Contents
1 Introduction to Anatomy and Physiology, 1
Introduction, 2 Anatomy and Physiology, 2 Terminology, 3
Anatomic Planes of Reference, 3 Directional Terms, 5
General Plan of the Animal Body, 6
Bilateral Symmetry, 7
Body Cavities, 7
Levels of Organization, 8
Health, 9 Homeostasis, 9
2 Chemical Basis for Life, 11 Introduction, 12 Matter, 13
States of Matter, 13
Composition of Matter: 5
Elements and Atoms, 13
Molecules and Compounds, 19
Mixtures, 19
Chemical Bonds, 21
Covalent Bonds, 21
Ionic Bonds, 21
Hydrogen Bonds, 23
Chemical Reactions, 24
Chemical Components of Living Organisms, 25 Inorganic Compounds, 26
Water, 26
Salts, 28 Acids and Bases, 28
Organic Compounds, 31
Carbohydrates, 31
Lipids, 34 Proteins, 35
Nucleic Acids, 40
3 Anatomy of the Cell, 45
Introduction, 46
Our Early Understanding of Cells, 47
Evolution of Cells, 47
Size Limitations, 47
Looking Inside the Cell, 48 6
Mammalian Cell Anatomy, 48
Cell Membrane, 52
Cytoplasm, 58
Nucleus, 67
4 Cell Physiology, 72
Introduction, 73
Body Fluids, 73
Body Fluids and Fluid Compartments, 73 Solutes and Osmolality, 74
Movement of Body Fluids, 76
Membrane Processes: Excretion, Secretion and Absorption, 79
Passive Membrane Processes, 79
Active Membrane Processes, 83
Resting Membrane Potential, 88
Life Cycle of the Cell, 88
Mitosis, 89
Interphase, 89
DNA Replication, 89
Mitotic Phase, Cell Division, 91
Control of Cell Division, 93
Protein Synthesis, 93
Transcription, 94
Translation, 94
Genetic Mutations, 95
Cell Differentiation and Development, 98
Tissues: Living Communities, 102 Introduction, 105
Gross and Microscopic Anatomy, 105 Epithelial Tissue, 105
General Characteristics of Epithelia, 106
Classifications of Epithelia, 108
Types of Epithelia, 109
Glands, 113
Connective Tissue, 119
General Characteristics, 119
Components of Connective Tissue, 120
Types of Connective Tissue, 122
Membranes, 129
Muscle Tissue, 140
Skeletal Muscle, 140
Smooth Muscle, 140
Cardiac Muscle, 142
Nervous Tissue, 142
Tissue Healing and Repair, 142
Inflammation: The First Stage, 144
Organization: The Formation of Granulation Tissue, 145
Regeneration or Fibrosis, 145
Classifications, 145
The Integument and Related Structures, 147
Introduction, 149
Integument, 149
Epidermis, 149
Dermis, 153
Hypodermis or Subcutaneous Layer, 156
Special Features of the Integument, 156
Related Structures of the Integument, 159
Hair, 159
Glands of the Skin, 162
Claws and Dewclaws, 164
The Hoof, 164
Horns, 167
7 The Skeletal System, 170
Introduction, 172
Bone, 173
Bone Terminology, 173
Bone Characferisiics, 173
Functions of Bones, 173
Bone Structure, 173
Bone Cells, 176
Blood Supply to Bone, 176
Bone Formation, 176
Bone Shapes, 177
Bone Marrow, 178
Common Bone Features, 178
Axial Skeleton, 180
Skull, 180
Hyoid Bone, 188
Spinal Column, 188
Ribs, 192
Sternum, 193
Appendicular Skeleton, 193
Thoracic Limb, 193
Pelvic Limb, 199
Visceral Skeleton, 204
Joints, 204
Joint Terminology, 204
Types of Joint, 204
Ball-and-Socket Joints, 209
8 Muscular System, 210
Introduction, 211
Skeletal Muscle, 212
Gross Anatomy of Skeletal Muscle, 212 Microscopic Anatomy of Skeletal Muscle, 217 Physiology of Skeletal Muscle, 220
