References

Preface

i. On winds see F. Fernandez-Armesto, ‘The Indian Ocean in World History', in A. Disney and E. Booth, eds., Vasco da Gama and the Linking of Europe and Asia (New Delhi, 2000), pp.

PART ONE

THE OLDEST OCEAN: THE PACIFIC, 176,000 BC-AD 1350

1. The Oldest Ocean

1. Cited from Cook's journals by K. R. Howe, The Quest for Origins: Who First Discovered and Settled the Pacific Islands? (Auckland and Honolulu, 2003), p. 33. 2. P. V. Kirch, On the Road of the Winds: an Archaeological History of the Pacific Islands before European Contact (Berkeley and Los Angeles, 2000), p. 93; B. Finney, ‘Ocean Sailing Canoes', in K. R. Howe, ed., Vaka Moana - Voyages of the Ancestors: the Discovery and Settlement of the Pacific (Auckland, 2006), p. 109. See now C. Thompson, Sea Peoples: In Search of the Ancient Navigators of the Pacific (London, 2019) for rich new perspectives. 3. Kirch, Road of the Winds, p. 91, citing the work of P. Bellwood. 4. Kirch, Road of the Winds, pp. 44­50. 5. G. Irwin, The Prehistoric Exploration and Colonisation of the Pacific (Cambridge, 1992), p. 19. 6. G. Irwin, ‘Voyaging and Settlement', in Howe, ed., Vaka Moana, p. 59; M. Morwood and P. van Osterzee, A New Hwman: the Startling Discovery and Strange Story of the ‘Hobbits’ of Flores (Washington DC, 2007). 7. Howe, Quest for Origins, pp. 64-5. 8. C. Clarkson and twenty-eight other authors, ‘Human Occupation of Northern Australia by 65,000 Years Ago', Nature, vol. 547 (20 July 2017), pp. 306- 26. 9. S. O'Connor and P. Veth, ‘The World's First Mariners: Savannah Dwellers in an Island Continent', in S. O'Connor and P. Veth, eds., East of Wallace’s Line: Studies of Past and Present Maritime Cultures of the Indo-Pacific Region (Rotterdam, 2000), pp. 99-137; Kirch, Road of the Winds, pp.

2. Songs of the Navigators

i. G. Irwin, The Prehistoric Exploration and Colonisation of the Pacific (Cambridge, 1992), pp. 73-4, discussing the view that the interval is an illusion.

44. Simmons, Great New Zealand Myth, pp. 345-6; Hiroa, Coming of the Maori, pp. 26-7. 45. Hiroa, Coming of the Maori, p. 43. 46. Ibid., pp. 51, 64; Irwin, ‘Voyaging and Settlement', pp. 89-90. 47. Simmons, Great New Zealand Myth, pp. 347-50. 48. Irwin, ‘Voyaging and Settlement', p. 90. 49. D. Quammen, The Song of the Dodo: Island Biogeography in an Age of Extinction (London, 1996), pp. 193-4; Hiroa, Coming of the Maori, pp. 19-21.

PART TWO

THE MIDDLE OCEAN: THE INDIAN OCEAN

AND ITS NEIGHBOURS

3. The Waters of Paradise

i. J. Stanley-Baker, Japanese Art (London, 1984), pp. 47-9, and fig. 33. 2. M. Pearson, The Indian Ocean (London, 2003), p. 13; H. P. Ray, The Archaeology of Seafaring in the Indian Ocean (Cambridge, 2003), and other works by this prolific author. 3. P. Beaujard, Les Mondes de l’Ocean Indien, vol. 1: De la formation de l’Etat au premier systeme-monde afro-eurasien (qe millenaire av. J.-C.-6e siecle ap. J.-C.) (Paris, 2012), p. 32; Pearson, Indian Ocean, p. 14. 4. Sultan Dr Muhammad bin Muhammad al-Qasimi, The Gulf in Historic Maps 1478-1861 (Sharjah, UAE, 1999). 5. K. N. Chaudhuri, Trade and Civilisation in the Indian Ocean: an Economic History from the Rise of Islam to 1750 (Cambridge, 1985), pp. 25, 27. 6. Beaujard, Mondes, vol. 1, pp. 32- 5; Pearson, Indian Ocean, p. 21; Chaudhuri, Trade and Civilisation, pp. 22, 24, maps 2 and 3; Ray, Archaeology of Seafaring, pp. 20-22, figs. 1.1 and 1.2. 7. H. Crawford, Dilmun and Its Gulf Neighbours (Cambridge, 1998), p.

8. 8. D. T. Potts, The Arabian Gulf in Antiquity, vol. 1: From Prehistory to the Fall of the Achaemenid Empire (Oxford, 1990), p. 41; Crawford, Dilmun, p. 14. 9. Potts, Arabian Gulf in Antiquity, vol. 1, pp. 56, 59-61. 10. M. Roaf and J. Galbraith, ‘Pottery and P- Values: “Seafaring Merchants of Ur” Re-Examined', Antiquity, vol. 68 (1994), no. 261, pp. 770-83; Crawford, Dilmun, pp. 24, 27. 11. D. K. Chakrabarti, The External Trade of the Indus Civilization (New Delhi, 1990), pp. 31-7, 141. 12. J. Connan, R. Carter, H. Craw­ford, et al., ‘A Comparative Geochemical Study of Bituminous Boat Remains from H3, As-Sabiyah (Kuwait), and RJ-2, Ra's al-Jinz (Oman)', Arabian Archaeology and Epigraphy, vol. 16 (2005), pp. 21-66. 13. Beaujard, Mondes, vol. 1, pp. 67-8, 226. 14. Potts, Arabian Gulf in Antiquity, vol. 1, p. 44. 15. Crawford, Dilmun, pp. 21, 27, 30. 16. S. Lloyd, Foundations in the Dust: a Story of Mesopotamian Exploration (2nd edn, Harmondsworth, 1955), pp. 177-9. 17. A. George, The Epic of Gilgamesh: the Babylonian Epic Poem and Other Texts in Akkadian and Sumerian (London, 1999), pp. 198-9; S. N. Kramer, ‘Dilmun: Quest for Paradise', Antiquity, vol. 37 (1963), no. 146, p. 111. 18. Beaujard, Mondes, vol.

