Necropsy: The Postmortem Examination

OBJECTIVES

• know the difference between an autopsy, necropsy, antemortem, and postmortem examination

• understand the reason a veterinary technician should be able to perform a necropsy

• know the safety precautions necessary for the protection of all personnel involved in a postmortem examination in all circumstances, whether it is a routine necropsy or one that may contain an infectious agent and has the potential to spread to animal and/or human populations

• understand the record keeping requirements and methods utilized in antemortem and postmortem exams

• know what to look for, tests to be performed, and recordings necessary when doing an antemortem examination or when examining the carcass prior to starting the necropsy portion of the postmortem examination

• know how to perform a necropsy

• be able to section a tumor and know the fixation process prior to submission for histopathological analysis

• understand the basic tenets of forensics and how it applies to the postmortem examination in animals

MATERIALS

• deceased animal, not preserved

• Mayo dissecting scissors

• serrated postmortem scissors or other serrated scissors

• probe

• 1 ? 2 thumb forceps or Adson tissue forceps

• #3 or #4 scalpel handle and blades

• bone-cutting forceps

• rubber gloves

• glass jars

• 10% formalin solution

• glass slides

Introduction

The purpose of a necropsy is to determine the cause of death of a patient.

The necropsy procedure outlined by the AVMA-CVTEA guidelines for accreditation is part of what every veterinary technology student must learn. The purpose of this knowledge is to

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enable a technician to perform a necropsy by opening the body cavities; then the veterinarian or pathologist can view the organs in situ and lay them out on a tray after removal from the body so further examination is possible. At this time a diagnosis can be made and/or lesions noted that must be sectioned and placed in formalin to be sent to a laboratory for histopathological analysis.

Technicians may also be part of a forensics team that goes beyond just determining the cause of death of the animal, but also tries to recreate the events that occurred close to death, and to reveal any part that trauma, poison, disease, or neglect may have played. This reconstruction of events must fall within legal and possibly medical-criminal guidelines.

Necropsy Considerations

Safety should always be the primary concern. The potential always exists for three types of hazards: biological, chemical, and physical. Depending on the situation—whether the necropsy occurs in a vet­erinary hospital, involves a farmer’s animal in the field, or the investigation of a death of unknown cause of a wild bird or on a poultry facility, appropri­ate clothing is required and can vary from a protec­tive smock or apron and wearing rubber gloves, to the highest-level, fully encapsulated suit with a self­contained breathing apparatus.

The nature of the circumstances surrounding the animal’s death, what diagnostic procedures have been done antemortem, and knowledge about the patient will dictate the extent of the workup prior to the necropsy procedure. The best time to perform a necropsy is as soon after death as possible. Even with refrigeration, lesions become more and more difficult to assess as the postmortem period length­ens.

Good record keeping is essential, whether you are using standard medical records or specific necropsy forms. If not previously recorded on medi­cal records, the signalment information should be documented; this includes the owner’s name and address, the animal’s name or number, species, gen­der, age, breed, color, markings, and other perti­nent information that would specifically identify the animal. The initial part of the physical postmortem exam documents the animal’s measurements, including length: tip of the nose to base of the tail; height: to top of the shoulder; and girth depending on the species. Record information from tags, bands, and tattoos. Scan the carcass for microchips. Describe all abnormalities observed on the animal’s body and collect samples where possible. Note that any interpretation of lesions should not appear in the description. Make an assessment of the animal’s body condition; was the animal of normal weight, underweight, cachexic, overweight, or obese? Also note the state of muscle rigor present.

Ideally the body should be weighed and its temper­ature recorded. If you are taking field notes, record the surface the animal was lying on and the condi­tion of the ground around the animal. In addition, note the air temperature. Organ weight data can be recorded when collected during the necropsy.

Radiographs of the body are optional and should be done if this is a forensic investigation. Items to note are newly broken or dislocated bones, and healing and healed fractures. Look for the presence of foreign objects. Note any patterns of possible abuse. Making notes on dental development, bone calcification, ossi­fication centers, and epiphyseal closure can provide accurate age information, especially in pre-adults.

The surface of the body should be observed for scars, abnormalities, discharges, discolorations, nod­ules, masses, and abnormalities.

In a forensic investigation, photographing the body and the surrounding area is necessary. Include any significant findings and all lesions, both on the surface of the animal and those observed during the necropsy procedure. Placing a ruler adjacent to a lesion when photographing it will document its size.

Collect representative samples as indicated, including such things as blood, insects, mites, bone marrow, gastrointestinal contents, feces, and urine. You can take bone marrow from the femur, rib, ster­num, or vertebrae. Blood may be collected directly from the heart or major vessels, and urine from the urinary bladder. These samples can be help­ful because certain laboratory values remain stable after death. You should save gastrointestinal con­tents for identification and to screen for toxic sub­stances. During the necropsy, normal saline should be used to rinse organ surfaces, as water will cause artifacts. Take microbiological samples as soon as possible during the necropsy by using sterile instru­ments to cut away contaminated surfaces; then col­lect specimens with additional sterile instruments or culture swabs. Take samples from any abnormal areas. Even though autolysis can cause artifacts to occur in tissues, it is better to obtain a tissue sample and let the pathologist decide if the lesions noted were a result of a disease process or due to post­mortem changes.

EXERCISE 17.1 THE NECROPSY

The procedure demonstrated as depicted in the photos was performed on a cat euthanized at the owner’s request. The presumptive diagnosis, which was confirmed on necropsy, was hepatic lipidosis.

Procedure

1. Begin the procedure using sharp, clean necropsy instruments such as those pictured in Figure 17.1. If microbiological samples need to be taken, have a set of sterile instruments and culturettes avail­able. Be sure to have all other necessary supplies and specimen containers on hand and readily available, including jars of formalin. As previously mentioned, if applicable, have someone take notes for you, or speak into a recording device for later transcription. Observe and note any lesions on the surface of the body and on any orifice. In Figure 17.2 note the jaundice (yellow color) of the skin together with petechial hemorrhages.

2. Placing the animal in dorsal recumbency, make a midline incision from the tip of thejaw to just below the anus. If an abdominal infection is suspected, use sterile instruments to prep the outside of the skin, make a small incision, and then introduce a sterile culturette into the abdomen to obtain an uncontaminated microbiological sample.

FIGURE 17.1: Instruments needed for the necropsy procedure.

3. Using scissors or a scalpel, dissect and spread the skin from the abdomen, thorax, and neck area, expos­ing the underlying tissues and lymph nodes. Note the amount and color of the subcutaneous adipose tissue; in this cat the fat is icteric (jaundiced) as a result of bile pigment infiltration (Figure 17.3).

4. Carefully cut the muscles between the scapula and the thorax, and the muscles and soft tissue sur­rounding the hip joints, to allow the pelvic and thoracic limbs to lie flat against the table, thereby stabilizing the cat in dorsal recumbency. Ideally, do not cut any vessels or nerves within the front or hind limbs (Figure 17.4).

5. In the neck area, remove the muscles ventral to the trachea, and examine the thyroid and parathyroid glands on both sides (Figure 17.5). Then locate and examine the salivary glands and regional lymph nodes.

FIGURE 17.6: Abdomen has been opened to reveal the abdominal organs in situ. Note the cen­timeter marks on the scalpel handle.

FIGURE 17.7: Greater omentum has been removed and organs are being explored within abdominal cavity.

6. To completely expose the abdominal contents, use your scissors to make a cut through the abdomi­nal wall from the ventral midline incision, caudolaterally on both sides adjacent to the last ribs, to about midway on the lateral sides. At the cranial border of the pubis, make a similar cut from the midline incision laterally on both sides, and then fold the body wall out of the way to view the abdominal organs in situ (Figure 17.6). Note that the use of a scalpel handle marked in centimeters can be used to identify the relative sizes of the various organs.

7. Excise or reflect the greater omentum so that the abdominal organs can be observed. At this point, the veterinarian or pathologist will want to observe the organs (Figure 17.7). Methodically examine all of the viscera in situ, and observe their anatomical positions and sizes. Record any abnormali­ties noted. Observe the fluid in the abdomen. (The lateral cuts previously described are only made to the mid-lateral abdomen so that the fluid does not flow out.) Record any abnormalities in fluid quantity, color, consistency, or odor. Samples of this fluid can be taken for cellular content and other laboratory tests. Locate and examine both adrenal glands (Figure 17.8). If wound paths are present, use rods to demonstrate them, and then take photographs. In this cat, note the color of the liver. It should be dark reddish-brown; instead, it is a speckled yellow and red color, indicating that fatty infiltration has occurred in the parenchyma between the hepatocytes.

8. Verify the existence of negative pressure within the thoracic cavity by making a small stab incision through the diaphragm and listening for the rush of air into the pleural space. Ideally, this proce­dure should be done through the non-muscular portion of the diaphragm; any fluid present in the pleural cavity would drain out. In this cat, the puncture was done more ventrally because fluid was known to be present (Figure 17.9). At this time the puncture hole can be prepped and microbio­logical samples obtained from the thoracic cavity.

9. Using bone cutters (or, on smaller animals, serrated scissors), remove the ventral one-third of the rib cage (Figure 17.10). Observe the thoracic viscera in situ for correct anatomical position and size. If any abnormal fluid is present, record its quantity, color, consistency, and odor. Samples of that fluid can be taken and sent to the lab for cellular examination and other laboratory tests as required. In this cat, note the presence of a large quantity of icteric pleural effusion (fluid that has leaked out of blood vessels and lymphatics into tissues or a body cavity). Again, demonstrate wound paths, as described for the abdomen.

If the owner wants to take the animal home for burial, perform a cosmetic necropsy. Instead of removing the ventral one-third of the rib cage, make an incision either through the sternum or

FIGURE 17.8: Left adrenal gland is examined. FIGURE 17.9: Incision is being made through the diaphragm.

FIGURE 17.10: Ventral one-third of the chest wall has been removed. Note the icteric pleural effusion in the thoracic cavity.

FIGURE 17.11: The tongue has been removed from the oral cavity and the dissection for removal of the viscera of the neck and thoracic cavity is being initiated.

adjacent to the sternum; then hold the chest cavity open with self-retaining retractors. After your examination of the thoracic and abdominal viscera is complete, sew the body walls and skin back together again, and then send the animal home for burial.

10. Dissect through the soft tissue adjacent to the digastric muscles along the mandible, through to the mouth and around the tongue and larynx. Pull the tongue down through the incision area; then remove the tongue, larynx, trachea, esophagus, lungs, and heart as a unit, tying off the distal esopha­gus to prevent gastric spillage (Figure 17.11). Examine the oral cavity, teeth, pharynx, and tonsils.

