgoi,” Volodimer s son Rostislav, rebelled and seized the city of Galich (Halych) from which he was promptly expelled by the combined forces of his three senior uncles. He then marched east and took Tmutorokan but a few years later was poisoned by the envoy from Constantinople, no doubt seen as a threat to the imperial possessions in the region. In the meantime in the dead OfwinterVseslav of Polotsk launched an attack on Novgorod and occupied the city. The triumvirate was once more forced to intervene, marching north and SackingMinsk, one of Vseslav s possessions. Warfare, even (perhaps especially) amongst relatives, was a brutal affair.
Then the brothers captured it (Minsk), put the men to the sword, sold the women and children into slavery, and proceeded to (the river) Nemiza.
Vseslav came forward to meet them. The two forces collided at the Nemiza on March 3, with heavy snow on the ground... and the carnage was severe. The casualties were numerous but Izyaslav, Sviatoslav and Vsevolod won the day while Vseslav sought safety in flight.51After his escape Vseslav did not remain free for long. He was lured into a trap by false promises to negotiate, and a falsely sworn oath promising him safety. When he arrived at the agreed-upon meeting place he was promptly arrested, together with his two sons, and imprisoned in Kyiv.
In 1068, taking advantage of the family feuds, the Polovtsi began to invade and loot the southern agricultural areas of Rus. The south was the main supplier of grain and other produce to the north and the raids were creating food shortages and raising the price of bread. To stop the raids, the three ruling princes went out into the prairies to confront the Polovtsi and camped on the Alta River southeast of Kyiv. They were attacked in the middle of the night and suffered a total defeat, forcing the brothers to flee for their lives, and according to the Kyiv Chronicle the Polovtsi were sent by God to punish the princes’ transgressions. Izyaslav and Vsevolod fled to Kyiv, but there was no safety behind the city’s walls. Charged with being unable to defend Rus the princes were faced with a citizens’ revolt which began with a meeting of the “Veche” in the marketplace and quickly spreading to other parts of the city. The people were demanding arms and horses—“... that we may offer them (the Polovsti) combat once more.” They were in effect telling the Princes that if they didn’t do their job the people would do it for them. When Izyaslav refused, the Veche demanded he be driven out of the city and replaced by the imprisoned Vseslav of Polovtsk while Izyaslav fled to Poland to seek King Boleslav’s help.
In the meantime it was Sviatoslav of Chernihivwho would gain the glory of defeating the Polovtsi.
As soon as the pagans raided around Chernigov itself Sviatoslav collected a small force and sallied out against them to Snovsk.
The Polovtski remarked the approaching troop and marshaled their forces for resistance. When Sviatoslav observed their numbers he said to his followers, “let us attack, for it is too late for us to seek succor elsewhere.” They spurred their horses and though the Polovtski had twelve thousand men, Sviatoslavwon the day with his force of only three thousand.52The numbers could be exaggerated but the Polovtsi seem to have been caught in a tight situation, crowded into the Snovsk River where many drowned.
Rus continued to enjoy a period of prosperity, enabling the princes to gather great fortunes and continue the family feuds. The Kyiv Chronicle notes that when the Kyivans began to plunder Iziaslavs palace they found “a huge amount of gold and silver, and furs and marten skins.” It didn’t take the prince long, however, to restock his treasury, since a few years later in 1073, when he had to flee Kyiv again, this time from his two brothers, “Iziaslav took considerable treasure with him on his flight to Poland.” There is also outside confirmation of the wealth that existed in Rus at the time. Iziaslav s Polish wife Gertrude was able to commission a luxurious miniature for a psalter (the Trier Psalter), and when Emperor Henry IV s envoy Burchart visited Sviatoslavhe was shown “an incalculable quantity of gold and silver and fine garments.” His wealth was confirmed by the German annalist Lambert of Hersfelt who claimed that when Sviatoslav sent Henry IV a bribe to dissuade him from lending aid to his brother Iziaslay it consisted of “more gold and silver and fine garments than anyone could remember ever having been brought into the German Kingdom at the time.”53
Soon after, Sviatoslav died of blood poisoning from an accidental cut, and Vsevolod joined his last surviving brother Iziaslav as ñî-regent, Iziaslav having in the meantime regained the throne of Kyiv. In 1078 they were challenged by Sviatoslav s two sons who were promptly defeated by their uncles in the battle which followed in which Iziaslav was also killed, leaving Vsevolod as the Great Prince of Rus.