1, pp. 127, 132-3. 19. Geoffrey Bibby, Looking for Dilmun (London and New York, 1970; new edns 1996, 2012), pp. 79-81. 20. Cf. M. Rice, The Archaeology of the Arabian Gulf c. 5000-323 BC (London, 1994), p. 135, understanding ‘house of the quay' as a Dilmun tem­ple. 21. Kramer, ‘Dilmun', pp. 112-13. 22. W. F. Leemans, Foreign Trade in the Old Babylonian Period as Revealed by Texts from Southern Mesopotamia (Leiden, 1960), pp. 9-11; also cited by Rice in his often unreliable Archaeology of the Arabian Gulf, p. 108. 23. Slightly amended from the text cited by Potts, Arabian Gulf in Antiquity, vol. 1, p. 143. 24. Crawford, Dilmun, p. 104; Potts, Arabian Gulf in Antiquity, vol. 1, pp. 90, 113-25, espe­cially fig. 15, p. 120. 25. Leemans, Foreign Trade, pp. 19-21; cf. Potts, Arabian Gulf in Antiquity, vol. 1, p. 183. 26. Crawford, Dilmun, pp. 104-24. 27. Leemans, Foreign Trade, pp. 26, 29, 31, 33. 28. Leemans, Foreign Trade, p. 36, doc. 14, with some alterations. 29. Cf. Bibby, Looking for Dilmun, taking the view he was of only moderate wealth. 30. Lee­mans, Foreign Trade, pp. 39-40, doc. 17, slightly amended; also pp. 51-2. 31. Rice, Archaeology of the Arabian Gulf, pp. 276-80. 32. Crawford, Dilmun, p. 41. 33. My special thanks to the American University of Sharjah for facilitating my visit to this and other sites and museums. 34. Crawford, Dilmun, pp. 150-51; also Potts, Arabian Gulf in Antiquity, vol. 1, pp. 143, 149. 35. Chakrabarti, External Trade, pp. 145, 149; Potts, Ara­bian Gulf in Antiquity, vol. 1, p. 167. 36. Leemans, Foreign Trade, pp. 159-66; Chakra­barti, External Trade, pp. 145-50, citing at length various views. 37. G. Hourani, Arab Seafaring in the Indian Ocean in Ancient and Early Medieval Times, revised by J. Carswell (2nd edn, Princeton, 1995), pp. 129-30. 38. Rice, Archaeology of the Arabian Gulf, p. 271. 39. Excellent maps and an up- to-date survey in J. McIntosh, The Ancient Indus Valley: New Perspectives (Santa Barbara, 2008); Ray, Archaeology of Seafaring, p. 92, fig. 4.3; also S. Piggott, Prehistoric India to 1000 bc (2nd edn, Harmondsworth, 1952), p. 137, fig. 17. 40. L. N. Swamy, Maritime Contacts of Ancient India with Special Reference to the West Coast (New Delhi, 2000), pp. 21, 26; Ray, Archaeology of Seafaring, pp. 95-6; Leemans, Foreign Trade, p. 162, citing the views of Sir Mortimer Wheeler, excavator of the Indus sites. 41. Piggott, Prehistoric India, p. 138; also Beaujard, Mondes, vol. 1, p. 113. 42. Chakrabarti, External Trade, pp. 45-7; Piggott, Prehistoric India, pp. 208-9. 43. Chakrabarti, External Trade, pp. 47, 53-61, 139, 143; Swamy, Maritime Contacts, pp. 23-5. 44. Piggott, Prehis­toric India, pp. 183-4. 45. Chakrabarti, External Trade, pp. 22-7, 29-30; Swamy, Mari­time Contacts, p. 22. 46. Crawford, Dilmun, p. 150. 47. Bibby, Looking for Dilmun, p. 18. 48. Potts, Arabian Gulf in Antiquity, vol. 1, pp. 333-4; Ray, Archaeology of Seafar­ing, p. 105; Bibby, Looking for Dilmun, pp. 31, 45. 49. Crawford, Dilmun, p. 51; Bibby, Looking for Dilmun, p. 47; image of inscription: p. 49. 50. Potts, Arabian Gulf in Antiquity, vol. 1, pp. 88-9; cf. Kramer, ‘Dilmun’, pp. 111-15, recommending India. 51. Crawford, Dilmun, pp. 71-9; Potts, Arabian Gulf in Antiquity, vol. 1, pp. 168-72. 52. Crawford, Dilmun, pp. 15, 61; Potts, Arabian Gulf in Antiquity, vol. 1, p. 182. 53. Bibby, Looking for Dilmun, pp. 171-80. 54. Crawford, Dilmun, pp. 61-2, 87-94; Bibby, Looking for Dilmun, p. 253. 55. Potts, Arabian Gulf in Antiquity, vol. 1, pp. 186-8. 56. Crawford, Dilmun, pp. 95-6; Bibby, Looking for Dilmun, pp. 192-3, 354-5, 358-9. 57. Crawford, Dilmun, pp. 38, 41. 58. I. Finkel, The Ark before Noah (London, 2014). 59. Connan, Carter, Crawford et al., ‘Comparative Geochemical Study’, pp. 22-34. 60. Bibby, Looking for Dilmun, p. 193; Rice, Archaeology of the Arabian Gulf,pp. 148-9. 61. Connan, Carter, Crawford et al., ‘Comparative Geochemical Study’, pp. 34-54; Ray, Archaeology of Seafar­ing, pp. 57, 88-9. 62. J. Connan and T. Van de Velde, ‘An Overview of the Bitumen Trade in the Near East from the Neolithic (c.8000 bc) to the Early Islamic Period’, Arabian Archae­ology and Epigraphy, vol. 21 (2010), pp. 1-19. 63. Crawford, Dilmun, pp. 38, 63. 64. Ray, Archaeology of Seafaring, pp. 59-61, 66-9; Beaujard, Mondes, vol. 1, p. 125. 65. Ray, Archaeology of Seafaring, p. 98; Beaujard, Mondes, vol. 1, p. 156.