11. Lay the removed organs on a surface for examination. Incise the pericardial sac and observe for abnormal fluid within; then reflect it over the base of the heart (Figure 17.12). Next, examine the fol­lowing: the base and apex of the heart, coronary vessels, great vessels, atria, and ventricles. Dissect the heart along the path of blood flow, similar to the way it was done during the dissection of the sheep’s heart. Remove any blood and examine the endocardium, the thickness of the heart walls, and the valves, and look for abnormalities that would indicate problems with blood flow, such as a ventricular septal defect (Figure 17.13). The heart of this cat does not appear enlarged, although samples of it should be sent in for histopathological examination to rule out hypertrophic cardiomyopathy.

12. Locate and section the thymus and the lymph nodes of the cranial thoracic viscera (Figure 17.14). Examine the external surface of the trachea, and open it from the larynx to the main bronchi (Figure 17.15). Palpate all lung lobes, and dissect through the lobar bronchi. Next, examine and open the esophagus (Figure 17.16). In this cat, there are red areas in the lungs indicating inflam­mation and consolidation, and the dorsal aspect of the intermediate lobe has an unusual lesion.

FIGURE 17.12: The viscera, including the tongue, esophagus, larynx, trachea, lungs, heart, and pericardium, have been removed from the mouth, neck, and thorax. The pericardium in this photo has already been removed.

FIGURE 17.14: Photo showing an enlarged and unusual lymph node in the cranial mediastinal area. Head of the cat is toward the right.

FIGURE 17.13: Photo of an open left atrium and ventricle (the right atrium and ventricle has already been opened).

FIGURE 17.15: Incised trachea and bronchi extending into the lung lobes.

FIGURE 17.16: Using scissors to open the esophagus attached to the dorsal aspect of the trachea.

FIGURE 17.17: Dissected urogenital system from the vulva to the kidneys. This cat was spayed so the vagina, cervix, and part of the uterine body were present.

13. Using bone cutters, locate by palpation each obturator foramen and cut the pubis cranially and caudally on both sides, opening the pelvic canal. Using a scalpel, incise the skin and subcutane­ous tissue around the external genitalia. Free both the kidneys and ureters from their attachment sites. Bluntly dissect the external genital tract, urethra, and, in the female, dissect the vagina, cer­vix, and body of the uterus (include the horns and ovaries if still present) off of their attachment to the rectum. In the male, remove both the testes and spermatic cord from their attachments at the proximal prostate area. Remove the kidneys, ureters, bladder, urethra, and genitalia, and place them on a clean surface for examination. Reflect the renal capsule from each kidney, and examine the ureters and renal vasculature. Cut one kidney longitudinally, and the other trans­versely; this was not done in Figure 17.17, so that it could show the entire genito-urinary tract. Then extend each incision into the renal pelvis and ureter. Then serially section each kidney and ureter. Open the bladder, urethra, and prostate gland (if a male). Then examine the genitalia.

14. Examine the anus and anal glands; then, using a scalpel, incise the surrounding skin and subcuta­neous tissues. Remove the entire abdominal viscera as a unit. Then examine the remaining lymph nodes and the abdominal aorta.

15. Lay the organs on a clean surface. Next, examine the entire pancreas. Then open the distal esoph­agus and stomach, and examine the contents and lining (Figure 17.18). Collect samples of the contents, as necessary. Incise through the pylorus to the area of the hepatopancreatic ampulla. Apply pressure to the gallbladder while observing for bile expulsion through the major duo­denal papilla (Figure 17.19). Open and examine the gallbladder. Then open and examine the

FIGURE 17.18: The gastrointestinal tract has been removed. The dissection starts with the open­ing of the stomach. Normal contents and gastric folds were noted.

FIGURE 17.19: The duodenum has been opened and the major duodenal papilla with green bile coming through the opening is demonstrated after compressing the gallbladder. hepatic artery and veins, and the portal vein (visceral surfaces). Serially section the liver and spleen (Figure 17.20). Samples can be taken in areas containing lesions. Examine the omentum, mesentery, root of the mesentery, and mesenteric lymph nodes. Open the duodenum and con­tinue through both the small intestine and large intestine. In Figure 17.21, only a small part of the jejunum has been opened. Note that the mucosa is normal and lacks petechiation. Collect fecal samples as indicated.

16. Examine the hip, stifle, shoulder, and elbow joints for ruptured tendons and ligaments; then open them to look for arthritic changes and abnormal fluid (Figure 17.22). Document any evidence of trauma observed. For any bony swellings, the muscles should be stripped off and a section of dis­eased bone sent to the lab.

17. If there is any suggestion of neurological disease, the brain and spinal cord should be opened. In this exercise, the rest of the examination is optional. First, carefully remove the eyes intact. Then

FIGURE 17.20: The liver is being sectioned. Note the abnormal light yellow speckled appearance of the liver tissue characteristic of fatty infiltration.

FIGURE 17.21: The jejunum is being opened along its length. Normal mucosa is visible.

FIGURE 17.22: The coxofemoral joint has been opened and disarticulated with the femoral head and acetabulum visible. The pelvis is toward the left and the leg is toward the right.

remove the head. Make a dorsal incision from the nose to the foramen magnum on the midline, and reflect the skin ventrally. Next, transect and examine the ear canals. After excision of the temporal muscles, make lateral cuts from the foramen magnum cranially on each side, until they meet. Pry off the top of the skull and examine the internal dorsal surface. Turn the head over and let the brain fall gently into your hand or onto a surface, while carefully cutting the cranial nerves to free the brain from the skull. Then serially section the brain.

18. Saw transversely through the frontal and maxillary bones in front of the orbits to examine the nasal cavities and sinuses.

19. Return to the body cavities; examine the ventral aspects of the vertebrae. Remove the rest of the skin and observe the dorsal body musculature for any abnormalities.

20. In cases of spinal disease or trauma, cutting through the laminae and removing the dorsal spinal processes using a saw or bone cutter will open the spinal canal and allow removal of the spinal cord in one piece.

Hepatic lipidosis is a secondary disease caused when a cat stops eating (becomes anorexic). It is more likely tooccur in heavy or obese cats. Fatty infi ltration causes damage to hepatocytes and, ulti­mately, liver failure. Normalhemoglobin degradation cannot occur, and bile pigments back up into tissues, causing icterus in organs (and fl uids) and the jaundiced appearance of the skin. The necropsy was to determine the reason for the anorexia. The reason for the inciting cause was not readily appar­ent, and histopathological examination was needed. It is possible that some initial liver problems might have caused additional liver problems. Specimens taken for histopathological examination would have included the liver, the kidney, the entire intermediate lung lobe, the abnormal cranial thoracic lymph node, and a distal section of the right humerus, which was either very arthritic or contained an osteo- sarcoma.Unfortunately,the owner did not elect to have histopathology done.

EXERCISE 17.2 SECTIONING METHOD FOR TUMORS

Tissue samples obtained for lab analysis during the necropsy procedure must be prepared in such a manner to ensure that the fixative solution (10% formalin) penetrates sufficiently deep to prevent autolysis in the center of the specimen. Formalin can be expected to penetrate only about 1 cm in most tissues. For a tumor found during a necropsy or removed during surgery, it is often necessary to pre­serve the entire structure to identify its borders and verify that complete excision occurred. The follow­ing exercise will demonstrate the proper method of tissue preparation to ensure adequate preservation throughout the specimen.

1. Using a crabapple, make serial slices that yield sections no greater than 1 cm thick. Do not cut all the way through the crabapple. Instead, leave a 1-cm thick area at the bottom of the cuts so that the fruit remains in one piece (Figure 17-23). If this were a tumor, a pathologist would be able to view the tissue in its entirety in its proper structural alignment, and to observe all its borders, and the formalin would be able to penetrate the entire tumor.

2. When fixing a piece of tissue, the amount of fixative needed is 10 times the volume of the tissue. Accordingly, a 1 cubic centimeter (cc) piece of tissue must be placed in 10 milliliters (ml) of fixa­tive. To find a tumor’s volume in cubic centimeters, a technician could measure it and calculate it, or weigh it and utilize the following estimate: assume 1 gram (g) of tissue displaces 1 cc of fluid, therefore a tumor weighing 10 grams could be estimated to have a volume of 10 cc. Weigh your crabapple in grams and fill in the blanks below to estimate the amount of fixative you would need.

a. weight of crabapple:_____________ g =_____________ cc

b. _________ cc ? 10 =____________________ ml of fixative required.

c. What is the minimum number of slices necessary for a tumor that is 8 cm long?

Answer:_________________________________________________________________________

d. How many milliliters of fixative are necessary for a perfectly round tumor that is 4 cm in diam­eter? The equation for the volume of a sphere is V=4∕3πr³, where V= volume, r=radius.

Answer:_________________________________________________________________________

3. The tissue is fixed for 24 hours, and then it can be transferred to a small container filled with fixa­tive for shipping. The answer to question c is seven slices, and the answer to question d is 335 ml.

Note that in “d” above, for simplicity’s sake, we used a perfectly round sphere. If the tumor were an ellipsoid, or egg-shaped, the formula would have been V=4∕3πr₁r₂r₃ (see figure 17.24). It is obvious now thatjust weighing a tumor or mass and using the approximation of converting the weight directly to cc’s is much easier than doing these calculations.

There may be a time when the organ or tumor is too large and/or you do not have enough forma­lin to ensure adequate preservation. In this case, placing the specimen in a bag filled with physiologic saline solution (and then double bagging it) will suffice if you can get it to a lab as soon as possible.

FIGURE 17.23: Method of sectioning of a tumor for fixation.

FIGURE 17.24: The three radii used to calculate the volume of a elliptoid-shaped object.

Clinical Significance

Forensics is an area of veterinary medicine in which all veterinarian must be knowledgeable especially considering the possibility of bioterrorism or zoonotic disease outbreaks. According to Dr. Lonnie King, Acting Director of the National Center for Zoonotic, Vector-Borne, and Enteric Diseases, infectious organisms cause some 1,620 human diseases, 60 percent of which are zoonotic. In addition, of the 35 major human disease outbreaks over the past two-and-a-half decades, 75 percent were zoonotic. Most states have procedures in place or are developing procedures to address disasters, terrorism, and zoonotic diseases. Emergency response teams combining veterinarians and veterinary technicians respond to the plights of animals caught in deadly situations and to emergent strains of any zoonotic diseases that might enter their state or area. Training in proper procedures, in the use of protective equipment, and in the team’s activation and response are of critical importance.

Safety is again the prime concern. If something killed an animal, the aim is to prevent it from killing again. The common procedure is to institute a three-layered border to isolate and secure a scene, whether it is a crime scene or the scene at which an animal or bird is found dead of unknown causes. The outer border is the safe area for bystanders, media, and nonessential personnel; the middle zone is a buffer and work area; and the inner zone is the core area or the site where the event occurred. Barricades consisting of tape or ropes must be deployed to prevent unauthorized people from entering the area and potentially contaminating the site or themselves. A cleansing area for disinfecting gear and removing dangerous materials must be set up. Levels of protection required vary with the nature of the event, and generally too much protection is better than not enough. Disposable coveralls, gowns, boot and shoe covers, and facemasks are best, but using a set of gear that is dedicated for this job and then disinfected is also acceptable. Even using a disposable pen to write with may prevent accidentally taking dangerous disease agents home or back to the office.