His two nephews, however, remained in control of the surrounding principalities of Novgorod, Volodimer-in-Volin, and Tmutorokan. Now a renewed period of conflict, instability, and chaos followed. By 1088 several of Vsevolod’s nephews were dead—some assassinated at his instigation—but some managed to retain Tmutorokan and Turov. The family infighting had weakened Rus and opened it to enemy attacks. On 13 April 1093, Vsevolod died at the age of 63 amidst devastating attacks by the Polovtsi who were taking advantage of the dynastic wars. To make matters worse Prince Oleg of Chernihivhad allied himself with the Polovtsi who had become dominant in the Ukrainian prairies by subjugating what remained of the Khazars, the Torks (the Oghuz) and the Pechenegs. In 1092 the Polovtsi nomads destroyed the outposts along the middle Dnipro and in the following year defeated a Rusin force led by Princes Sviatopolk and Volodimer who had gone out to confront them. InJuly of the same year Sviatopolk, who had replaced Vsevolod as the Prince of Kyiv, also tried to stop them but with an insufficient force and was routed by the Polovtsian cavalry and Oleg’s men. Sviatopolk and Volodimer now decided to attack Oleg to dissuade him from his alliance with the Polovtsi but were Outmaneuvered by the nomads who took advantage of the princes’ absence and attacked Kyiv, burning the city suburbs and destroying three monasteries. Each new wave of Turkic nomads who succeeded to invade the Ukrainian prairies were more powerful than their predecessors since following their defeat they were incorporated into the ranks of the newcomers, thus further strengthening their military might.The crisis was approaching serious proportions and in 1097, at the height of the turmoil, the warring cousins decided to call a conference. They met in Liubech in an atmosphere of compromise and concession, and succeeded in dividing most of Rus and the outlying territories amongst themselves, except for western Volin and Galicia where the strife for succession continued. Bythe spring of 1103 the princes were ready to move against the steppe nomads with a combined military force. They waited until planting season was over to confiscate the peasants’ horses in order to increase cavalry numbers, and set out along the Dnipro River with the cavalry moving along the shore and the infantry sailing in boats. Halting briefly at the Khortitsa Island by the cataracts the infantry disembarked and the entire force proceeded into the vast endless steppe in search of the enemy. The Polovtsi, who were tracking the progress of the Ru- sian forces, decided to meet the princes before they reached their main encampments at Suten, a location which today is unknown. The battle began badly for the Polovtsi. An advance force commanded by the celebrated Khan Altunopa was ambushed by a Rusian vanguard and annihilated. Then “The nomad troops came on like the trees in the forest.... The Rusichi straightway advanced to meet them (with God) inspiring an awful fear in the Polovtsians... upon beholding the effort of the Rusichi against them the Polovcians fled... without waiting to meet them, and our men gave chase and cut them down.”54 The princes returned to Rus with a large booty of horses, sheep, camels, tents, and slaves. The Polovtsi would continue to maintain their presence in the steppes but would never regain the might they once had.
With the defeat of the Polovtsi the princes could shift their attention elsewhere, with mixed success. The northeast possessions were expanded by the conquest of the Finnic Mordva tribes by Prince Sviatoslav’s son Iaroslav, but when the sons of Vseslav of Polotsk attacked the Lithuanian Zimegala tribe (s) they were badly defeated. The Polovtsi also began to renew their attacks. In 1107, led by their renowned khans Banyak and Sharukan, they began to raid the eastern banks of the Dnipro and its tributaries, laying siege to Lubny on the Sula River, and it took the effort of the seven cousin princes to relieve the siege and beat them back. Their second major defeat forced the Polovtsi to sue for peace, and an alliance was sealed when Volodimer s son Yuri (to become known as “Dolgoruky” or the Long-Armed) married one ofKhan Aepa’s daughters. By 1109 the remaining Polovtsi tribes along the Don River that had remained hostile were being pressed by Rusian forces and could no longer mount a major offensive.
The Prince of Kyiv SviatopolkII died on 16 April 1113, inciting violent outbursts erupted in Kyiv. “The Veche” gatherings in the marketplace were still influential and on the following day the citizens invited his popular brother Volodimer to become Prince of Kyiv. The appointment was normally the prerogative of the Church and the boyars which was now disputed by the KyivVeche. When Volodimer refused to accept the offer a veritable revolt broke out aimed at state representatives and the merchants. As described by the Kyiv Primary Chronicle:
... the Kyivans plundered the compound of Putiata the “tysi- atsky” (military commander) and attacked the Jews and plundered them. And again the Kyivans sent to Volodimer, saying: “Come, prince, to Kyiv. If you do not come, know that much evil will be stirred. Not only the plundering of Putiatas compound (dvor) and of the Sotsky (centurion commanders) or of the Jews, but they will attack your sister-in-law and the boyars and the monasteries. And you. Prince, will be responsible that they plunder the monasteries.”55
Volodimer relented and agreed to the invitation (for which he was perhaps waiting) and was received with great honor by the Metropolitan of the Church and all the citizens of Kyiv.