4. The Journey to the Land of the God

i. David Abulafia, The Great Sea: a Human History of the Mediterranean (London, 2011), p. 38. 2. A. Gardiner, The Egyptians: an Introduction (2nd edn, London, 1999), pp. 387­8. 3. N. Groom, Frankincense and Myrrh: a Study of the Arabian Incense Trade (London, 1981), pp. 163-4. 4. Ibid., pp. 3, 12, 24-5; Herodotos, 2:86. 5. Pliny the Elder, Natural History, 12:32.58-62 and 65; Groom, Frankincense and Myrrh, pp. 136-7. 6. Groom, Frankincense and Myrrh, pp. 12-15, 17,25. 7. R. J. Leprohon, Texts from the Pyramid Age (Leiden, 2005), p. 66; D. Fabre, Seafaring in Ancient Egypt (London, 2004), p. 89. 8. Illustrated in Fabre, Seafaring in Ancient Egypt, p. 90. 9. D. Abulafia, The Discovery of Mankind: Atlantic Encounters in the Age of Columbus (New Haven, 2008). i0. J. Baines, ‘Interpreting the Story of the Shipwrecked Sailor’, Journal of Egyptian Archaeology, vol. 76 (i990),pp. 55-72;Fabre, Seafaring in Ancient Egypt, p. 39; M. Cary and E. H. Warmington, The Ancient Explorers (2nd edn, Harmondsworth, 1963), pp. 75, 233-4. ii. I have used the English translation accompanying the transcription by M.-J. Nederhof, ‘Shipwrecked Sailor’, http://mjn.host.cs.st-andrews.ac.uk/egyptian/texts/corpus/pdf/Shipwrecked.pdf, as amended on 8 June 2009. 12. See the discussion in a later chapter based on M. D. Bukharin, P. de Geest, H. Dridi et al., Foreign Sailors on Socotra: the Inscriptions and Drawings from the Cave Hoq (Bremen, 2012); Z. Biedermann, Soqotra: Geschichte einer christlichen Insel im Indischen Ozean bis zur frühen Neuzeit (Wiesbaden, 2006). 13. Gardiner, Egyptians, pp. 176, 182. 14. Adapted from Cary and Warmington, Ancient Explorers, p. 75; and from Fabre, Seafaring in Ancient Egypt, p. 179. 15. Fabre, Seafaring in Ancient Egypt, pp. 158-60 for private traders. 16. Illustrated ibid., p. 180; Gardiner, Egyptians, p. 180. 17. Fabre, Seafaring in Ancient Egypt, p. 179. 18. Illustrated ibid., p. 144; cf. pp. 182-3 for the arrival of goods from Punt. 19. R. Fattovich, ‘Egypt's Trade with Punt: New Discoveries on the Red Sea Coast', British Museum Studies in Ancient Egypt and Sudan, vol. 18 (2012), p. 4; see also K. Bard and R. Fattovich, eds., Harbor of the Pharaohs to the Land of Punt: Archaeological Investigations at Marsa/Wadi Gawasis, Egypt, 2001-2005 (Naples, 2007). 20. Fattovich, ‘Egypt's Trade with Punt', pp. 5, 9; Fabre, Seafaring in Ancient Egypt, pp. 80-83; E. H. Warmington, The Commerce between the Roman Empire and India (2nd edn, London, 1974), pp. 7-8. 21. Illustrated in Fattovich, ‘Egypt's Trade with Punt', pp. 40, 46-7, 55, figs. 40, 46-8, 63. 22. Ibid., p. 14. 23. Abulafia, Great Sea, pp. 48-52. 24. Groom, Frankincense and Myrrh, pp. 198-204. 25. Ibid., pp. 32-3. 26. Babylonian Tal­mud, Treatise Kerithoth; see also Exodus 30:34-6. 27. I Kings 9:26-8; also I Chronicles 29:4; I. Finkelstein and N. A. Silberman, David and Solomon (New York, 2006), pp. 153, 170. 28. I Kings 10:11-22; also II Chronicles 8:18; II Chronicles 9. 29. For strong doubts about Phoenician identity see J. Quinn, In Search of the Phoenicians (Princeton, 2018); Abulafia, Great Sea, pp. 66-7. 30. S. Celestino and C. Lopez-Ruiz, Tartessos and the Phoenicians in Iberia (Oxford, 2016), pp. 111-21. 31. Ezekiel 27; see also M. E. Aubet, The Phoenicians and the West: Politics, Colonies and Trade (2nd edn, Cambridge, 2001), pp. 364-71. 32. Ibid., p. 115. 33. G. Pratico, ‘Nelson Glueck's 1938-1940 Excavations at Tell el-Kheleifeh: a Reappraisal', Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research, no. 259 (1985), pp. 1-32. 34. B. Isserlin, The Israelites (London, 1998), p. 184. 35. Ibid., pp. 185, 226, also plate 44. 36. Matthew 2:11. 37. Groom, Frankincense and Myrrh, pp. 34-7.

5. Cautious Pioneers

1. Herodotos, 4:44; M. Cary and E. H. Warmington, The Ancient Explorers (2nd edn, Harmondsworth, 1963), pp. 78-9; D. T. Potts, The Arabian Gulf in Antiquity, vol. 2: From Alexander the Great to the Coming of Islam (Oxford, 1990), p. 2. 2. D. Fabre, Seafaring in Ancient Egypt (London, 2004), p. 78. 3. Cary and Warmington, Ancient Explorers, p. 79. 4. Herodotos, 4:42; Fabre, Seafaring in Ancient Egypt, p. 77; Cary and Warmington, Ancient Explorers, pp. 111-12. 5. Herodotos, 4:43. 6. Cary and Warmington, Ancient Explorers,pp. 114-17. 7. Arrian, Anabasis, 5:26.1-2. 8. Ibid., 7:20.9-10; Strabo, Geog­raphy, 16:1.11; Potts, Arabian Gulf in Antiquity, vol. 2, pp. 2-4. 9. David Abulafia, The Great Sea: a Human History of the Mediterranean (London, 2011), p. 180. 10. Arrian, Anabasis, 18:29-30; Cary and Warmington, Ancient Explorers, pp. 80-86. 11. Arrian, Anabasis, 18:31. 12. Polybios, 13:9; Potts, Arabian Gulf in Antiquity, vol. 2, pp. 11-13. 13. H. P. Ray, The Archaeology of Seafaring in the Indian Ocean (Cambridge, 2003), p. 173. 14. M. Rostovtzeff, The Social and Economic History of the Hellenistic World (3 vols., Oxford, 1940-41), vol. 1, pp. 457-8. 15. Potts, Arabian Gulf in Antiquity, vol. 2, pp. 85-97. 16. Polybios, 13:9.4-5. 17. Rostovtzeff, Social and Economic History, vol. 1, pp. 458-9; Potts, Arabian Gulf in Antiquity, vol. 2, p. 93. 18. Potts, Arabian Gulf in Antiquity, vol. 2, p. 34; and for Thaj generally, pp. 23-48. 19. Rostovtzeff, Social and Economic History, vol. 1, p. 461. 20. N. Groom, Frankincense and Myrrh: a Study of the Arabian Incense Trade (London, 1981), p. 194. 21. Potts, Arabian Gulf in Antiquity, vol.