Experience will tell us when “something isn’t right.” This may be especially true with odors, as many conditions have a characteristic odor. Always treat unrecognized odors as though you are dealing with a toxic substance. Assume the animal has an infectious disease until proven otherwise.

If a disease is suspected that has great risk of environmental contamination, either a diagnosis must be obtained prior to the necropsy or it must be performed under strict quarantine conditions. Anthrax is an example of a bioterrorism weapon. Opening a carcass with anthrax will induce the bacteria to form spores that are then dispersed throughout the environment. If anthrax is suspected, get blood smears first from peripheral areas or from swellings, and take them to a lab for examination prior to opening the carcass during a necropsy. If the diagnosis is confirmed, the carcass must be quarantined and destroyed properly, such as incineration.

Determination of time of death is dependent on body temperature, which in turn depends on ambient environmental temperature. Body weight and an animal’s fat layer all factor into body temperature change. Initially, body temperature drops; however, after the onset of putrefaction due to metabolic activity of bacteria and other decomposing organisms, the body’s temperature will rise again. Rigor mortis depends on the temperature and concentrations of lactic acid. High metabolic activity just prior to death (e.g., run­ning) leads to higher metabolic levels of lactic acid and thus shortens the time required for muscle rigor to develop. Higher environmental temperatures also shorten this time. In temperate regions, the following is a general rule of thumb that may help in estimating the time of death (but use it with caution): Warm means dead for not more than eight hours; stiff means dead for not more than three days.

---------------- his final story is almost embarrassing to tell. When I was between my third and fourth years X of veterinary school I worked as a technician in a local veterinary hospital in Ft. Collins, (j∕ Colorado, where we encountered the case of a dog with severe dyspnea. The owner told us that he had brought the dog in as soon as he noticed its condition. A thoracic radiographic series showed multiple radio-opaque masses scattered throughout the lung field. It appeared to be either primary or metastatic neoplasia, and the owner decided not to biopsy any of the thoracic masses and instead elected euthanasia. The veterinarian in charge of the case recommended that we send the dog to the diagnostic lab at Colorado State University. I made the arrangements and took the body to the pathology lab.

Upon opening the chest, we found granulomatous lesions characteristic of a deep fungal infection, which the lab confirmed to be cryptococcosis, caused by the organism Cryptococcus neoformans. It was not surprising this dog was dyspneic; very little normal lung tissue remained. Furthermore, the owner must not have been paying much attention to this dog because this disease does not get to this level overnight.

About a week or so later, I noticed a red, pustular lesion on the front of my right forearm. Of course, I immediately got out my pathology book and read that cryptococcosis has multiple forms: respiratory, cutaneous, ophthalmic, and nervous. The fungus responsible is transmitted by inhalation of the yeast-like form of the organism, and in cats it usually colonizes the nose and sinuses before spreading to other organs. In dogs it has a predilection for the CNS and the eye but disseminates to more organs than it does in the cat. I discovered that no documentation exists that the spheri­cal organisms found in tissues are directly transmissible from animals to humans. In other words, humans can get cryptococcosis, but only from the yeast-like soil-borne state. I was safe. At least, I thought so—until I went to a dermatologist.

“It's theoretically possible you got infected if you splashed cells from the dog's chest onto an already-open sore,” he told me.

“I didn't splash any tissue onto my arm,” I told him. He was not convinced. So much for applying scientific evidence and logic.

“Oh boy, this could be my first case of cryptococcosis,” he declared excitedly. “We'll have to do a punch biopsy.” He actually said this! I don't know where he went to medical school and learned his bedside manner, but I figured it had to be Lower Moronovia Medical School for the Terminally Insensitive.

Still, no matter how much I was sure he was full of dog-poo, in the back of my mind the “What ifs” kept creeping in. As it turned out, the biopsy came back negative; it was nothing more than a little bacterial infection. A course of antibiotics and I was fine.

As I think back on this, I was lucky, for “a little bacterial infection” could have been more than this. One of my veterinary school classmates developed a very resistant staph infection on his neck. As I remember, it took months and the use of an autogenous vaccine to get rid of it.

Early in my career I used to be more cavalier in my dealings with cat abscesses and the like, but now I wear protective gloves when dealing with all infections, and a mask and glasses for dentals. I am conscientious about wearing my protective gear during radiographic exposures, and about mak­ing sure that no part of me is in the direct beam, even when wearing gloves. Safety first, in all things!

Summary

In this chapter you have learned about the necropsy procedure: why it is necessary for vet­erinary technicians to know how to perform one, and how you might assist your veterinarian and add another skill to your repertoire. Safety has been stressed a number of times, both in terms of your personal safety but also that of the environment. You learned about antemortem examinations of the body and all they entail, plus the procedures involved in postmortem examinations. When it is necessary to send an organ or pathological specimen such as a tumor to a lab, you learned how to secion it.

review questions

1. What is the purpose of a necropsy?

2. Differentiate between antemortem and postmortem.

3. Why would a veterinary technician need to know how to perform a necropsy?

4. What is the primary concern in all postmortem exams?

5. Name the three types of hazards that might be encountered during a necropsy.

6. When is the best time to perform a necropsy?

7. Define signalment.

8. What parts of an animal should be examined prior to starting to cut?

9. What liquid should be used to clean the surfaces of the body or of organs, and why?

10.Name all the equipment and supplies needed to perform the necropsy procedure.

11.Why is the abdomen opened as described in the necropsy procedure?

12.Why is a puncture through the diaphragm made prior to opening the thorax?

13.Why is only the ventral one-third of the chest wall removed?

14.What thickness of tissue can formalin be expected to penetrate?

15. To ensure that a tumor that is 10 cm long and 5 cm thick is properly fixed, how many cuts of what depth would be required?

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Neal, K. G., and B. H. Kalbus, Dissection Guidefor the Cat (and Selected Sheep Organs). Minneapolis: Burgess, 1971.

Patten, B. M., Foundations of Embryology. 2nd ed. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1964.

Pratt, P.W., Principles and Practice of Veterinary Technology. St. Louis: Mosby, 1998.

Reagan, W. J., T G. Sanders, and D. B. DeNicola, Veterinary Hematology Atlas of Common Domestic Species. Ames, Iowa: Iowa State University, 1998.

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A

Abdominal, defined, 3

Abdominal aorta, 228

Abdominal oblique muscle, 167

Abdominal wall muscles, 167

Abducens nerve, 318

Abduction, defined, 4, 5

Abductor cruris caudalis muscle, 172

Abomasum, 197, 199

Absolute cell count, 83

Absolute refractory period, 304

Accessory digestive organs, 181

Accessory head, 162

Accessory lobes, 243

Accessory pancreatic duct, 193-194

Accessory sex glands, 283

Acetylcholine, 311 Acetylcholinesterase, 320 Achilles tendon, 174

Acidophilic cell parts, 27

Acromial part, 159

Actin, 149, 152

Action of the muscle, 154-155

Action potential, 303

Active transport, 20-21

Adduction, defined, 4, 5

Adductor brevis, 172

Adductor longus, 172

Adductor magnus, 172

Adductor muscles, 172

Adductor pollicis longus muscle, 165-166

Adenohypophysis, 268

Adenosine diphosphate (ADP), 177

Adenosine triphosphate (ATP), 21, 25, 177

Adipocytes, 62

Adipose tissue connective tissue, 54 described, 62 function, 63 hypodermis or subcutis, 92 location, 62-63 pigmented skin, 96 skin, 86 slide, 63-64 subcutaneous, 98

Adjacent, defined, 2

Adrenal cortex, 269

Adrenal glands, 270-271, 273

Adrenal medulla, 271

Adrenalin, 271

Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), 269

Adventitia, 182

Aging a dog or cat, 183-184

Agonist muscle, 320

Agranulocytes, 70

Air capillaries, 248

Aldosterone, 259, 270

Alimentary tract, 181, 182

Allantoic membranes, 285

Allantoic sac, 285

Allantois, 285

All-or-none principle, 304

Alpha cells, 272

Alveolar duct, 245

Alveolar sac, 245

Alveoli, 41, 43, 245

Amnion, 285

Amnionic sac, 285

Amorphous ground substance, 66

Ampullae, 283

Amylase, 202-203

Anatomical terms, 3-4

Anconeus muscle, 162

Androgens, 271

Anestrus, 285, 292

Angiotensin, 259

Antagonist muscle, 320

Antebrachium, defined, 3

Ante-mortem, 341

Anterior, defined, 1

Anterior chambers of the eye, 335

Anterior pituitary, 268

Anterior-posterior view, 6

Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)

endocrine system, 268, 270

urinary system, 259, 263-264

Antigenicity, 20

Antlers, 100

Anucleated red blood cells, 70

Aorta, 210, 217

Aortic arch, 225

Aortic valve, 218

Apex of the heart, 211

Apical foramen, 185

Apical lobes, 243

Apical surface, 41

Apocrine glands, 94, 96

Appendicular, defined, 3

Appendicular skeleton, 109

Apple, cross-sectioning, 35-36

Aqueduct of Sylvius, 319

Aqueous humor, 335

Arachnoid, 314

Arbor vitae, 314, 319

Arcuate artery, 255, 262

Arcuate vein, 262

Areolar or loose connective tissue, 54, 56-57

Arrector pili muscle, 96

Arterial system, 208

Arteries, 219, 223, 224-229

Arthrology, 139-140

Articular projections, 110

Arytenoid cartilages, 240

Ascending colon, 195

Ascending loop, 258

ATP. See Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) Atrial systole, 209

Atrioventricular bundle, 230

Atrioventricular node, 230

Atrioventricular valves, 209 Auditory tubes, 188, 239, 327

Auscultate, 251

Autolysis, 24, 32

Autonomic nervous system, 299, 310-313

Autophagy, 24

Axial, defined, 3

Axial skeleton, 109

Axillary, defined, 3

Axillary artery, 227

Axillary vein, 223

Axon, 28, 81, 300, 302

Axon hillock, 82, 303

Axonal terminal, 301

Azurophilic granules, 74

Azygos vein, 221

B

Back

deep back muscles, 176-177

deep muscles, 161

superficial muscles, 158-159

Band neutrophils, 71, 74

Bars, 100

Basal cells, 49, 53

Basal lamina, 41

Basal surface, 41

Base of the heart, 211

Basement membrane

epidermis, 87

epithelial tissue, 41

simple columnar epithelium, 46

simple squamous epithelium, 42

stratified columnar epithelium, 52

stratified squamous epithelium, 49 urinary bladder or transitional epithelium, 53

