Conclusion
It is time to draw up the balance sheet for this project and offer a word about how it changes our view of empire in world history. When Howe wrote his much read and excellent introduction to empire two decades ago, he drew a fundamental distinction between ancient empire, essentially unstable and ephemeral, and the modern colonial projects of European powers, characterized by their great strength and deep impact.
The story presented here is almost the opposite. But not entirely. There is no question about the impact of overseas colonial empires on the current shape of human societies across the planet. Even so, the transformative force of imperialism is anything but a recent phenomenon. The impact of empire has been strong and enduring throughout history. On the question of stability, however, the image really appears radically different.[228] Ancient empires, on a first glance, seem to have had everything operating against them. Pre-mechanized transport and communication created such obstacles to movement and centralized control that one would believe the forces of localism to have been intractable. Yet, the historian is still confronted by the question of Gibbon: Why did a substantial number of them last for so long?[229] The answer lies in hegemonic monopoly. The process of state-formation generated a forceful current that ran contrary to fragmentation. Conquest of rivals and the imposition of hegemony produced economies of scale. A bigger army could be maintained without continuously raising taxes. If most rivals were overcome, the empire came to enjoy a position of near monopoly that, short of new powerful challengers, might last for centuries. The stability of universal empires, then, was not a question of chance or arrested development. It came as the culmination of the process of state-formation that saw these empires presiding over the extensive growth of state-like societies across Afro-Eurasia and the Americas.Many expect from the history of empire an endless series of conquerors and their regimes and may in the narratives of these volumes think to find little but confirmation. Yet, the broader contours of the story charted here are, nonetheless, determined by the silent and suffering majority rather than the high-profile matter of warrior romance; the world history of empire registers the expansive growth of societies with sedentary populations dense enough to be dominated and to sustain a form of centralized rule.[230] As this form of life slowly spread out from its small Bronze Age beginnings, populations became more numerous, human habitation denser, and the gaps between societal clusters smaller. Eventually, the great societies of Eurasia and America became linked in a global network, and from there a radical transformation began to take place.
The epicenter of this global revolution was Europe. Historians will probably never stop debating why this was the case, and there is no simple explanation. Every decade has produced a spate of works addressing The Great Divergence. Ascribing the rise of Europe to deeply ingrained cultural conditions is clearly unsatisfactory. European predominance was, in world historical time, short-lived, a brief imbalance from which the world is already recovering, the result of a number of interconnected, mutually reinforcing developments. Much depended on this historical conjuncture. It is difficult to see the transformation taking place in the substantially smaller world of, say, the Classical Age. To this must be added a number of structural changes that gradually forced societal development onto a more intensive track. Enduring military competition between the Great Powers in Europe from the sixteenth century and industrialization from the late eighteenth, both combined to invert the previous pattern of empire. Where empires had once been able to benefit from the extensive growth of peasant populations and state-building societies, intensive growth took over.
Size was not enough, often even woefully insufficient. Rather, greater social power came out of continuous economic per capita growth, technological innovation, and steadily higher mobilization rates. This gave the middling states of Europe a comparative advantage and enabled an explosive global wave of overseas colonization. It is not without reason that historians have often been impressed by the strength of colonialism and tend to take its experience as constitutive of empire in general.However, even as it looked set in stone, the European order of the world was inherently unstable. The intensity of competition constantly undermined and tore down imperial dominions while an ever-growing number of societies, having absorbed the initial shock, learned to adapt to more intensive ways of statecraft and economics. Human society, it was widely believed, had entered a postcolonial era. But it was in fact already moving beyond. The collapse of the colonial order did not simply signal the liberation of nations and the end of hierarchy among statesocieties. It was as much a sign that size had regained its importance. Now, however, it was less a matter of extensive territorial conquests than a question of intensive mobilization of a vast metropolitan base, both militarily and economically. A precondition for projecting power in the current international order is, increasingly, sheer mass. The great and coming powers of the moment are all such empire nations—the United States, Russia, China, India. By contrast, the Europeans find themselves stuck in conflict over whether to—much against the grain of their own history—give up their highly cherished national independence and turn toward a form of imperial unity that could guarantee both stability and lend the continent greater weight in the world.[231]
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