2, p. 31. 22. Strabo, Geography, 16:3; Ray, Archaeology of Seafaring, p. 176. 23. P. Beau- jard, Les Mondes de l’Ocean Indien, vol. 1: De la formation de l’Etat au premier systeme-monde afro-eurasien (4c millenaire av. J.-C.-6e siecle ap. J.-C.) (Paris, 2012), p. 361. 24. Fabre, Seafaring in Ancient Egypt, pp. 78-9. 25. Rostovtzeff, Social and Eco­nomic History, vol. 1, p. 384. 26. Cary and Warmington, Ancient Explorers, pp. 87-8. 27. Strabo, Geography, 2:5.12. 28. Rostovtzeff, Social and Economic History, vol. 2, p. 925. 29. Text copied by Photios, cited in extenso in Groom, Frankincense and Myrrh, pp. 68-72. 3°. Strabo, Geography, 2:98-102; Cary and Warmington, Ancient Explorers, pp. 90-91, 124-5. 31. Rostovtzeff, Social and Economic History, vol. 2, p. 927; R. McLaughlin, Rome and the Distant East: Trade Routes to the Ancient Lands of Arabia, India, and China (London, 2010), p. 24.

6. Mastering the Monsoon

i. David Abulafia, The Great Sea: a Human History of the Mediterranean (London, 2011), pp. 164-5; M. Rostovtzeff, The Social and Economic History of the Hellenistic World (3 vols., Oxford, 1940-41), vol. 2, pp. 920-24. 2. Cited in R. McLaughlin, Rome and the Distant East: Trade Routes to the Ancient Lands of Arabia, India, and China (London, 2010), p. 143. 3. McLaughlin, Rome and the Distant East, p. 28. 4. Lucian of Samosata, Alexander the False Prophet, c.44; R. Tomber, Indo-Roman Trade: From Pots to Pepper (Bristol and London, 2008), p. 66. 5. E. H. Warmington, The Commerce between the Roman Empire and India (2nd edn, London, 1974), pp. 39-42; Tomber, Indo-Roman Trade, pp. 30-37. 6. G. Hourani, Arab Seafaring in the Indian Ocean in Ancient and Early Medi­eval Times, revised by J. Carswell (2nd edn, Princeton, 1995), pp. 25-6. 7. L. Casson, ed. and transl., The Periplus Maris Erythraei (Princeton, 1989), pp. 86-7; another translation by G. W. B. Huntingford, The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea (London, 1980), p. 52; most references are to the former, Casson's edition. I use the form Periplous because I cannot see any reason to latinize the title of a work written in Greek. Also, Warmington, Commerce between the Roman Empire and India, pp. 43-4. 8. M. Cary and E. H. Warmington, The Ancient Explorers (2nd edn, Harmondsworth, 1963), pp. 95-6, 227. 9. Casson, ed. and transl., Periplus Maris Erythraei, pp. 7-8. i°. Casson in Peri-plus Maris Erythraei, p. 10; M. Wheeler, Rome beyond the Imperial Frontiers (2nd edn, Harmondsworth, 1955), p. 138. 11. Casson in Periplus Maris Erythraei, p. 8; text, pp. 62-3; Wheeler, Rome beyond the Imperial Frontiers, p. 141. 12. Casson in Peri-plus Maris Erythraei, pp. 5-7; cf. Hunt­ingford in Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, pp. 8-12, dating it between 95 and 130. i3. Casson in Periplus Maris Erythraei, pp. 50-51; S. Sidebotham, Berenike and the Ancient Maritime Spice Route (Berkeley and Los Angeles, 2011), p. 63. 14. Cited from Hunting­ford's version in Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, p. 21. 15. Casson, ed. and transl., Peri-plus Maris Erythraei, pp. 52-3, 113. 16. Ibid., pp. 58-9, 133. 17. Wheeler, Rome beyond the Imperial Frontiers, p. 138. 18. Cary and Warmington, Ancient Explorers, p. 122; R. Darley, Indo-Byzantine Exchange, 4th to 7th centuries: a Global History (Birmingham University Ph.D. thesis, 2013). 19. Tomber, Indo-Roman Trade, p. 98. 2°. Casson, ed. and transl., Periplus Maris Erythraei, pp. 60-61, 141-2. 21. Ibid., pp. 62- 3. 22. Hourani, Arab Seafaring, pp. 32-3. 23. L. N. Swamy, Maritime Contacts of Ancient India with Special Reference to the West Coast (New Delhi, 2000), p. 61. 24. Casson, ed. and transl., Periplus Maris Erythraei, pp. 64-5, 158-9; also Huntingford in Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, pp. 9-10; Warmington, Commerce between the Roman Empire and India, p. 11. 25. McLaughlin, Rome and the Distant East, pp. 3, 28. 26. Casson, ed. and transl., Periplus Maris Erythraei, pp. 66-7. 27. Ibid., pp. 70-71. 28. P. Beaujard, Les Mondes de l’Ocean Indien, vol. 1: De la formation de l’Etat au premier systeme-monde afro-eurasien (4c millenaire av.J.- C.-6e siecle ap.J.-C.) (Paris, 2012), p. 373. 29. Hourani, Arab Seafaring, pp. 16-17. 3°. Casson, ed. and transl., Peri-plus Maris Erythraei, pp. 74-5, 190. 31. Casson in Periplus Maris Erythraei, pp. 22, 2 6. 32. Casson, ed. and transl., Peri-plus Maris Erythraei, pp. 74-7. 33. Tomber, Indo-Roman Trade, pp. 125-6. 34. Casson in Periplus Maris Erythraei, p. 210; Tomber, Indo-Roman Trade, p. 55. 35. Pliny the Elder,