Basihyoid bone, 240

Basophilic cell parts, 27

Basophils, 56, 70, 71, 75

Beta cells, 272

Biceps brachii muscle, 162

Biceps femoris muscle, 170

Bicornuate, 288

Bicuspid valve, 218

Bile, 182

Bile duct, 182, 195

Bipolar neurons, 301

Birds. See Fowl

Bitch, mammary gland, 104

Blood, 54, 70-76

Blood pressure, 219, 233-234 Blood-brain barrier, 322

Blood-vascular system, 207, 219

Body of the stomach, 190

Body of the uterus, 280, 288 Boideus thoracic muscles, 161

Bone marrow cavities and spaces, 109 Bones. See also Skeletal system basihyoid bone, 240

cancellous (spongy) bone, 109, 114-116 coffin bone, 100

compact bone, 109, 111-114 comparative osteology, 130-139 carpus, 134

chicken skeleton, 138-139 feet, 137

foreleg, 133

hind leg, 135

skulls, 130-132

tarsus, 136 connective tissue, 54, 76-77 distal sesamoid bone, 100 erosion of, 109 flat bones, 110 functions, 109 Haversian system of, 112 histology, 111-116

cancellous (spongy) bone, 114-116

compact bone, 111-114 irregular, 110 lacuna bone, 77 long bone parts, 110, 111 metacarpal bones, 125-126 nasal turbinate, 239 navicular bone, 100 pneumatic, 110 process, 110 projections, 110 remodeling, 109 short bones, 100, 110 types of, 110 woven bone, 109

Bony orbit, 332 Bowman’s capsule, 37, 43, 44, 258 Brachial, defined, 3

Brachial artery, 227 Brachial plexus, 305, 306 Brachial vein, 223

Brachialis muscle, 162 Brachiocephalic artery, 226 Brachiocephalic trunk, 226 Brachiocephalic veins, 222 Brachioradialis muscle, 165 Brain

anatomy, 314-319 brainstem, 313, 314 nerve cells, 82 nervous system, 299 physiology, 313-314

Branched cardiac muscle, 79, 80 Broad ligament, 281, 288 Bronchial sounds, 251

Brown fat, 62 Buccal, defined, 4 Bulbar conjunctiva, 332 Bulbourethral glands, 283, 292 Bulbs of the heel, 103 Bulbus glandis, 283

C

Calcium measurements, 142-143

Canal, 110

Canaliculi, 77, 113

Cancellous (spongy) bone, 109, 114-116 Capillaries, 45, 71

Capillary bed, 219

Carcinomas, 144

Cardia, 190

Cardiac lobes, 243

Cardiac muscle, 79-80, 147, 152-153

Cardiac region, 190

Cardiac sphincter, 190

Cardiovascular system

arteries, 224-229

blood pressure, 219, 233-234 blood-vascular system, 207 clinical significance, 234 electrocardiogram, 230-233 heart

anatomy, 211-218

cardiac cycle, 209-210 chambers, 209 function, 40, 207

overview, 207, 209-210

phases, 209

overview, 207-208

vascular system, 219

veins, 220-224

veterinary vignettes, 235-236

Carina, 242

Carotene, 96

Carpal pad, 97

Carpus, cat skeleton, 125-126

Cartilage connective tissue

blood, 70-76

bone, 76-77

elastic cartilage, 67-68 fibrous cartilage, 68-70 histology, 54 hyaline cartilage, 66-67 overview, 66

Cat

aging, 183-184

artery dissection, 224-229 blood, 71, 73

claw, 98

description using anatomical terms, 7-8 electrocardiogram, 231

Cat (continued )

endocrine gland dissection, 272-274 foot pads, 96-98

kidney dissection, 259-262 lower respiratory system, 242-247 mammary gland, 104 necropsy, 343-351 peripheral nerve dissection, 305-310 reproductive system dissection

female, 288-290

male, 290-292

skeletal musculature, 154-177 abdominal wall muscles, 167 chest, superficial muscles, 155-156 deep back muscles, 176-177 front leg muscles, 161-166 hind leg, deep muscles, 175 hind leg, superficial muscles, 167-171 neck, superficial muscles, 157-158 posterior leg muscles, 174 shoulder and back, deep muscles, 161 shoulder and back, superficial muscles, 158-159

thigh, deeper muscles, 172-174 skeleton, 116-129

carpus, 125-126 femur, 127-128 fibula, 128 humerus, 124 metacarpal bones, 125-126 metatarsals, 129 os coxae (pelvis), 126-127 phalanges, 125-126, 129 radius, 124-125 ribs and sternum, 119 scapula, 123-124 skull and mandible, 120-123 tarsus, 128 tibia, 128 ulna, 125 vertebrae, 116-119 topographical anatomy, 9 upper respiratory system, 239-242 vein dissection, 220-224

Cauda equina, 305 Caudad, defined, 2 Caudal, defined, 2, 3 Caudal artery, 229 Caudal colliculi, 314

Caudal lobes, 243

Caudal mediastinum, 242

Caudal mesenteric artery, 229

Caudal thyroid artery, 226

Caudal vein, 224

Caudal vena cava, 216

Caudally, defined, 2

Caudate lobe, 190

Cavities, 110

Cecum, 195

Celiac artery, 228

Cell

absolute cell count, 83 alpha, 272 anatomy, 20 anucleated red blood cells, 70 basal, 49, 53

beta, 272

cell body, 28, 300

cell junctions, 21

cell processes, 28

clinical significance, 29 columnar, 41 connective tissue, 54 cross-sectional appearance of a sheet of cells, 38

cuboidal, 41, 45 cut at angles, 35 cytoplasm, 20, 22 defined, 19 delta, 272

differential cell count, 70 embryonal mesenchymal, 109 endothelial, 42

erythrocytes (red blood cells), 70, 74 germ, 279 glial cells, 299 goblet cells, 48, 49

ICSH, 269 intercalated, 259 interstitial (cells of Leydig), 282 juxtaglomerular, 259

Kupffer cells, 182 Langerhans’ cell, 87 leukocytes (white blood cells), 70, 83 mast cells, 56, 57

Merkel cells, 87

mesenchymal cells, 55 mesothelial, 42 mucosal cells, 48-49 multinucleated, 21, 149 muscle cells, 79, 149 myoepithelial, 259 nerve cells, 81, 82 pancreatic islet, 272 parts of, 20-26

cilia, 26

cytoplasm, 20, 22 flagella, 26 identification using microscope, 27-29 inclusion bodies, 20, 26 nucleus, 20, 21-22

organelles, 20, 22-26 plasma membrane, 20-21

plasma cells, 56, 57 principal cells, 259 processed, 302 purpose of, 19 relative cell count, 83

Renshaw cell, 320

reticular, 65

Schwann cells, 304

sliced, 34

spindle-shaped, 81, 153 squamous, 38, 41 stellate mesenchymal, 55 striated cardiac muscle, 79 structural components, 20

surface, 41

tissue, 40

unstriated smooth muscle, 81

Cementum, 185

Central (Haversian) canal, 113

Central canal

bone, 76-77

nervous system, 318, 319, 320

Central nervous system (CNS), 299 Central pallor, 70

Central suleus, 100

Centrioles, 25

Centrosome, 25

Cephalic, defined, 2 Cephalic vein, 223

Cerebellar peduncle, 314, 315 Cerebellum, 314, 315, 319

Cerebral hemispheres, 313, 314

Cerebral longitudinal fissure, 314

Cerebral peduncle, 314, 318

Cerebrospinal fluid, 314, 318

Cerebrum, 313

Cervical, defined, 3

Cervical artery, 227

Cervical nerves, 305

Cervical part, 158

Cervix, 281, 290

Chestnuts, 98, 99

Chicken skeleton, 138-139

Choanae, 239

Choanal slit, 248

Chondroblasts, 66

Chondrocytes, 66, 67, 69 Chondrogenic hyaline cartilage, 66 Chondroitin sulfate, 66

Chondronectin, 66

Chordae tendineae, 217

Chorion, 285

Choroid, 336

Choroid plexus, 318

Chromatin, 22

Chromosomes, 22

Cilia

centrioles, 25

described, 26

epithelial tissue, 41

eyelashes, 332 pseudostratified columnar epithelium, 48

Ciliary body, 335

Cisterns, 22, 24

Claws, 98

Cleidobrachialis muscle, 156

Cleidocervicalis muscle, 158

Cleidomastoid muscle, 158

Cloaca, 202

Coccygeal, defined, 3

Coccygeal nerves, 305

Cochlea, 327, 328

Coffin bone, 100

Collagenous fibers

areolar connective tissue, 57

areolar or loose connective tissue, 56 connective tissue, 54

dense irregular connective tissue, 58 dense regular connective tissue, 60 fibrous cartilage, 68, 69 reticular connective tissue, 64 skin, 90, 91

Collateral cartilages, 100

Collateral sulci, 103

Collateral ulnar artery, 228

Collecting duct, 258 Columnar cells, 41

Commissures, 103

Common iliac veins, 224

Common meatus, 239

Compact bone, 109, 111-114 Compound microscope. See Microscope Condyle, 110

Cones of the eye, 337

Conjunctiva, 332

Conjunctival sac, 332

Connective tissue

adipose tissue, 62-64

areolar or loose connective tissue, 56-57 connective tissue proper, 54 dense irregular connective tissue, 58-59 dense regular connective tissue, 59-60 elastic connective tissue, 61-62 embryonal connective tissue, or mesenchyme, 55-56

histology, 54-55

overview, 40, 41

papilla, 94

reticular connective tissue, 64-65

sheath, 94

special. See Special connective tissues subcutaneous areolar connective tissue, 92 Contact, defined, 4 Copulation, 279