Cardiac Muscle, 223
Gross Anatomy of Cardiac Muscle, 223
Microscopic Anatomy of Cardiac Muscle, 223
Physiology of Cardiac Muscle, 223
Smooth Muscle, 224
Gross Anatomy of Smooth Muscle, 224 Microscopic Anatomy of Smooth Muscle, 224 Physiology of Smooth Muscle, 224
9 Nervous System, 226
Introduction, 228
Neurons and Supporting Cells, 229 Organization of the Nervous System, 230
Anatomic Location: CNS Versus PNS, 230 Direction of Impulses: Afferent Versus Efferent, 231
Function: Autonomic Versus Somatic, 231
Neuron Function: Depolarization and Repolarization, 231
Resting State, Polarization, and Resting Membrane Potential, 231 Depolarization, 232
Repolarization, 232
Depolarization Threshold, Nerve Impulse Conduction, and All-or-Nothing Principle, 233 Refractory Period, 234
How Myelinated Axons Conduct Action
Potentials Quicker: Saltatory Conduction, 234
How Neurons Communicate: the Synapse, 235
Types of Neurotransmitter and Their Effect on
Postsynaptic Membranes, 236 Stopping and Recycling the Neurotransmitter, 238
The Central Nervous System-Brain and Spinal Cord, 238
Cerebrum, 238
Cerebellum, 239
Diencephalon, 240
Brainstem, 240
Other Clinically Important Structures of the Brain, 240
Spinal Cord, 243
The Autonomic Nervous System, 244
Structure, 244
General Functions, 246
Neurotransmitters and Receptors, 247
Reflexes and the Reflex Arc, 247
Stretch Reflex, 248
Withdrawal Reflex, 249
Crossed Extensor Reflex, 249
The Role of the Upper CNS in Moderating Reflexes, 249
Other Clinically Significant Reflexes, 250
10 Sense Organs, 252
Introduction, 253
General Senses, 254
Visceral Sensations, 254
Touch, 255
Temperature, 255
Pain, 256
Proprioception, 256
Special Senses, 257
Taste, 257
Smell, 258
Hearing, 258
Equilibrium, 264
Vision, 266
11 Endocrine System, 273
Introduction, 275 Hormones, 276
Characteristics, 276
Hormone Chemistry, 276
Control of Hormone Secretion, 278
The Major Endocrine Glands, 278
The Hypothalamus, 278
The Pituitary Gland, 279
The Thyroid Gland, 282
The Parathyroid Glands, 285
The Adrenal Glands, 285 14
The Pancreas, 287
The Gonads, 288
Other Endocrine Organs, 289
The Kidneys, 289
The Stomach, 290
The Small Intestine, 290
The Placenta, 290
The Thymus, 290
The Pineal Body, 290
Prostaglandins, 290
12 Blood, Lymph, and Lymph Nodes, 292
Introduction, 293 Blood Composition, 293
Function, 295
Hematopoiesis, 296
Erythropoiesis, 297
Thrombopoiesis, 298
Leukopoiesis, 298
Cellular Components of Blood:
Red Blood Cells, 298
Structure, 298
Function, 299
Life Span and Destruction, 299
Complete Blood Count, 300
Stained Blood Smears, 303
Platelets, 304
Structure, 304
Function, 305
Coagulation Cascade, 305 15
Life Span and Destruction, 306
White Blood Cells, 306
Function, 306
Granulocytes, 306
Agranulocytes, 310
The Lymphatic System, 311
Function, 312
Lymph Formation, 312
Lymphoid Organs and Tissues, 313
Transfusion Therapy, 315
13 Immunity and Defense, 317
Introduction, 318 Anatomic Organization of the Immune
System, 318
Skin and Mucous Membranes-The First Line 16 of Defense, 318
Organs and Tissues-Internal Protection, 318