Natural History, 12:14; Wheeler, Rome beyond the Imperial Frontiers, p. 148. 36. Casson, ed. and transl., Periplus Maris Erythraei, pp. 80-81, 84-5. 37. Ibid., pp. 82-3; K. Hall, Maritime Trade and State Development in Early Southeast Asia (Honolulu, 1985), pp. 32-3. 38. Casson in Periplus Maris Erythraei, pp. 241-2. 39. Casson, ed. and transl., Periplus Maris Erythraei, pp. 86-7. 40. Map 14 ibid., p. 225. 41. Beaujard, Mondes, vol. 1, p. 379. 42. Sidebotham, Berenike, pp. 7, 9, 11. 43. Ibid., p. 12; also pp. 18-20. 44. Diodorus Siculus, 3:40.4-8; Sidebotham, Berenike, pp. 51-2, 195. 45. Sidebotham, Berenike, pp. 50-51. 46. Ibid., p. 196. 47. Abulafia, Great Sea, pp. 155-8. 48. Side­botham, Berenike, pp. 68-81. 49. Tomber, Indo-Roman Trade, p. 62; Sidebotham, Berenike, pp. 81-5. 50. D. Peacock and L. Blue, eds., Myos Hormos - Quseir al-Qadim: Roman and Islamic Ports on the Red Sea, vol. 1: Survey and Excavations 1999-2003 (Oxford, 2006), and vol. 2: Finds from the Excavations 1999-2003 (Oxford, 2011); L. Guo, Commerce, Culture and Community in a Red Sea Port in the Thirteenth Century: the Arabic Documents from Quseir (Leiden, 2004); Strabo, Geography, 17:1.45; Tomber, Indo-Roman Trade, p. 57; McLaughlin, Rome and the Distant East, p. 28; Sidebotham, Berenike, pp. 184-6. 51. McLaughlin, Rome and the Distant East, p. 15. 52. Tomber, Indo-Roman Trade, p. 61. 53. McLaughlin, Rome and the Distant East, pp. 15-16, 159-60. 54. Ibid., p. 193 n. 298; Sidebotham, Berenike, pp. 223-4. 55. Sidebotham, Berenike, p. 225; Tomber, Indo-Roman Trade, pp. 26-7, 141; McLaughlin, Rome and the Distant East, p. 49; Wheeler, Rome beyond the Imperial Frontiers, p. 160. 56. Cited in H. P. Ray, The Archaeology of Seafaring in the Indian Ocean (Cambridge, 2003), p. 53; see also Beaujard, Mondes, vol. 1, p. 375. 57. McLaughlin, Rome and the Distant East, p. 144; Tomber, Indo-Roman Trade, p. 55. 58. Sidebotham, Berenike, pp. 226-7, and fig. 12.1; Tomber, Indo-Roman Trade, p. 76. 59. Cf. Sidebotham, Berenike, pp. 76, 228-30, 249-51. 60. McLaughlin, Rome and the Distant East, p. 63; Sidebotham, Berenike, pp. 175, 177. 61. Sidebotham, Berenike, pp. 231-2, 236-7. 62. McLaughlin, Rome and the Distant East, p. 19; Tomber, Indo­Roman Trade, p. 43. 63. Sidebotham, Berenike, pp. 232-4; Tomber, Indo-Roman Trade, pp. 81, 149. 64. McLaughlin, Rome and the Distant East, p. 159. 65. Pliny the Elder, Natural History, 12:41.84. 66. Tomber, Indo-Roman Trade, p. 31. 67. Warmington, Commerce between the Roman Empire and India, p. 68. 68. Cited by Tomber, Indo­Roman Trade, p. 67. 69. Tomber, Indo-Roman Trade, pp. 121-2; Beaujard, Mondes, vol. 1, pp. 401-39, on Buddhism and trade; Swamy, Maritime Contacts, pp. 58-60. 70. Tomber, Indo-Roman Trade, p. 145. 71. Warmington, Commerce between the Roman Empire and India, pp. 116-26. 72. Cited from McLaughlin, Rome and the Distant East, p. 56; also in Beaujard, Mondes, vol. 1, p. 371. 73. D. Keys, Catastrophe: an Investigation into the Origins of the Modern World (London, 1999). 74. Cf. V. Begley, ‘Arikamedu Reconsidered', American Journal of Archaeology, vol. 87 (1983), pp. 461-81. 75. Warmington, Commerce between the Roman Empire and India, p. 68. 76. Begley, ‘Arikamedu Reconsidered', p. 461. 77. Tomber, Indo-Roman Trade, pp. 133, 137; Begley, ‘Arikamedu Reconsidered', p. 470. 78. Tomber, Indo-Roman Trade, p. 137; cf. the hyper-sceptical Darley, Indo-Byzantine Exchange, pp. 315-17. 79. Casson, ed. and transl., Peri-plus Maris Erythraei, pp. 88-9, 228-9; Wheeler, Rome beyond the Imperial Frontiers, pp. 173-9, and plates 19a and b; J. M. and G. Casal, Fouilles de Virampatnam-Arikamedu: rapport de l’Inde et de l’Occident aux environs de l’Ere chretienne (Paris, 1949). 80. Hall, Maritime Trade and State Development, p. 35. 81. Strabo, Geography, 15:1.4; McLaughlin, Rome and the Distant East, p. 10. 82. McLaughlin, Rome and the Distant East, pp. 134-5. 83. Ibid., p. 58. 84. Sidebotham, Berenike, pp. 259-75. 85. Ibid., pp. 204-5. 86. Ibid., p. 200; McLaughlin, Rome and the Distant East, p. 36. 87. Sidebotham, Berenike, pp. 279-82; Darley, Indo-Byzantine Exchange, pp. 318-26.