Coracobrachialis muscle, 162, 164 Corium, 98, 103

Cornified tissue, 49

Cornua, 288

Coronary band, 98, 100

Coronary circulation, 208

Coronary corium, 100, 103

Coronary groove, 100

Coronary ligament, 189-190

Coronary sinus, 214, 217

Coronary vascular system, 214 Corpora quadrigemina, 314

Corpus albicans, 280, 283

Corpus callosum, 313, 318

Corpus cavernosum penis, 283

Corpus hemorrhagicum, 283

Corpus luteum (CL), 280, 283

Corpus spongiosum penis, 283

Corpuscle

Meissner’s corpuscles, 90

Pacinian corpuscle, 92 renal corpuscle, 37

Cortex

cerebellum, 319

hairy mammal skin, 93, 94 kidney vascular supply, 255 ovary, 280

Corticosterone, 271

Cortisol, 271

Cortisone, 271

Costocervical trunk, 227

Cow

comparative osteology, feet, 137 mammary gland, 103-104 Cowper’s glands, 283

Crackles, 251

Craniad, defined, 2

Cranial, defined, 1, 2, 3

Cranial drawer movement, 143

Cranial laryngeal artery, 227

Cranial lobes, 243

Cranial mediastinum, 242, 245

Cranial mesenteric artery, 228

Cranial mesenteric vein, 224

Cranial nerve, 299, 310, 315

Cranial pancreatoduodenal artery, 228

Cranial thyroid artery, 226-227

Cranial vena cava, 216, 221

Cranial-caudal view, 6

Cranially, defined, 2

Cranium, defined, 2, 3

Creatinine kinase (CK), 177

Cremaster muscle, 283

Crest, 110

Cricoid cartilage, 239

Cricothyroid ligament, 239

Cristae, 25

Crop of fowl, 201

Cross-striations, 79, 80

Crown, tooth, 185

Crura, 246

Crural, defined, 3

Cryptococcosis, 354

Cryptorchidism, 296

Cuboidal cells, 41

Cuticle, 93, 94

Cystic duct, 182, 195

Cystic fibrosis, 29

Cytoplasm

cell anatomy, 20, 22

elastic cartilage, 68

simple squamous epithelium, 42

Cytoskeletal elements, 25-26, 82

Cytosol, 22

D

Deep, defined, 3

Deep circumflex iliac arteries, 229

Deep fascia, 149

Deep gluteal muscle, 171

Deflection waves, 231

Delta cells, 272

Deltoid muscle, 159

Demodectic mange, 104

Dendrites

cellular, 28

nervous tissue, 81, 82

neuron, 300, 302

Dense connective tissue, 54

Dense irregular connective tissue, 58-59

Dense regular connective tissue, 59-60

Dental charting, 184-185

Dental formulas, 183

Dentin, 185

Depolarization, 304

Depolarizing phase, 304

Depressions, 110

Dermal papillae, 90

Dermatology, 104

Dermis, 86, 90-92

Descement’s membrane, 334

Descending colon, 195

Descending loop, 258

Desmology, 140-142

Desmosomes, 87

Diaphragm, 246

Diaphragmatic flexure, 200

Diaphragmatic lobes, 243

Diaphysis, 110

Diastole, 209

Diastolic blood pressure, 219, 233

Diencephalon, 313

Diestrus, 285, 295

Differential cell count, 70

Digastric muscle, 158

Digestive system

alimentary canal, 182

clinical significance, 204

dissection, 186-196

exocrine pancreatic enzyme analysis, 202-204

fowl digestive anatomy, 201-202 large intestine, 199-200 overview, 181-182

ruminant stomach, 197-199

teeth, 182-185

aging a dog or cat, 183-184 dental charting, 184-185 dental formulas, 183 structure, 185

Triadan system, 184-185

veterinary vignettes, 204-205

Digital, defined, 3

Digital cushion, 100

Digital pads, 96

Digitorum superficialis, 166

Diploid zygote, 279

Directional terms, 2-3

Disease

demodectic mange, 104

distemper, 322

mites, 104

MMM autoimmune condition, 178-179 necropsy procedure safety, 353 premunition, 104

rabies, 322

Distal (teeth position), 4

Distal, defined, 3

Distal convoluted tubule, 258

Distal loop, 200

Distal phalanx, 98, 100, 104

Distal sesamoid bone, 100

Distemper, 322

Doe, mammary gland, 104

Dog

aging, 183-184

blood, 70-72

boxers and tumors, 323-324

claw, 98

color vision, 337

cranial cruciate ligament rupture, 143 demodectic mange, 104 distemper, 322

electrocardiogram, 231, 232

Dog (continued )

female breeding time, 292-296

foot pads, 96-98 larynx and trachea, 66 mammary gland, 104 nose, 96, 97 pigmented skin, 96 rabies, 322

reticular connective tissue, 64

skull, 130

spinal reflexes, 320-322

stifle joint, 141

topographical anatomy, 9

Doppler blood pressure measurement, 233-234

Dorsal, defined, 1, 2, 3

Dorsal funiculus, 320

Dorsal meatus, 239

Dorsal median sulcus, 320

Dorsal mediastinum, 242

Dorsal palpebrae, 332

Dorsal plane, defined, 5

Dorsal recumbency, defined, 3 Dorsal-palmar (dorsopalmar) view, 6 Dorsal-plantar (dorsoplantar) view, 6 Dorsal-ventral view, 6

Dorsolateral palmaromedial oblique

(DLPM oblique) view, 6

Dorsomedial palmarolateral oblique view, 6

Dorsopalmar (D-P) view, 6

Dorsum, defined, 2

Ductus deferens

cardiovascular system, 223 male reproductive tract, 282, 283, 291

Duodenum, 182, 192-193

Dura mater, 314

D-V view, 6

Dyspnea, 354

E

Ear canals, 327

Eardrum, 327

Ears, 327-331

Eccrine glands, 96

Elastic connective tissue, 54, 61-62, 67-68

Elastic fibers

areolar connective tissue, 57

areolar or loose connective tissue, 56 connective tissue, 54 dense irregular connective tissue, 58 elastic cartilage, 67, 68 skin, 91

Elastin, connective tissue, 54 Electrocardiogram

defined, 230

deflection waves, 231-232 function, 231 intrinsic conduction system, 230 measurements, 232 recording, 232-233 sinoatrial node, 230

Embryo, 279 Embryonal connective tissue, 54 Embryonal connective tissue or mesenchyme, 55-56 Embryonal mesenchymal cells, 109 Enamel, tooth, 185

Endocardium, 212 Endochondral ossification, 100, 109 Endocrine system

adrenal glands, 270-271 clinical significance, 276 function, 267

gland dissection, 272-274 glands, 42, 270-272 hypothalamus, 268-270 oral glucose tolerance test, 275 overview, 267-268 pancreas, 272 parathyroid glands, 271 pituitary gland, 268-270 thyroid gland, 271 veterinary vignettes, 276-277 Endocytosis, 24 Endometrium, 280 Endomysium, 149 Endoplasmic reticulum (ER), 21, 22-23 Endosteum, 112 Endothelial cells, 42 Endothelium, 42, 219 Eosinophils, 56, 70, 71, 75 Epicardium, 211, 212, 242 Epicondyle, 110 Epidermis, 86, 87-90 Epididymis, 282, 291 Epiglottis, 188, 240 Epikeras, 99 Epimysium, 149

Epinephrine, 271

Epiphyseal plates, 110

Epiphysis, 110, 114-116

Epithalamus, 314

Epithelia, 41

Epithelial tissue, histology, 41-54

Epithelium, 40, 182, 333

Equilibrium, 327-331

Equines, large intestine, 199-200

Ergots, 98, 99

Erosion of bone, 109

Erythrocytes (red blood cells), 70, 74

Esophageal arteries, 228

Esophageal hiatus, 189

Esophagus

digestive system, 182, 188-189, 201 slide, 49-50, 51

Estrogen, 104, 285

Estrus, 283, 285

Eustachian tubes, 188, 239, 327

Eversion, defined, 4

Ewe, mammary gland, 104

Excitatory postsynaptic potential, 320

Exocrine glands, 42

Exocrine pancreatic enzyme analysis, 202-204

Exocytosis, 24

Extension, defined, 4, 5

Extensor carpi radialis, 165

Extensor digitorum communis, 165

Extensor digitorum lateralis, 165, 175

Extensor digitorum longus, 175

External abdominal oblique muscle, 167

External auditory canal, 327

External carotid artery, 227

External iliac arteries, 229

External iliac vein, 224

External intercostals, 176

External jugular vein, 222

External respiration, 238

External root sheath, 94

External urethral orifice, 281

Extraocular eye muscles, 333

Eyelashes, 332

Eyes, 332-337, 338-339

F

Facet, 110

Facial nerve, 318

Falciform ligament, 189

Falx cerebri, 314

Fascia lata, 168

Fascicles, 149

Fauces, 187

Femoral artery, 229

Femoral nerve, 308

Femoral vein, 224

Femur, cat skeleton, 127-128

Fetus, 279

Fibers, 54

Fibroblasts

areolar connective tissue, 57

areolar or loose connective tissue, 56 connective tissue, 55

dense irregular connective tissue, 58 dense regular connective tissue, 59, 60, 61 mammal elastic connective tissue, 61

Fibrous cartilage (fibrocartilage), 68-70 Fibrous pericardium, 211, 242 Fibula, cat skeleton, 128

Fibularis (peroneus) brevis, 175

Fibularis (peroneus) longus, 175

Filiform papillae, 187

Fine needle aspirate, 38

First heart sound, 210

Fixation, 32

Flagella, 25, 26

Flat bones, 110

Flexion, defined, 4, 5

Flexor carpi radialis muscle, 166

Flexor carpi ulnaris, 166

Flexor digitorum profundus, 166, 175

Fluid mosaic model of plasma membrane, 20

Foliate papillae, 187

Follicle, 280

Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH),

269, 283

Foot of the horse, 100-103

Foot pads, 96-98

Foramen, 110

Foramen of Luschka, 318

Foramen of Monro, 318, 319

Forebrain, 314

Forensics, 353

Forestomachs, 197

Fornix

eye, 332

female reproductive tract, 281

nervous system, 313, 318

Hepatic portal system, 208

Hepatic vein, 223

Hepatopancreatic ampulla, 193 Heterophil, 70

Hilus, 259, 261

Histiocytes, 56

Histology

bone, 111-116

cancellous (spongy) bone, 114-116 compact bone, 111-114

Bowman’s capsule, 37

clinical significance, 38 connective tissue, 54-55 defined, 31 epithelial tissue, 41-54 integumentary system, 87-95 interpretation of sections, 32, 34 muscle, 78, 149-154 preparation of sections, 32 renal corpuscle, 37 sectioning methods, 35-36 sheet of cells, 38

steps in slide production, 32, 33 Histopathology, 32 Holocrine gland, 94 Hoof, 100-103

Horns, 98-99

Horns of the uterus, 280

Horny lamina, 100

Horny wall, 98

Horse

chestnuts and ergots, 99

colic, 204-205 comparative osteology carpus, 134 feet, 137 foreleg, 133 hind leg, 135 tarsus, 136

description using anatomical terms, 8 elastic connective tissue, 61 large intestine, 199-200 patellar ligaments, 140

skull, 131

Humeral head, 166

Humerus, cat skeleton, 124 Hyaline cartilage, 66-67 Hyaluronic acid, 66

Hydrocephalus, 322

Hydrocortisone, 271

Hyoid apparatus, 240

Hyoid venous arch, 222

Hyperpolarization, 304

Hypertension, 219

Hypertrophied chondroblasts, 114

Hypodermis, 86, 92-93, 96

Hypolemmal position, 149

Hypophysa, 314

Hypophyseal portal system, 269

Hypophyseal portal veins, 269 Hypophysis, 268

Hypotension, 219

Hypothalamus

endocrine system, 268-270, 273 nervous system, 314, 317

I

Ileocolic junction, 195

Ileum, 194

Iliocostalis thoracis muscle, 177 Iliopsoas muscle, 172, 174 Impression smear, 38