Volodimer became the Great Prince of Rus assuming the Greek name Monomakh(us) from his mothers side. The Polovtsi kept their peace and as senior Prince he put a halt to most of the infighting between his relatives. Volodimer Mono- makh,s realm consisted of the principalities of Kyiv, Turov- Pinsk, and Novgorod, with his original patrimony of Pereiaslav, and through his son he controlled Smolensk and the far northeastern principality of Rostov-Suzdal. The western areas of Volin and Galicia were also nominally subject to Kyiv since Galicia had been given to Iaroslav s grandson, Prince Rostyslav.
Volodimer Monomakhs long reign stabilized and consolidated Kyiv s domains after decades of princely infighting and virtually constant warfare against Poland, the Baltic area, and the southern steppe country. Monomakh banned excessive interest rates, and codified the ExpandedVersion of Iaroslavs legal code, the “Ruska Pravda.” He personally placed a high value on learning and was himself a highly educated man for the times: “forget not what useful knowledge you possess, and acquire that with which you are not acquainted.” Much of his practice and world outlook is known through a remarkable document he left for his sons, the “Pouchenie” (“Instructions”), which reveals great attention to detail:
Be not lax in the discipline of your homes but rather attend to all matters yourselves. Rely not on your steward or your servant lest they who visit you ridicule your house or your table. When you set out to war be not inactive, depend not on your captains nor waste your time in drinking, eating or sleeping. Set the sentries yourselves, and take your rest only after you have posted them at night at every important point about your troop. Then take your rest but arise early. Do not put off your equipment without a quick glance about you, for a man may thus perish suddenly through his own carelessness.
Volodimer Monomakh also had great compassion for the defenseless and the poor, for which he was held in high esteem by his people:
... do not permit your followers or another’s company to visit violence upon the villages or upon the fields, lest men revile you. Wherever you go, as often as you halt, give the beggar to eat and to drink. Furthermore, honor the stranger; if not with a gift at least with food and drink... be he simple, or noble, or an emissary. Love your wives, but grant them no power over you.
An interesting question lies in the status of capital punishment in Rus. Prince Volodimer the Great had ceased executing criminals for a time, but was soon advised by the Church bishops to reinstate the practice so long as guilt was established during a trial. Capital punishment is not mentioned in Iaroslav the Wises legal code, and the ban continued under Volodimer Monomakh, as is evident from the following remarkable statement given at the time:
Above all things forget not the poor but support them to the extent of your means. Give to the orphan, protect the widow and permit the mighty to destroy no man. Take not the life of the just or the unjust, nor permit him to be killed. Destroy no Christian soul even though he be guilty of murder.56
Rus was also ahead of most of Europe in its wealth, size, and its many public buildings in Kyiv, and the Great Prince continued to maintain close relations with other Christian European kingdoms. His Iirstwife Gythia (Gyda) was the daughter of King Harold of England (killed in the battle of Hastings), and other members of the dynasty also married foreign royal families. In 1104 the daughter OfPrinceVolodimer of Peremyshl married Isaac Comnenus, the youngest son of the Eastern Roman EmperorAlexius I, while Prince Sviatopolks daughter married the Hungarian King s son.
Volodimer Monomakh died on 19 May 1125, living to the ripe age of 72 in spite of many wounds received in battles and hunting accidents. He was succeeded by his eldest son Mstislav I to be known as “The Great,” the son of his first wife Gythia the daughter of King Harold of England. He seems to have benefited from his father s popularity for he ascended to the throne OfKyivwithout any major opposition either from other princes or from the people. He maintained his popularity by following his father,s policies and practices and was the last to be recognized as the senior Great Prince, who was able to control the less senior princes. In 1117 he put his son Vsevolod in charge of Novgorod while his brothers received Pereiaslav, Turov, Suzdal and Volin. Although Chernihiv and Peremyshl (capital of Galicia) were seized by other members of the Rurik dynasty they also had to recognize Mstislav,s authority. When Polotsk showed its usual independence it was attacked the Prince s lands were seized and his family was exiled to Constantinople, thus putting an end to the principality’s virtual sovereignty. The following year Mstislav expanded his domain by defeating the Lithuanians, while his son Vsevolod established his authority over the Finnish tribes of eastern Estonia. In the meantime his right-hand man brother Iaropolk defeated the Polovtsi and their allies on the Don River, and ten years later he administered another crushing defeat on the steppe nomads. With a growing population the agriculturalists were gaining an upper hand over the pastoralists of the prairies. Mstislav I died in 1132 leaving Kyiv at the height of its power, the last Great Prince to maintain Kyivs dominance in Eastern Europe.