7. Brahmins, Buddhists and Businessmen

1. P. Beaujard, Les Mondes de l’Ocean Indien, vol. 1: De la formation de l’Etat au premier systeme-monde afro-eurasien (^e millenaire av. J.-C.-6e siecle ap. J.-C.) (Paris, 2012), p. 381. 2. I. Strauch with M. D. Bukharin, P. de Geest, H. Dridi et al., Foreign Sailors on Socotra: the Inscriptions and Drawings from the Cave Hoq (Bremen, 2011), p. 13. 3. L. Casson, ed. and transl., The Periplus Maris Erythraei (Princeton, 1989), pp. 68-9, with minor alterations. 4. Casson in Periplus Maris Erythraei, pp. 167-70. 5. Strauch, Foreign Sailors on Socotra, p. 44. 6. K. Hall, Maritime Trade and State Development in Early Southeast Asia (Honolulu, 1985), p. 37; Strauch, Foreign Sailors on Socotra, p. 374. 7. Strauch, Foreign Sailors on Socotra, pp. 52-3, 309, 344-5; Casson, ed. and transl., Peri-plus Maris Erythraei, pp. 76-7. 8. Strauch, Foreign Sailors on Socotra, pp. 131-2, 141, 211; also p. 214; p. 181: ‘the son of the captain Humiyaka'. 9. Ibid., pp. 227-8, 364-5, 377-9, and fig. 6.13. 10. M. Gorea ibid., pp. 448-83 (smmr : pp. 455-6); also comments by Strauch, pp. 79, 338, 377-9. 11. Ibid., pp. 142, 183, 348, 497. 12. Ibid., pp. 375-6, 542. 13. Cited ibid., pp. 384-5. 14. S. Randrianja and S. Ellis, Madagascar: a Short History (London, 2009), pp. 24-6; K. McDonald, Pirates, Merchants, Settlers, and Slaves: Colonial America and the Indo-Atlantic World (Oakland, 2015), p. 62; R. Boothby, A Briefe Discovery or Description of the Most Famous Island of Madagascar or St Laurence in Asia neare unto East-India; with relation of the healthfulnesse, pleasure, fertility and wealth of that country, also the condition of the natives: also the excellent meanes and accommodation to fit the planters there (London, 1646). 15. Beaujard, Mondes, vol. 1, pp. 527-8, 538-43, 549-51, 553-8; Randrianja and Ellis, Madagascar, pp. 29, 35. 16. Beaujard, Mondes, vol. 1, p. 538; Randrianja and Ellis, Madagascar, p. 22. 17. A. Sherriff, Dhow Cultures of the Indian Ocean: Cosmopolitanism, Commerce and Islam (London and Zanzibar, 2010), pp. 197-9. 18. Beaujard, Mondes, vol. 1, pp. 525, 530. 19. Ibid., p. 553; Randrianja and Ellis, Mada­gascar, p. 20. 20. Sherriff, Dhow Cultures, p. 199. 21. Beaujard, Mondes, vol. 1, pp. 530-31. 22. Hall, Maritime Trade and State Development, p. 28. 23. C. C. Brown, ed., Sejarah Melayu, or ‘Malay Annals’ (2nd edn, Kuala Lumpur and Singapore, 1970). 24. For example, Dionysios Periegetes, whose map is reconstructed in P. Wheatley, The Golden Khersonese: Studies in the Historical Geography of the Malay Peninsula before ad 1500 (Kuala Lumpur, 1961), p. 131. 25. T. Suarez, Early Mapping of Southeast Asia (Hong Kong and Singapore, 1999), pp. 62-3. 26. For gold of Ophir see also D. C. West and A. Kling, eds., The Libro de las profecias of Christopher Columbus (Gainesville, 1991). 27. Wheat­ley, Golden Khersonese, pp. 136, 138-62; cf. O. W. Wolters, Early Indonesian Commerce: a Study of the Origins of Srlvijaya (Ithaca, NY, 1967), p. 57. 28. Wang Gungwu, The Nanhai Trade: Early Chinese Trade in the South China Sea (new edn, Singapore, 2003; ori­ginal edition: Journal of the Malayan Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society, vol. 31 (1958), part 2, pp. 1-135), p. 8. 29. Wang, Nanhai Trade, pp. xiii-xiv; D. Heng, Sino-Malay Trade and Diplomacy from the Tenth through the Fourteenth Century (Athens, Ohio, 2009), pp. 21-2. 30. Wang, Nanhai Trade, pp. xvii, 1-2, citing Ssu-Ma Ch'ien (1st c. bc). 31. See e.g. V. Hansen, The Silk Road: a New History (London, 2012); J. Millward, The Silk Road: a Very Short Introduction (Oxford, 2013); X. Liu, The Silk Road in World History (New York and Oxford, 2010); F. Wood, The Silk Road (London, 2002). 32. Wang, Nanhai Trade, p. xv. 33. Ibid., pp. 9, 15. 34. Ibid., p. 33. 35. K. Hall, A History of Early South­east Asia: Maritime Trade and Societal Development, 100- 1500 (Lanham, 2011), pp. 41-4; Wheatley, Golden Khersonese, p. 14; Wolters, Early Indonesian Commerce, pp. 39-41. 36. Wheatley, Golden Khersonese, pp. 16-17, 26-30. 37. Ibid., p. 9, fig. 8. 38. Cited in Wolters, Early Indonesian Commerce, p. 44. 39. Wang, Nanhai Trade, pp. 35, 45, from the Shih i Chi cited in the T’u Shu Chi Ch’eng. 40. Ibid., pp. 50-51 (place names modified to Pinyin). 41. Ibid., pp. 24-5, 52. 42. Wheatley, Golden Khersonese, p. 12. 43. Text ibid., pp. 8-9, removing some square brackets; also in Wang, Nanhai Trade, p. 16; cf. Wolters, Early Indonesian Commerce, p. 61. 44. Wang, Nanhai Trade, p. 19. 45. Ibid., p. 37. 46. Wolters, Early Indonesian Commerce, pp. 77-8; Wang, Nanhai Trade, pp. 18,