Lymphatic System, 319
Red Bone Marrow, 320
Functional Organization of the Immune System, 320
Innate Immune System, 321
Adaptive (Acquired) Immune System, 329
Active Immunity, 334
Passive Immunity, 335
Mechanisms of Disease, 335
Hypersensitivity Reactions, 336
The Cardiovascular System, 338
Introduction, 339
The Heart, 340
Location, 340
Size and Shape, 340
Coverings of the Heart, 340
Wall of the Heart, 341
Chambers of the Heart, 341
Valves of the Heart, 343
Skeleton of the Heart, 343
Blood Supply to the Heart, 344
Nerve Supply to the Heart, 344
Blood Flow Through the Heart, 345
Cardiac Conduction System, 348
Normal Heart Sounds, 350
Abnormal Heart Sounds, 351
Cardiac Output, 351
Blood Vessels, 352
Arteries, 352
Capillaries, 353
Veins, 353
Blood Circulation in the Fetus, 354
Pulse, 357
Pulse Points, 357
Blood Pressure, 357
Cardiovascular Monitoring, 358
Electrocardiography, 358
Echocardiography, 358
Venipuncture, 359
The Respiratory System, 361
Introduction, 362
Structure, 363
Upper Respiratory Tract, 363
Lower Respiratory Tract, 368
Lungs, 369
Thorax, 371
Function, 372
Negative Intrathoracic Pressure, 372 Inspiration, 373
Expiration, 374
Respiratory Volumes, 374
Exchange of Gases in Alveoli, 374
Partial Pressures of Gases, 375
Control of Breathing, 375
Digestive System, 378
Introduction, 380
Basic Structure of the Gastrointestinal Tract, 381 Regulation of Gastrointestinal Function, 381 Oral Cavity, Pharynx, and Esophagus, 382 Teeth, 383
Tooth Surfaces, 384
Tooth Structure, 384
Deciduous Teeth (Baby Teeth), 385
Heterodont Dentition, 385
Dental Formula, 386
Tongue, 387
Salivary Glands, 387
Temporomandibular Joint, 389
Pharynx, 390
Esophagus, 390 18
Digestion in the Oral Cavity and Pharynx, 390 Swallowing/Deglutition, 391
Abdominal Cavity, 392
Stomach, 392
Basic Structure and Overall Function, 392
Monogastric Stomach and Digestion, 393
Stimulation of Secretions, 394
Monogastric Stomach Motility, 394
Control of Gastric Motility, 395
Gastric Emptying, 395
Digestion in the Stomach, 396
Ruminant Stomach and Digestion, 396
Forestomachs and Abomasum, 397
Motility of the Ruminant Stomach, 398
Reticulorumen Ecosystem, 400
Carbohydrate Digestion in Ruminants, 401 Lipid Digestion in Ruminants, 401
Protein Digestion in Ruminants, 401 Glucose Production in Ruminants, 402
Small Intestine and Associated Structures, 402
Basic Structure and Function, 402
Secretions of the Small Intestine, 404
Pancreas, 404 19
Liver, Bile Duct, and Gallbladder, 405
Bile Formation and Bilirubin Excretion, 406
Nutrient Processing in the Liver, 408
Small Intestinal Motility, 410
Regulation of Small Intestinal Motility, 410
Digestion in the Small Intestine, 410
Carbohydrate Digestion, 410
Protein Digestion, 410
Absorption of Monosaccharides, Dipeptides, Tripeptides, and Amino Acids, 411
Lipid Digestion and Absorption, 412
The Large Intestine, 412
Basic Structure and Function, 412
Motility of the Large Intestine, 413
Regulation of Large Intestine Motility, 414
Digestion and Absorption in the
Large Intestine, 414
Emptying of the Rectum, 415
17 Nutrients and Metabolism, 416
Introduction, 417
