Cowards

Another major theme consistently deployed in the chapters is the juxtaposition of the sura's bravery with the deplorable actions of ‘cowards' (bhlru, literally ‘fearful'), who are considered to be ‘the lowest of men' (MBh 12.98.15).

In the din of battle, a sura charges forward while a coward flees under the hero's protection, which is described as a ‘course of action unworthy of heaven' (MBh 12.98.19). Of course, we recall that cowards fall into a bottomless hell if they flee in battle, and because of their pathetic nature, ‘cowards are food for the heroic warrior', just as predators prey on the weak (MBh 12.100.15).^{^[1282]} In fact, Bhisma tells Yudhisthira to ‘never give birth to vile men like these' (MBh 12.98.20). While every effort should be made to encourage troops before and during battle (see e.g. MBh 12.101.43), the shameful acts of craven soldiers will incur the wrath of the gods, especially Indra, who may kill cowards through rather specific means involving sticks or stones, or by burning them with straw (MBh 12.98.22), which Fitzgerald suggests is a ‘mode of execution tantamount to burning at the stake’.^{^[1283]} Indeed, the gods may cause any noble warrior who acts like a coward to die ‘like an animal’, which would involve a pseudo-ritualistic form of strangulation or suffocation. The underlying threat is palpable, and of course if real people enforced such divine threats, then their acts of retribution would be in line with the gods’ wishes. Cowardice is thus simply ‘not approved’ (MBh 12.98.25). In social and cosmological terms, it is the single most abhorrent thing a soldier can do.

Of course, kings, military officers and heroic warriors should work hard to encourage men to fight and die. For example, the king should stand confidently at the head of the army and arrange his chariots, elephants, cavalry and foot soldiers according to the best fighting strategy (MBh 12.100.8).

In addition, everyone who wants victory, especially those who are ‘extremely zealous to fight well’, should stir up the army ‘like monsters churn up the ocean’ (MBh 12.100.11). Likewise, ‘an effort should be made to fire up even the cowards. They should be able to stand the mere sight of the enemy’s troops, and in proximity to them’ (MBh 12.101.43). Hence, soldiers should mutually encourage each other, especially anyone who is dejected or languishing in the rear. The king should also inspire his men during the height of battle by making supporters play instruments (conch shells, horns, kettledrums, cymbals, etc.), as well as having them shout battle-cries and disseminate information such as ‘the enemies have broken; the army of our allies has come; attack without fear’ (MBh 12.101.45-7), whether or not such statements are true. The importance placed on encouraging troops is made abundantly clear in one section where the king makes his soldiers swear a collective oath before battle to never abandon each other or flee the field, and to give up their lives for the sake of victory. The oath is presented here in full.

Having caused his [i.e. the king’s] soldiers to assemble according to rank, they should be addressed, ‘We take a solemn oath for victory in battle. We will not abandon each other. Any of us who are afraid (bhiru) must refrain from the battle right here and now, lest they [i.e. the enemy] slaughter us by opening breaches in our ranks after the battle has begun. Fleeing, one slays himself and his whole side in the battle. Upon fleeing one suffers the loss of his property, execution, ignominy, and a bad reputation. Disagreeable and unpleasant words are the lot of the man who flees battle, his lips quivering

and his teeth chattering, having dropped all his weapons, having abandoned his comrades when their lives were at risk. It is the same for one who has obligated himself to the enemy. May it be so for our enemies. Those who turn and run away are subhumans; merely increasing their number, they are nothing in this world nor in the next.

