THE LAWFULNESS OF MUSIC IN THE INDONESIAN CONTEXT

The question of the lawfulness of music in Islamic jurisprudence does not capture much attention from the majority of Indonesian Muslim listeners. Their listening habits are at a distance from Islamic law.

Becker states that music in Indonesia is strongly related to religious faith. Consequently, musical genres associated with Islam are readily noticeable in public awareness as well as in political discourse.^[1246] This concurs with van Zanten’s claim that music in traditional Sundanese society has an important position as a medium to speak with God, as commonly occurs in monotheistic religions.^[1247] This does not reflect any creedal orthodoxy in Islam. Nettl has pointed out that music does not need to be put in an important place as a medium to speak with God, because Muslims can speak and pray directly to the God without need for any medium.^[1248] In this regard, Indonesia is unique because Islam is taken as a primary religious identity, and in the meantime music in its traditional setting is also a very important aspect of the cultural practices. At the same time, the popularity of the Islamic music genre dramatically increases in various forms.^[1249] This happens in accordance with the increase of Islamic symbols in the public sphere in contemporary Indonesia.

This conjunction means that discussion on the lawfulness of music has occasionally emerged in academic discourse and Islamic jurisprudence. Even though the general public may not pay much attention to the issue, legal determinations do have influence in some settings, and academ­ically oriented clerics consider the question a serious one.

The lawfulness of music in contemporary Indonesian debate 353 religious practices.^[1250] Among those schools, Indonesian Muslims refer mostly widely to the Syafi’i school. Historically, the Syafi’i school has developed a tolerant view among modern Indonesian Muslims, and this tolerance has harmonised with state goals. The state has generally been unwilling to interfere directly in cultural preferences, and this gives the issue, as I show below, a political resonance.

An important example for analysis is the case of Taha Omar Jahja, an Islamic jurisprudence expert, who in 1964 produced an authoritative Islamic statement on the topic of lawfulness of music. The event was the first anniversary of the State Islamic Institute (IAIN) of Jakarta, at which he delivered an important speech titled ‘The Law of Musical Art, Sound Art and Dance in Islam’. This academic event was held in conjunction with the Sukarno era’s desire to promote the national revolution, which shaped the event as a moment to spread national values in supporting the development of national culture for the young state. This was also stated in the preface of the book written by state officials such as Saifuddin Zuhri (Minister of Religious Affairs), Hazairin (Rector of the Islamic University of Jakarta) and Idham Chalid (curator of IAIN Jakarta). They linked the theme of the speech to the development of the nation state, especially in terms of finding and shaping the national culture. For example, the Islamic scholar, Hazairin, stated his endorsement of the lawfulness of music by saying:

Let’s think, if we are still affected by an old concept... which forbids girls from doing sport and dancing, prohibits us from drawing human beings, bans sculptures and musical arts, and only permits frame drum (rebana) and kasidah.^[1251] Does not this become a major obstacle for the improvement of our nation in relation to its cultural development?^[1252]

Further, he commented that this old concept (the prohibition of music in Islam) was a hindrance for development. Indeed, Chalid also argued that this understanding was a demand of the revolution for forming and developing Indonesia’s national culture at the time.^[1253]

By providing arguments from the main sources of the hadith (tradition of the Prophet Muhammad) from both those who supported and those who opposed the lawfulness of music in Islam, Jahja concluded that among Imam (leaders) of four schools (madzhab), music is categorised as permitted (mubah) in its original law, as long as it is not followed by non-Islamic behaviour.

However, among those who support the permissibility of music there were at the same time differences in recommending which music was to be permitted. In relation to instruments, for example, some Islamic scholars only permit songs without instruments; others argue that some instruments are permitted, such as rebana (frame drums) and kendang (drums), while stating that other instruments such as flute, piano, and guitar are not. Also, some state that this music was permitted only in celebrations, such as wedding and circumcision ceremonies, as well as for welcoming guests following the Prophet examples as narrated in some hadith.^[1256] Most traditional Muslims, including those in pesantren, refer to these rules in defining and understanding music.^[1257]

For Muslims closer to the mainstream of Indonesian Islamic sensibil­ity, music has been widely accepted as a part of cultural expression. At the same time, Indonesian Muslims also generally find it easy to adjust their music tastes.^[1258] For example, in the month of Ramadhan, over the course of the month all Muslims will change their genres of music into the musik Islami (music inspired by Islam) genre. Regardless of where the music group comes from, what the genre is or who the singer may be, it is acceptable as long as it includes the usage of Islamic symbols in their song and presentation. Moreover, the music industry supports this extensively. The market provides for all audiences’ needs to feel more Islamic during the sacred month of Ramadhan. This also brings many pop singers to change the ‘colour’ of their music to include religious songs. Harnish and Rasmussen assert that in a current Muslim debate:

The style of music is sometimes less relevant than its intention or content. Popular music, however, is a viable and effective vehicle for religious messages, and it has potential to unite still larger mass audiences into an ‘imagined community’ that is also at the same time religious and modern.^[1259]

This statement confirms the argument that Islamic music has been largely commodified by popular culture in contemporary Indonesia.^[1260] Cor­respondingly, these Islamic symbols have become more salient in recent years of the post-Reform era.

III.