Nutrients, 417 20
Oxygen and Water, 418
Carbohydrates, 419
Fats and Lipids, 420
Proteins, 423
Vitamins, 425
Minerals, 428
Metabolism, 428
Catabolic Metabolism, 429
Anabolic Metabolism, 430
Control of Metabolic Reactions, 430
Metabolic Pathways, 435
The Urinary System, 445
Introduction, 446
Parts of the Urinary System, 448
Kidneys, 448
Function, 448
Location, 449
Gross Anatomy, 450
Microscopic Anatomy, 450
Nerve Supply, 452
Blood Supply, 452
Mechanisms of Renal Action, 453
Urine Volume Regulation, 454
Regulation of Blood Pressure, 458
Ureters, 459
Anatomy, 459
Function, 459
Urinary Bladder, 460
Anatomy, 460
Function, 460
Control of Urination, 460
Urethra, 461
Anatomy, 461
Function, 461
The Reproductive System, 464
Introduction, 465
Meiosis, 466
Chromosomes, 466
Spermatogenesis, 468
Oogenesis, 469
Male Reproductive System, 469
Testes, 469
Vas Deferens, 474
Urethra, 474
Accessory Reproductive Glands, 474 Penis, 475
Female Reproductive System, 477
Ligaments, 477
Ovaries, 478
Oviducts, 482
Uterus, 482
Cervix, 482
Vagina, 483
Vulva, 483
The Estrous Cycle, 483
Pregnancy, Development, and Lactation, 486
Introduction, 487
Breeding and Fertilization of the Ovum, 487
Erection, 487
Copulation, 488
Transport of Spermatozoa, 488 Capacitation, 488
Fertilization of the Ovum, 489
Pregnancy and Development, 490
The Zygote, 490
Cleavage, 490
Implantation, 491
The Placenta, 491
Structure, 492
Attachment to the Uterus, 492
Gestation, 495
Parturition, 495
Labor, 495
Involution of the Uterus, 496
Mammary Glands and Lactation, 496
Characteristics, 496
Species Differences, 497
Udder of the Cow, 497
Alveoli and Duct System, 497
Mammary Gland Development, 497
Lactation, 498
Colostrum, 498
Maintenance of Lactation, 499
Milk Let-Down, 499
21 Avian Anatomy and Physiology, 500
Introduction, 502
Topography, 503
Integument, 503
Skin, 503
Glands, 503
Beaks, 503
Claws, 504
Feathers, 504
Musculoskeletal System, 510
Skeleton, 510
Muscles, 513
Sense Organs, 519
Vision, 519
Hearing and Equilibrium, 521
Taste, 522
Touch, 522
Smell, 523
Endocrine System, 523
Digestive System, 523
Anatomy, 524
Circulatory System, 527
Anatomy, 527
Blood Flow, 529
Electrocardiogram, 530
Blood, 530
Respiratory System, 531
Anatomy, 532
Airflow, 534
Respiratory Rate, 535 Thermoregulation, 535
Urogenital System, 536
Urinary System, 536 Reproductive System, 537
Summary, 539
22 Amphibian and Reptilian Anatomy and
Physiology, 541
Introduction, 542
Taxonomy, 542
Metabolism, 542
Integument, 543
Vision, 545
Periocular Structures, 545
The Globe and Intraocular Structures, 546
Cardiovascular System, 547
Blood, 548
Respiratory System, 549
Ears and Hearing, 551
Gastrointestinal Tract, 551
Cloaca, 554
Kidneys, 555
Reproductive System, 556
Male Anatomy, 556
Female Anatomy, 557
Reproductive Cycle, 558 Oviposition, 558 Egg Incubation, 558 Sex Determination, 559
Secondary Sexual Characteristics, 559 Amphibian Reproduction, 559
Endocrine System, 560
Nervous System, 561
Musculoskeletal System, 561
Skull, 561
Axial Skeleton, 562 Appendicular Skeleton, 562 Muscles, 563
Summary, 563
Glossary, 567
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