At the outset of the 19th century it was the imperial government that held the initiative in producing new ideas and providing society with a sense of direction.
However, by the end of the century it was clear that the imperial elite was losing its confidence, sense of purpose, and ability to adapt. Meanwhile, society, and especially the intelligentsia – its self-appointed advocate – was emerging as the source of creativity and dynamism, much of it unfettered by the momentous changes of the 1860S-90S.
Confronted by the unresponsiveness and even obstructionism of the government, the intelligentsia gradually moved from simply formulating proposals for change to organizing itself and attempting to mobilize society to implement these proposals by revolutionary means if necessary.In Russian-ruled Ukraine, the intelligentsia championed both national development and social justice. It was a daunting task. Relatively smaller and more isolated than its counterparts elsewhere in the empire, the Ukrainian intelligentsia experienced great difficulties in establishing contacts with the largely uneducated and disinterested masses it sought to help. Its dual goals engendered doubly great problems and repression. The question whether national or social issues deserved most attention brought about confusion and disagreement among Ukrainians. Nonetheless, despite painful setbacks, the Ukrainian movement continued to grow until, in the early years of the 20th century, it appeared to be ready to spread beyond its traditionally narrow social base.