59. 47. Wang, Nanhai Trade, p. 39. 48. J. Miksic, ‘The Beginning of Trade in Ancient Southeast Asia: the Role of Oc Eo and the Lower Mekong River', in J. Khoo, ed., Art and Archaeology of Fu Nan: Pre- Khmer Kingdom of the Lower Mekong Valley (Bangkok, 2003), p. 22; Wang, Nanhai Trade, pp. 31-48. 49. K'ang Tai cited in Hall, Maritime Trade and State Development, p. 48 - also p. 272; Wheatley, Golden Khersonese, pp. 14-15, 285-7· 5°· Miksic, ‘Beginning of Trade', p. 13; K. Hall, ‘Economic History of Early South­east Asia', in N. Tarling, ed., The Cambridge History of Southeast Asia, vol. 1: From Early Times to c.1500 (Cambridge, 1992), p. 193. 51· Hall, Maritime Trade and State Develop­ment, pp. 49-51; J. C. van Leur, Indonesian Trade and Society: Essays in Asian Social and Economic History (The Hague, 1955). 52· Miksic, ‘Beginning of Trade', p. 4. 53· Ibid., pp. 2-4, 18. 54· Vo Si Khai, ‘The Kingdom of Fu Nan and the culture of Oc Eo', in Khoo, ed., Art and Archaeology of Fu Nan, p. 70. 55· Miksic, ‘Beginning of Trade', p. 16; also Vo Si Khai, ‘Kingdom of Fu Nan', p. 47 and map of waterways, p. 48. 56· K. Taylor, ‘The Early Kingdoms', in Tarling, ed., Cambridge History of Southeast Asia, vol. 1, pp. 158-9. 57· Miksic, ‘Beginning of Trade', pp. 14, 18-19; Vo Si Khai, ‘Kingdom of Fu Nan', p. 70. 58· Miksic, ‘Beginning of Trade', pp. 8-11; Wang, Nanhai Trade, p. 39. 59· Liang Shu in Mik­sic, ‘Beginning of Trade', p. 22; Vo Si Khai, ‘Kingdom of Fu Nan', p. 69. 6°· E. H. Warm­ington, The Commerce between the Roman Empire and India (2nd edn, London, 1974), pp. 127-9; M. Cary and E. H. Warmington, The Ancient Explorers (2nd edn, Harmondsworth, 1963), p. 105; Suarez, Early Mapping of Southeast Asia, pp. 90-92. 61· My suggestion, with thanks to Dr Audrey Truschke for disentangling the Sanskrit, though other interpreta­tions such as ‘Strong City' exist; see Wheatley, Golden Khersonese, p. 205 for Kathdrsaritsdgara. 62· K'ang Tai cited ibid., p. 16; also in Hall, Maritime Trade and State Development, pp. 64-5. 63· Text in Wheatley, Golden Khersonese, p. 17. 64· Text Ibid., pp. 37-9; Wolters, Early Indonesian Commerce, p. 65. 65· Text in Wheatley, Golden Khersonese, p. 38, with names converted to Pinyin spelling. 66· Wang, Nanhai Trade, pp. 41-2. 67· Text in Wheatley, Golden Khersonese, p. 39. 68· Hall, Maritime Trade and State Development, p. 37; also Hall, History of Early Southeast Asia, pp. 65­6. 69· Wang, Nanhai Trade, p. 56. 7°· Miksic, ‘Beginning of Trade', pp. 28-30; Vo Si Khai, ‘Kingdom of Fu Nan', p. 84. 71· Wolters, Early Indonesian Commerce,pp. 81, 83-5, 129 -63.

8. A Maritime Empire?

i· C. C. Brown, ed., Sejarah Melayu, or ‘Malay Annals’ (2nd edn, Kuala Lumpur and Singa­pore, 1970), p. 15. 2· J. Miksic, Singapore and the Silk Road of the Sea, 1300-1800 (Singa­pore, 2013), p. 55. 3· Michel Jacq-Hergoualc'h, transl. Victoria Hobson, The Malay Peninsula (Leiden, 2001), p. 233. 4· G. Ferrand, L’Empire Sumatranais de Qrivijaya (Paris, 1922), pp. 5-6, 15-16; F. Hirth and W. W. Rockhill, eds., Chau Ju-kua: His Work on the Chinese and Arab Trade in the Twelfth and Thirteenth Centuries, Entitled Chu-fan-ch'i (St Petersburg, 1911), p. 114; also Wang Gungwu, The Nanhai Trade: Early Chinese Trade in the South China Sea (new edn, Singapore, 2003; original edition: Journal of the Malayan Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society, vol. 31 (1958), part 2, pp. 1-135), p. 96, for Fo-chi;

D. Heng, Sino-Malay Trade and Diplomacy from the Tenth through the Fourteenth Century (Athens, Ohio, 2009), p. 27, for the mission in 683. 5· Hirth and Rockhill, eds., Chau Ju- kua, pp. 60, 114; Ferrand, Empire Sumatranais, pp. 1, 8; G. Coedes, The Indianized States of Southeast Asia (Honolulu, 1968). 6· Wang, Nanhai Trade, pp. 87, 91. 7· Cited ibid., p. 113. 8· Ferrand, Empire Sumatranais,pp.7-8. 9· Miksic, Singapore and the Silk Road, pp. 37-8. i°· P. Wheatley, The Golden Khersonese: Studies in the Historical Geography of the Malay Peninsula before ad 1500 (Kuala Lumpur, 1961), p. 45; Miksic, Singapore and the Silk Road, p. 67. 11· Hirth and Rockhill, eds., Chau Ju-kua, p. 61. 12· Ibid., p.

60. i3· Ibid., p. 61; Ferrand, Empire Sumatranais, pp. 8-13; slaves: Song historian, ibid., p. 16. 14· Ch'en Ching, Hsin tsuan hsiang p’u, quoting the lost Hsiang lu of Yeh The'ing- kuei, cited in D. Abulafia, ‘Asia, Africa and the Trade of Medieval Europe', in M. M. Postan,