Inclusion bodies (inclusions), 20, 26

Incus, 327

Induced ovulators, 283

Inferior, defined, 3

Infiltration, 32

Infraorbital gland, 186

Infraspinatus muscle, 161

Infundibulum

endocrine system, 268, 273 nervous system, 314, 318 reproductive system, 280, 288

Inguinal, defined, 3

Inguinal canal, 223, 291

Inhibitory hormones, 268

Inhibitory postsynaptic potential, 320 Inner circumferential lamellae, 112 Insensitive lamina, 100

Insertion of muscle, 154

Integumentary system

claws, 98

clinical significance, 104

dermis, 90-92 epidermis, 87-90 hair, 93-95 histology, 87-95 hypodermis or subcutis, 92-93

Integumentary system (continued) large animals

chestnuts and ergots, 98 foot of the horse, 100-103 horns and antlers, 98-100 mammary gland of a cow, 103-104 model, 96 nose of a dog, 96-97 overview, 86 pigmented skin, 96 veterinary vignettes, 105-106 Interatrial septum, 218 Intercalated cells, 259 Intercalated discs, 79, 80, 152 Intercellular cement, 41 Intercostal artery, 228, 245 Intercostal muscles, 176 Intercostal nerve, 245, 307 Intercostal vein, 221, 245 Interdigitate, 96 Interlobar artery, 255, 262 Interlobar vein, 262 Interlobular artery, 257, 262 Interlobular vein, 262 Intermediate filaments, 26 Intermediate lobes, 243 Internal iliac arteries, 229 Internal iliac vein, 224 Internal intercostals, 176 Internal jugular vein, 222 Internal respiration, 219, 238 Internal root sheath, 94 Internal thoracic artery, 227 Internal thoracic vein, 222 Interneuron, 320

Internuncial neuron, 320 Interstitial cell stimulating hormone (ICSH), 269

Interstitial cells, 282 Interstitial lamellae, 112-113 Interstitium, 263

Interterritorial matrix, 66 Interventricular septum, 230 Intervertebral foramen, 305 Intestinal tract

function, 40 large intestine, 199-200 small intestine, 47, 194, 202 smooth muscle, 81

Intramembranous ossification, 109 Intrinsic conduction system, 230 Involuntary cardiac muscle, 79 Involuntary smooth muscle, 80

Iris of the eye, 335

Irregular bones, 110

Irregular connective tissue, 54 Ishiatic tuberosity, 110

Islets of Langerhans, 272

Isoelectric lead, 232

Isogenous group, 66

J

Jejunal lymph node, 196

Jejunum, 47, 194, 202

Jugular veins, 242

Juxtaglomerular apparatus, 259 Juxtaglomerular cells, 259

K

Keratin, 87

Keratinized, 49

Keratinocytes, 87

Keratogenous zone, 94

Keratohyaline granules, 87

Kidney

cuboidal epithelial cells, 45 dissection, 259-262

functions, 254, 255

simple cuboidal epithelium, 45-46 simple squamous epithelium, 43 vascular supply, 255-258

Kupffer cells, 182

L

Labia majora, 290

Labial, defined, 4

Labial frenulum, 187

Lacrimal apparatus, 332

Lacrimal sac, 332

Lacrimal sinus, 239

Lactiferous ducts, 104

Lactiferous sinus, 104

Lactogenesis, 104

Lacuna

bone, 77

compact bone, 111 elastic cartilage, 67, 68 fibrous cartilage, 69

hyaline cartilage, 66

osteocytes, 109

Lamellated granules, 87

Lamina propria, 182

Laminar corium, 100, 103

Langerhans’ cell, 87

Lanolin, 94

Large intestine, 199-200, 202

Large lymphocyte, 74

Laryngeal ventricle, 242 Laryngopharynx, 188, 239

Larynx, 239

Lateral, defined, 2

Lateral canthus, 332

Lateral funiculus, 320

Lateral head, 162

Lateral ligament, 259

Lateral recumbency, defined, 3

Lateral ventricles, 318

Latissimus dorsi muscle, 158-159

Left atria, 209

Left atrioventricular (AV) valve, 218

Left atrium, 217

Left auricle, 218

Left bundle branch, 230

Left common carotid artery, 226, 242

Left coronary artery, 211

Left deep circumflex iliac veins, 224

Left dorsal colon, 200

Left gastric artery, 228

Left lateral lobe, 190

Left medial lobe, 190

Left subclavian artery, 227

Left subcscapular artery, 227

Left ventral colon, 200

Left ventricles, 209, 217

Left vertebral artery, 227

Left vertebral vein, 222

Leg

front leg muscles, 161-166

hind leg, deep muscles, 175

hind leg, superficial muscles, 167-171 posterior leg muscles, 174

Lemon, sectioning methods, 35, 36 Lens of the eye, 335

Lesser curvature, 190

Lesser omentum, 190

Leukocytes (white blood cells), 70, 83 Levator palpebrae superioris muscle, 333

Ligament

desmology, 140-142 slide, 60

Limbus, 333

Linea alba, 167

Lingual, defined, 4

Lingual artery, 227

Lingual frenulum, 187

Linguofacial vein, 222

Lipase, 182, 202-203

Lips, 187

Liver, 40, 182, 189

Lobar bronchus, 243, 245

Long bones, 110

Long head of triceps, 161

Longissimus thoracis muscle, 177

Loop of Henle, 258

Loose connective tissue, 54, 56-57

Lower respiratory system, 238, 242-247

Lumbar, defined, 3

Lumbar arteries, 229

Lumbar nerves, 305

Lumbar veins, 224

Lumbodorsal fascia, 167

Lumbosacral plexus, 305, 307

Lungs, 43-44, 243

Luteinizing hormone (LH), 269, 283

Lymphocytes, 56, 70, 76

Lysosomes, 24

M

Macrophages

areolar connective tissue, 57

areolar or loose connective tissue, 56

Macula densa, 259

Main bronchi, 242

Main bronchus, 245

Main pancreatic duct, 193

Major calyx, 261

Major duodenal papilla, 193

Major labia, 281

Malleus, 327

Mamillary body, 268, 314

Mamillary mammillary body, 313

Mammals, elastic connective tissue, 61-62

Mammary, defined, 3

Mammary gland, 103-104

Mammillary bodies, 318

Mandible, cat skeleton, 120-123

Mandibular lymph nodes, 158, 186

Mandibular salivary gland, 158, 186

Marbling of muscle tissue, 62

Mare, mammary gland, 104

Massa intermedia, 319

Mast cells, 56, 57

Matrix

areolar or loose connective tissue, 56

blood, 70

cellular anatomy, 25

compact bone, 111

connective tissue, 54

elastic cartilage, 67

fibrous cartilage, 69

hyaline cartilage, 66

integumentary system, 94

interterritorial matrix, 66

territorial matrix, 66

Maxillary artery, 227

Maxillary sinuses, 239

Maxillary vein, 222

Medial, defined, 2

Medial canthus, 332

Medial head, 162

Medial saphenous vein, 224

Median artery, 228

Median nerve, 307

Median plane, defined, 5

Median suspensory ligament, 259

Mediastinal lymph nodes, 245

Mediastinal pleura, 211, 242

Mediastinum, 188, 242

Medulla

integumentary system, 93, 94

medulla oblongata, 318

nervous system, 314, 319

reproductive system, 280

urinary system, 255

Meibomian glands, 332

Meissner’s corpuscles, 90

Melanin, 87, 93, 94, 96

Melanocytes, 87, 94, 96

Melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH), 270

Membrane-bound ribosomes, 22

Meninges, 314

Merkel cells, 87

Merkel disc, 87

Merocrine glands, 94

Mesencephalic aqueduct, 318, 319

Mesencephalon, 314

Mesenchymal cells, 55

Mesenchyme connective tissue, 54

Mesial, defined, 4

Mesobronchi, 248

Mesocolon, 196

Mesoductus deferens, 283

Mesoduodenum, 196

Mesometrium, 288

Mesorchium, 283

Mesosalpinx, 288

Mesothelial cells, 42

Mesovarium, 288

Metacarpal bones, cat skeleton, 125-126

Metacarpal pad, 96

Metaphyses, 110

Metatarsal pad, 96

Metatarsals, cat skeleton, 129

Metathalamus, 314

Metencephalon, 314

Metestrus, 285, 295

Microfilaments, 26

Microscope

care of, 12

cell part identification, 27-29

field size, 15-16

oil immersion lens, 14-15 parts of, 12-13 purpose of, 11 steps for use, 14-15 vernier scales on the mechanical stage, 16-17 Microtome, 32

Microtubules, 25

Microvilli, 41, 47

Midbrain, 314

Middle ear, 327

Middle gluteal muscle, 171

Middle lobes, 243

Middle meatus, 239

Middle mediastinum, 242

Middle phalanx, 100

Midsagittal plane, defined, 5

Milk

let-down, 104

mammary gland, 103-104 production, 104

Mineralocorticoids, 270

Minor calyxes, 261

Minor labia, 281

Mites, 104

Mitochondria, 22, 25, 301

Mitral valve, 218

Molar salivary gland, 186 Monocytes, 56, 70, 74, 76 Monolocular, 62

Motor efferent neuron, 320

Mouth

anatomical terms, 4 teeth. See Teeth

Movement terms, 4-5

Mucosa, 182

Mucosal cells, 48-49

Mucous connective tissue, 54 Multinucleated cells, 21, 149 Multipolar neuron, 28, 301 Muscle

arrector pili muscle, 96

cardiac muscle, 79-80, 147, 152-153 cat skeletal musculature, 154-177 abdominal wall muscles, 167 chest, superficial muscles, 155-156 deep back muscles, 176-177 front leg muscles, 161-166 hind leg, deep muscles, 175 hind leg, superficial muscles, 167-171 neck, superficial muscles, 157-158 posterior leg muscles, 174 shoulder and back, deep muscles, 161 shoulder and back, superficial muscles, 158-159

thigh, deeper muscles, 172-174 clinical significance, 177-178 histology, 78, 149-154 muscle cells, 79, 149 muscle fiber, 149 skeletal muscle, 78-79, 147, 149-152 smooth muscle, 80-81, 147, 153-154 tissue anatomy, 40 veterinary vignettes, 178-179 voluntary, 147

Muscularis externa, 182 Muscularis mucosae, 182 Musculocutaneous nerve, 306 Muzzle, 96