All excited the enemy will rush up to a deserter with praise and good wishes, son, the way his friends will rush up to a man who has just won a fight. When your enemies rejoice at your setbacks, I think that pain is harder to endure than being killed. Understand that the Goddess Royal Splendor is the basis of Law and of all happiness; she goes to the enemies of cowardly men (bhiru); a heroic warrior (sura) goes to her. We, desiring heaven, having let go of our lives to do battle, shall deserve to gain the course of strictly observant men, whether we win victory or are killed.' Having sworn this oath, having completely given up their lives, heroic men [vira; JW: ‘brave/true men'] fearlessly plunge into the enemy army. (MBh 12.101.29-39)

While the ideals of heaven, hell and the ritual ofbattle encode a warrior's identity in lofty cosmological terms, the epic chapters detail pragmatic incentives for men who excel on the battlefield. For example, warriors who break through an enemy's lines or regroup when their own lines are compromised should receive double pay and enjoy the food and drink of the king. If such men command ten soldiers they are to be promoted to the command of a hundred soldiers; and a tireless heroic warrior should be given the command of one thousand such men (MBh 12.101.27-8). Interestingly, in some legal texts the concept of sauryadhana (‘reward for heroism') refers to wealth given by a king or lord when he is pleased with a soldier or servant who has put their life in danger or performed a brave act.^{^[1284]} Consequently, while they are framed in idealistic terms, the six epic chapters are well aware that the primary way to convince men to die in battle is to play on their sense of self-worth and that of their comrades by aligning bravery with the promise of financial and heavenly rewards and cowardice with the terrors of hell and concrete social repercussions including execution. It is not hard to imagine that in a complex lived world in which martial ideals and masculine identities would be constantly negotiated, reproduced and reinforced, positive assurances and negative threats, designed to ensure conformity, would function in a similar manner as verbal attacks on the manliness of men today, who may be called ‘wussies, wimps' or other more specific sexist and homophobic insults.

In these terms, the juxtaposition of the transcendent ideals of heroism and bravery with the moral and soteriological failings of cowardice represents one of the key ideological strategies for shaming men into violent acts while forging a unified homosocial identity centred on bravery, toughness and obedience in the face of masculine relationships and military expectations.

Arthasastra

Before drawing this chapter to a close I would like to compare some of the broader didactic messages contained in the six epic chapters with those contained in Kautilya’s Arthasastra, which offers similar pragmatic advice to the king on how to convince soldiers to fight and die in his name. In a masterful demonstration of propaganda, the king should deploy a host of performances to rouse his men to battle (AS 10.3.26-47). In particular, he should act piously before battle in front of his men by fasting and sleeping with his weapons and mount. He should employ priests to secure victory and the support of heaven, and should associate himself with men from honourable noble families who have heroic qualities (saurya) and impeccable reputations. He should position priests and astrologers among his troops to praise their superiority while at the same time proclaiming the king’s omniscience and close relationship with the gods to embolden the troops and terrify the enemy. Priests should perform victory rites for the troops while cursing the enemy forces. The king should make his troops feel as if they are consecrated heroic warriors (sura) of old, who have undergone a ritual purification bath that will secure them heaven upon their deaths in battle. If this were not enough, bards and poets should move among the troops heralding heaven for those who act bravely as heroes (sura), while reinforcing the idea that cowards (bhiru) will be excluded from this ultimate reward. The king should appeal to his troops’ sense of fairness by telling them that he will share the spoils of war equally with them.

The king’s general (senapati) should inform his troops that they will receive specific monetary rewards for killing individual targets such as the enemy king, heroes, corps leaders, cavalrymen and individual infantrymen. Lastly, when arrayed for battle, he should station physicians for his men to see, as well as women who will supply food, drink and encouragement. However, the strategic expediency of these tactics, designed to instil confidence and loyalty in the troops, is made all too clear, as the king should show himself to his troops by riding in a chariot or on an elephant, but a man disguised as the king should ride at the head of the army into battle. As far as I know, Bhisma never divulges this little secret to Yudhisthira in the Mahabharata, though we can reasonably speculate that the prescriptions, expectations and ritual practices, which are described at length in MBh 12.98-103 and deliberately designed to shape the actions and identities of soldiers, would underlie the kinds of information that Kautilya suggests in passing should be used to encourage troops before battle.

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Source: Fagan Garrett G., Fibiger Linda, Hudson Mark, Trundle Matthew (eds.). The Cambridge World History of Violence. Volume 1: The Prehistoric and Ancient Worlds. Cambridge University Press,2020. — 756 p.. 2020

Cowards

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