Myelencephalon, 314

Myelin, 304

Mylohyoid muscle, 158 Myocardium, 79, 212

Myoepithelial cells, 259 Myofilaments, 149 Myometrium, 280 Myosin, 149

N

Nares, 239

Nasal, defined, 3 Nasal cavity, 239

Nasal conchae, 239

Nasal turbinate bones, 239

Nasal vestibule, 239

Nasolacrimal duct, 332 Nasopharynx, 188, 239

Navicular bone, 100

Neck, skeletal system, 110

Neck, tooth, 185

Neck of the bladder, 259

Neck of the uterus, 280 Necropsy procedure

clinical significance, 353

defined, 341

overview, 341-342 photographs, 342 procedure, 343-351 record keeping, 342 safety, 342, 353 samples, 342-343

sectioning method for tumors, 351-352 tissue sections, 32

veterinary vignettes, 354 Nephron, 43, 255, 258-259 Nerve cell body, 81, 82 Nerve cells, 81 Nerve impulse, 303-305 Nervous system

autonomic nervous system, 310-313 brain, 313-314

brain anatomy, 314-319 clinical significance, 322 cranial nerves, 310 function, 299

nerve impulse, 303-305

neuron, 81, 299, 300-305

overview, 299-300

peripheral nerve dissection, 305-310 spinal cord, 320

spinal reflexes, 320-322 veterinary vignettes, 323-324

Nervous tissue, 40, 81-82

Neurofibril nodes, 305

Neurofibrils, 303

Neuroglia, 299 Neurohypophysis, 268 Neurons, 81, 299, 300-305

Neurotransmitter substance, 301 Neutrophils, 56, 70, 71

Nictitating membrane, 332

9 + 0 array, 25

9 + 2 array, 26

Nissl (chromatophilic) bodies, 300, 303 Nissl bodies, 82

Nodal system, 230

Nodes of Ranvier, 305

Non-articular projections, 110 Non-keratinized, 49

Norepinephrine, 271, 311

Nose, 96, 97, 239

Nostrils, 239

Notch, 110

Nuclear envelope, 21-22

Nuclear membrane, 28, 303

Nuclear pores, 22

Nuclei

cardiac muscle, 80

dense regular connective tissue, 60 elastic cartilage, 68

hyaline cartilage, 66

mammal elastic connective tissue, 61 nervous tissue, 81, 82

reticular connective tissue, 65 simple columnar epithelium, 46, 47 simple squamous epithelium, 42, 43 skeletal muscle, 78, 79

smooth muscle, 81

stellate mesenchymal cells, 55

stratified columnar epithelium, 52 urinary bladder or transitional epithelium, 53

Nucleoli, 82

Nucleolus, 22, 28, 303

Nucleus, 20, 21-22, 28

O

Oblique, defined, 2

Oblique muscles, 333

Oblique view, 6

Oblongata, 314

Obturator nerve, 310

Occipital artery, 227

Occipital lobe, 313

Occlusal, defined, 4

Oculomotor nerves, 318

Olfactory bulbs, 315 Olfactory tract, 317 Omasum, 197, 198 Omental bursa, 190 Omotransversarius muscle, 159

Oocyte, 280 Optic chiasm, 268, 314, 317

Optic disc, 336

Optic nerves, 317, 332, 334

Oral, defined, 3

Oral glucose tolerance test, 275 Orbital, defined, 3

Orchiopexy, 296

Organ tissue, 31, 40

Organelles

centrioles, 25

cilia, 26 cytoskeletal elements, 25-26 defined, 20, 22

endoplasmic reticulum, 22-23 flagella, 26

Golgi complex, 24 inclusion bodies, 26 lysosomes, 24 mitochondria, 25 peroxisomes, 24-25 ribosomes, 22

Origin of muscle, 154 Oropharynx, 187, 239

Os coxae (pelvis), cat skeleton, 126-127 Os penis, 283

Osteoblasts, 76, 109, 114

Osteoclasts, 76, 109

Osteocyte

bone, 76, 77

cancellous (spongy) bone, 114 compact bone, 111, 113 overview, 109

Ostium, 288

Outer circumferential lamellae, 112

Oval window, 328

Ovarian arteries, 229

Ovarian bursa, 288

Ovarian veins, 223

Plasma, 70

Plasma cells, 56, 57

Plasma membrane, 20-21, 28, 302

Platelets, 70, 74, 75

Pleural, defined, 4

Pleural cavities, 242

Plurilocular, 62

Pneumatic bones, 110

Pneumothorax, 265

Polarized neuron, 303

Polygonal plaques, 96

Polygonal plates, 96

Polymorphonucleated leukocytes, 74

Polymorphs (PMNs), 74

Polyribosomes, 22

Pons, 314, 318

Popliteal, defined, 4

Popliteal fossa, 170

Popliteal vein, 224

Portal vein, 195, 224

Positional terms, 3

Posterior, defined, 1

Posterior chambers of the eye, 335

Posterior fermenter, 199

Posterior pituitary, 268

Post-mortem examination, 341. See also

Necropsy procedure

Postsynaptic membrane, 301

P-Q segment, 232

P-R interval, 232

Premunition, 104

Prepuce, 283, 291

Presynaptic membrane, 301

Primary lamina, 100, 101

Principal cells, 259

Process, bone, 110

Proestrus, 285, 292

Progesterone, 104

Projections, bone, 110

Prolactin, 104, 269, 285

Pronation, defined, 5

Pronator teres, 166

Prone, defined, 3

Proper connective tissue, 54

Prostate gland, 282, 283, 292

Proteoglycans, 66

Proventriculus, 201

Proximal, defined, 3

Proximal convoluted tubule, 258

Proximal loop, 200

Pseudostratified ciliated columnar

epithelium, 48-49

Pseudostratified columnar

epithelium, 48-49

Pseudostratified epithelium, 42

Pubic, defined, 4

Pulmonary artery

cardiovascular system, 210, 214, 224

respiratory system, 242

Pulmonary circulation, 208

Pulmonary valve, 215

Pulmonary veins, 217

Pulp, tooth, 185

Punctum, 332

Pupil of the eye, 335

Purkinje fibers, 230

Purkinje system, 230

Pyloric region, 190

Pyloric sphincter, 199

Pylorus, 190, 199

Pyramids, 318

Q

QRS complex, 231, 232

Q-T interval, 232

Quadrants, defined, 4

Quadrate lobe, 190

Quadriceps femoris muscle, 174

Quarters, 100, 104

Queen, mammary gland, 104

Quick of the claw, 98

R

Rabies, 322

Radial artery, 228

Radial head, 166

Radial nerve, 307

Radius, cat skeleton, 124-125

Rectogenital pouch, 195

Rectum, 182, 195

Rectus abdominis muscle, 167

Rectus femoris, 174

Rectus muscles, 333

Recumbent, defined, 3

Red blood cells (erythrocytes), 70, 74

Referred bronchial sounds, 251

Regular connective tissue, 54

Relative cell count, 83

Relative refractory period, 304

Releasing hormones, 268

Remodeling of bone, 109

Renal artery

cardiovascular system, 229

urinary system, 255, 259, 261

Renal capsule, 261

Renal columns, 262

Renal corpuscle, 37, 258

Renal cortex, 261

Renal medulla, 261

Renal papilla, 258, 261

Renal pelvis, 261

Renal pyramid, 261

Renal sinus, 261

Renal tubules, 43

Renal vein, 259, 261

Renin, 259

Renshaw cell, 320

Repolarization, 304

Repolarizing phase, 304

Reproductive system

breeding time of female dog, 292-296 clinical significance, 296

female reproductive system, 283-286 female reproductive system dissection, 288-290

female reproductive tract, 280-282 function, 279

male reproductive system, 287

male reproductive system dissection, 290-292

male reproductive tract, 282-283 overview, 279

veterinary vignettes, 296-297 Respiration, 238

Respiratory bronchiole, 245

Respiratory system

clinical significance, 251

lower respiratory system, 238, 242-247 lung volumes and capacities, 249-251 lungs of birds, 248-249

overview, 238

upper respiratory system, 238, 239-242 veterinary vignettes, 252

Respiratory units, 245

Resting membrane potential, 303 Resting potential, 21

Reticular cells, 65

Reticular connective tissue, 54, 64-65

Reticular fibers

areolar connective tissue, 57

areolar or loose connective tissue, 56 connective tissue, 54, 64-65

Reticular lamina, 41

Reticular layer, 90 Reticulum, 197, 198 Retina, 332, 336

Retractor bulbi muscle, 333

Retractor penis muscle, 283 Retroperitoneal, 196 Rhombencephalon (hindbrain), 314 Rhomboideus capitis muscles, 161 Rhomboideus cervicis muscles, 161 Rhomboideus muscles, 161 Ribosomal RNA (rRNA), 22 Ribosomes, 22

Ribs, cat skeleton, 119

Right atria, 209

Right atrioventricular (AV) valve, 217

Right atrium, 216

Right auricle, 216

Right bundle branch, 230

Right common carotid artery, 226, 242

Right coronary artery, 214

Right deep circumflex iliac veins, 224

Right dorsal colon, 200

Right gastric artery, 228

Right lateral lobe, 190

Right medial lobe, 190

Right subclavian artery, 226

Right ventral colon, 200

Right ventricles, 209, 214

Right vertebral artery, 228

Right vertebral vein, 222

Rods of the eye, 337

Root, 94

Root canal, 185

Root of the lung, 245

Root of the mesentery, 193

Rostral, defined, 2

Rostral colliculi, 314

Rotation, defined, 5

Rough ER, 22-23

Round ligament, 282

Rumen, 197

Ruminants, 197-199, 200

S

Saccule, 328

Sacral, defined, 4

Sacral nerves, 305

Sagittal plane, defined, 5

Salivary ducts, 186

Salivary glands, 51, 158, 182, 186

Saphenous nerve, 310

Sarcolemma, 149

Sarcomas, 144

Sarcomere, 152

Sarcoplasm, 149

Sarcoplasmic reticulum, 23, 152

Sartorius muscle, 168

Scalpel blade tissue scrape, 38

Scapula, cat skeleton, 123-124

Scapular, defined, 4

Schwann cells, 304

Sciatic nerve, 172, 307

Sclera, 332

Scrotal ligament, 283, 290

Scrotum, 283, 290

Sebaceous glands, 90, 94

Sebum, 94

Second heart sound, 210

Secondary lamina, 100, 101

Secretory vesicles, 24

Segmental bronchi, 245

Segmented neutrophils (segs), 71, 74

Self-propagating action, 304

Semicircular canals, 328, 330

Semilunar valvules, 210

Semimembranosus muscle, 172

Seminal fluid, 287

Seminal vesicles, 283

Seminiferous tubules, 282

Semitendinosus muscle, 172

Sensory afferent neuron, 320

Septum pellucidum, 313, 318

Serosa, 182

Serosal surface, 36

Serous pericardium, 211, 242

Serratus dorsalis muscle, 177

Serratus ventralis muscle, 161

Sheep

brain anatomy, 314-319 comparative osteology, feet, 137 Short bones, 110

Short pastern bone, 100

Shoulder

deep muscles, 161 shoulder blade (scapula), 123-124 superficial muscles, 158-159

Simple columnar epithelium, 41, 46-47 Simple cuboidal epithelium, 41, 45-46 Simple epithelium, 41

Simple squamous epithelium, 41, 42-44 Sinoatrial node, 230

Skeletal muscle, 78-79, 147, 149-152 Skeletal system. See also Bones arthrology, 139-140 bones, types of, 110

calcium measurements, 142-143 cat skeleton, 116-129 clinical significance, 143 comparative osteology, 130-139 carpus, 134

chicken skeleton, 138-139 feet, 137 foreleg, 133 hind leg, 135 skulls, 130-132 tarsus, 136 depressions, 110 desmology, 140-142 histology of bone, 111-116 cancellous (spongy) bone, 114-116 compact bone, 111-114 long bone parts, 110, 111 overview, 109 projections, 110 veterinary vignettes, 143-144

Skin

antlers, 100

chestnuts and ergots, 98 claw, 98

clinical significance, 104 dermis, 86, 90-92 epidermis, 86, 87-90 foot of the horse, 100-103 foot pads, 96-98 grafts, 105-106 horns, 98-99 hypodermis or subcutis, 86, 92-93 mammals, 89 mammary gland of a cow, 103-104 nose, 96, 97 pigmented skin, 96

slide, 58-59, 87-90

structure, 88, 92

Skull, cat skeleton, 120-123

Small cardiac vein, 214 Small intestine (jejunum), 47, 194, 202 Small lymphocyte, 74 Smooth ER, 22-23

Smooth muscle, 80-81, 147, 153-154 Soft palate, 187, 239

Sole, 100

Sole corium, 103 Soleus muscle, 174 Somatic nervous system, 299 Somatotropic hormone (STH), 269 Sow

comparative osteology, feet, 137 kidney dissection, 259-262 large intestine, 200-201 mammary gland, 104

Special connective tissues

blood, 70-76

bone, 76-77

cartilage, 66 elastic cartilage, 67-68 fibrous cartilage, 68-70 histology, 54 hyaline cartilage, 66-67 Spermatic cord, 283 Spermatogenesis, 287 Spermatozoa, 279 Sphenoid sinus, 239 Sphenopalatine sinus, 239 Sphincter muscle, 80, 153 Sphincter of Oddi, 193 Spinal cord, 299, 320 Spinal nerves, 299, 305 Spinal reflexes, 320-322 Spinalis et semispinalis muscle, 177 Spindle-shaped cells, 153 Spindle-shaped smooth muschel cells, 81 Spine, 110 Spinous part, 159 Spiral loop, 200 Spleen, 192 Splenic artery, 228 Splenic vein, 224 Splenius muscle, 161 Spongy bone, 114-116 Spontaneous ovulators, 283

Squamous cells, 38, 41

S-T segment, 232

Stains, 27, 32, 70

Stapedius, 328

Stapes, 327

Stellate mesenchymal cells, 55

Stereocilia, 41

Sternal, defined, 4

Sternocephalicus muscle, 158

Sternohyoid muscle, 158

Sternomastoid muscle, 158

Sterno-occipitalis muscle, 158

Sternum, cat skeleton, 119

Stifle, defined, 4

Stomach, 190

Stratified columnar epithelium, 41, 51-52

Stratified cuboidal epithelium, 41, 50-51

Stratified epithelium, 41

Stratified squamous epithelium, 41, 49-50

Stratum basale, 87, 93, 96

Stratum corneum, 87, 88, 93, 96

Stratum externum, 100

Stratum granulosum, 87

Stratum internum, 100

Stratum lucidum, 87, 88

Stratum medium, 100

Stratum spinosum, 87, 93, 96

Striated border, 47

Striated cardiac muscle cells, 79

Striated muscle, 78

Stroma, 333

Subarachnoid space, 318

Subcutaneous adipose tissue, 98

Subcutaneous areolar connective tissue, 92

Subcutis (subcutaneous tissues), 86, 92-93

Sublingual salivary gland, 158, 186 Submucosa, 182

Submucosal plexus, 182

Subscapular vein, 223

Subscapularis muscle, 161

Subsinuosal artery, 214

Subsinuosal interventricular groove, 214

Subsinuosal vein, 214

Subthalamus, 314

Sudoriferous glands, 96

Sulcus, 314

Sulfated glycosaminoglycans, 66

Superficial, defined, 2

Superficial brachial artery, 227

epithelium, 40 muscle, 40 nervous tissue, 40

sliced, 34

tissue side, 41

Toes, 98, 100

Tongue, 49-50, 187

Trabecula septomarginalis, 214, 217

Trabeculae, 282

Trachea

described, 242

hyaline cartilage, 66-67 slide, 48-49, 66-67

Transitional epithelium, 42, 53-54

Transverse colon, 195, 200

Transverse fissure, 314

Transverse plane, defined, 5 Transversus abdominis muscle, 167 Trapezius muscle, 158

Triadan system of charting, 184-185 Triceps brachii muscles, 161 Tricuspid valve, 217

Trigeminal nerve, 318

Trigonal area of the bladder, 259

Triiodothyronine, 271

Trochanter, 110

Trochlea, 110

Trochlear nerve, 315

Tropic hormones, 269

Trypsin, 202, 203-204

Tuber cinereum, 268, 314

Tubercle, 110

Tuberosity, 110

Tubulins, 25-26

Tumors, 351-352

Tunica albuginea, 280, 282

Tunica externa, 219

Tunica interna, 219

Tunica media, 219

Tunica vaginalis parietalis, 283, 290

Tunica vaginalis visceralis, 283, 290 Tunics, 182, 219

Tylotrich hair, 93

Tympanic membrane, 327

U

Ulna, cat skeleton, 125

Ulnar artery, 228

Ulnar head, 166

Ulnar nerve, 307

Ulnaris lateralis muscle, 165 Umbilical, defined, 4 Unguicular process, 98

Unguis, 98

Uninucleated cardiac muscle, 79 Unipolar neurons, 301

Unstriated smooth muscle cells, 81 Upper respiratory system, 238, 239-242 Ureters, 223, 259, 261

Urethra, 52, 290

Urethral process, 283 Urinary system

clinical significance, 264 kidney dissection, 259-262 kidney vascular supply, 255-258 nephron, 255, 258-259 overview, 254-255 physiology, 263-264 urinary bladder, 53-54, 195, 259 urine, 255 veterinary vignettes, 265

Uterine horns, 288

Uterine tubes, 288

Uterus, 195, 223, 280

Utricle, 328

V

Vacuoles, 62, 74

Vagina, 281, 290 Vagus nerve, 242, 310

Vallate papillae, 187

Vascular system, 207, 219, 255-258 Vastus intermedius muscle, 174

Vastus lateralis, 174

Vastus medialis, 174

V-D view, 6

Veins, 220-224, 242

Velvet, 100

Venous system, 208

Ventilation, 238

Ventral, defined, 2

Ventral fascia, 167

Ventral funiculus, 320

Ventral meatus, 239

Ventral median fissure, 320

Ventral mediastinum, 242

Ventral palpebrae, 332

Ventral recumbency, defined, 3

Ventral-dorsal view, 6

Ventricular systole, 210

Ventrobronchi, 248

Ventrum, defined, 2

Vertebrae

cat skeleton, 116-119

fibrous cartilage, 69

Vertebral, defined, 4

Vesicogenital pouch, 195

Vesicular follicle, 280

Vesicular glands, 283

Vestibule, 187

Vestibule of the vagina, 290, 328

Vestibulocochlear nerve, 318, 327

Vestibulum, 281

Veterinary vignettes

amputation, 143-144 cardiovascular system, 235-236 digestive system, 204-205 endocrine system, 276-277 eyes, 338-339

MMM autoimmune condition, 178-179

necropsy, 354

nervous system, 323-324 reproductive system, 296-297 respiratory system, 252 skin grafts, 105-106 urinary system, 265

Visceral lamina, 211, 242

Visceral layer, 258

Visceral layer of the serous pericardium, 212

Visceral peritoneum, 195

Visceral pleura, 242

Visceral skeleton, 109

Vision, 332-337

Vitreous humor (vitreous body), 334

Vocal folds (vocal cords), 241

Vocal ligament, 242

Vocalis muscle, 242

Volar, defined, 3

Volkmann’s canals, 113-114

Volvulus, 265

Vulva, 281

W

Water deprivation test, 264

Wheezes, 251

White blood cells (leukocytes), 70, 83

White line, 103

White matter, 319

Woven bone, 109

Wright’s stain, 70

Z

Z line, 152

Zona fasciculata, 271

Zona glomerulosa, 270

Zona reticularis, 271

EXERCISE 15.3 ANATOMY OF THE BRAIN

Procedure

1. Obtain a preserved sheep’s brain and rinse it with tap water.

2. The outer, heavy, fibrous layer of the meninges is the dura mater (Figures 15.17 and 15.18). The dura mater is intimately attached to the inside of the skull, but there is a slight space between it and the vertebral canal where it covers the spinal cord. Carefully remove this covering. The dura mater contains a longitudinal fold, called the falx cerebri, which penetrates into the longitudinal fissure between the two cerebral hemispheres. The transverse fold separating the cerebrum from the cer­ebellum is the tentorium cerebelli. The pituitary gland will break off from the infundibulum during the removal of the dura mater.

The inner two layers of the meninges can now be seen covering the brain. The arachnoid, or middle layer, lies between the dura mater and the pia mater, the innermost, vascular layer of the meninges (these layers also cover the spinal cord). The arachnoid is easily distinguished from the pia mater in the region overlying the grooves on the brain surface because the pia mater dips into the grooves and the arachnoid traverses them (see Figure 15.18). The subarachnoid space is filled with cere­brospinal fluid, which has been removed from this specimen; in the preserved brain, the arachnoid appears to be attached to the pia mater.

3. Place the brain in the dissecting tray so that the dorsal surface is visible. Observe the paired cerebral hemispheres and the caudal cerebellum. The cerebral hemispheres are separated by the cerebral longitudinal fissure, and the cerebellum is separated from the cerebral hemispheres by the trans­verse fissure (Figures 15.19 and 15.20).

4. The surface of each hemisphere is composed of numerous ridges and grooves. The raised ridges are called gyri (singular: gyrus), and the depressions are sulci (singular: sulcus).

5. Spread the cerebral hemispheres and cerebellum to see the roof of the midbrain, or mesencephalon (Figure 15.21). Four prominent, round swellings, the corpora quadrigemina, form the roof of the midbrain. The larger, rostrodorsal pair are called the rostral colliculi, and the smaller, caudoventral pair the caudal colliculi. The pineal gland can be seen between and above the superior colliculi.