E. Miller and C. Postan, eds., The Cambridge Economic History of Europe (2nd edn, Cambridge, 1987), vol. 2, p. 445. 15· Ferrand, Empire Sumatranais, p. 18; Wang, Nanhai Trade, p. 117. 16· Heng, Sino-Malay Trade, p. 82. 17· Hirth and Rockhill, eds., Chau Ju-kua, p. 62; Ferrand, Empire Sumatranais, p. 2; Heng, Sino-Malay Trade, pp. 83-4. 18· Wang, Nanhai Trade, pp. 114-16; D. Twitchett, Financial Administration under the Tang Dynasty (2nd edn, Cambridge, 1970). 19. Hirth and Rockhill, eds., Chau Ju-kua, p. 62; Wheatley, Golden Khersonese, p. 63. 20. Hirth and Rockhill, eds., Chau Ju-kua, p. 62; Ferrand, Empire Sumatranais, p. 13. 21. Miksic, Singapore and the Silk Road. 22. Abu Zayd al-Siräfi, ‘Accounts of China and India', in T. Mackintosh-Smith and J. Montgomery, eds., Two Arabic Travel Books (New York, 2014), pp. 88-9; R. Hodges and D. Whitehouse, Mohammed, Charlemagne and the Origins of Europe (London, 1983), pp. 134-5. 23. G. Ferrand, ed., Voyage du Marchand Arabe Sulayman en Inde et en Chine redige en 851 suivi de Remarques par Abu Zayd Hasan (vers 916) (Paris, 1922), p. 95, also pp. 96-102, 142; Abu Zayd al-Siräfi, ‘Accounts of China and India', pp. 32-3, 36-7, 88-91; Ferrand, Empire Sumatranais, pp. 53-4; Miksic, Singapore and the Silk Road, p. 80. 24. Ibn al-Fakih al-Hamadhani (902), in Ferrand, Empire Sumatranais, pp. 54, 67. 25. Abu Zayd Hasan in Ferrand, ed., Voyage du Marchand Arabe, pp. 96-7, 101; ibn Rosteh (c.903), in Ferrand, Empire Sumatranais, p. 55. 26. Second Voyage of Sindbad, in A Plain and Literal Transla­tion of the Arabian Nights Entertainment now intituled The Book of the Thousand and One Nights, transl. R. Burton, ed. P. H. Newby (London, 1950), p. 179. 27. Abu Zayd Hasan (c.916) and al-Mas‘udi (943), in Ferrand, Empire Sumatranais, pp. 56-9, 62-3; also Bakuwi (15th c.), ibid., p. 78. 28. Al-Idrisi (1154), ibid., pp. 65-6. 29. Ibid., p. 66. 30. Ferrand, Empire Sumatranais, pp. 36, 38-41, 214, 218, 220-2i;Jacq-Hergoualc'h, Malay Peninsula, pp. 239-48; Miksic, Singapore and the Silk Road, p. 77. 31. Hirth and Rockhill, eds., Chau Ju-kua, p. 60; Ferrand, Empire Sumatranais, p. 9. 32. Brown, ed., Sejarah Melayu, pp. 77-8. 33. Miksic, Singapore and the Silk Road, pp. 74-5, 77, 79; also fig. 2.09, p. 76. 34. Jacq-Hergoualc'h, Malay Peninsula, pp. 234-7. 35. Abulafia, ‘Asia, Africa and the Trade of Medieval Europe', p. 447. 36. Wang, Nanhai Trade, p. 95: embas­sies from Jambi (Chan-pei); Miksic, Singapore and the Silk Road, p. 72, for Jambi. 37. Miksic, Singapore and the Silk Road, pp. 80-83. 38. H. Kulke, ‘Kadätuan-Srivijaya: Empire or Kraton of Srivijaya? A Reassessment of the Epigraphical Evidence', Bulletin de l’Ecole frangaise d’Extreme Orient, vol. 80 (1993), pp. 159-80; Jacq-Hergoualc'h, Malay Peninsula, pp. 248-55. 39. J. Chaffee, The Muslim Merchants of Pre-Modern China: the History of a Maritime Asian Trade Diaspora, 750- 1400 (Cambridge, 2018), p. 24; O. W. Wolters, Early Indonesian Commerce: a Study of the Origins of Srivijaya (Ithaca, NY, 1967), pp. 129-38. 40. Wolters, Early Indonesian Commerce, p. 151. 41. Jacq-Hergoualc'h, Malay Peninsula, p. 241. 42. Wolters, Early Indonesian Commerce, pp. 154-8; Heng, Sino-Malay Trade, p. 28; Chaffee, Muslim Merchants, p. 29. 43. Miksic, Singapore and the Silk Road, p. 91; Heng, Sino-Malay Trade, pp. 14-15. 44. R. Krahl, J. Guy, J. K. Wilson and J. Raby, eds., Shipwrecked: Tang Treasures and Monsoon Winds (Singapore and Wash­ington D C, 2010). 45. J. Guy, ‘Rare and Strange Goods: International Trade in Ninth­Century Asia', ibid., pp. 19, 30. 46. J. K. Wilson and M. Flecker, ‘Dating the Belitung Shipwreck', in Krahl et al., eds., Shipwrecked, p. 40. 47. R. Krahl, ‘Chinese Ceramics in the Late Tang Dynasty', in Krahl et al., eds., Shipwrecked, p. 52. 48. Guy, ‘Rare and Strange Goods', pp. 29-30. 49. Krahl, ‘Chinese Ceramics', p. 40. 50. Guy, ‘Rare and Strange Goods', pp. 23, 27. 51. Liu Yang, ‘Tang Dynasty Changsha Ceramics', in Krahl et al., eds., Shipwrecked, pp. 145-59; Krahl, ‘Chinese Ceramics', p. 46. 52. R. Krahl, ‘Tang Blue-and- White', in Krahl et al., eds., Shipwrecked, pp. 209-11; Heng, Sino-Malay Trade, p. 33; also A. Kessler, Song Blue and White Porcelain on the Silk Road (Leiden, 2012). 53. Krahl et al., eds., Shipwrecked, p. 22, fig. 14. 54. Qi Dongfang, ‘Gold and Silver Wares on the Belitung Shipwreck', ibid., pp. 221-7. 55. Miksic, Singapore and the Silk Road, p. 71. 56. J. Hallett, ‘Pearl Cups like the Moon: the Abbasid Reception of Chinese Ceramics', in Krahl et al., eds., Shipwrecked, pp. 75-81. 57. Krahl, ‘Chinese Ceramics', p. 40; Miksic, Singa­pore and the Silk Road, p. 81. 58. Miksic, Singapore and the Silk Road, pp. 86-91; Heng, Sino-Malay Trade, p. 29; Chaffee, Muslim Merchants, pp. 56-7. 59. Li Qingxin, Nanhai I and the Maritime Silk Road (Beijing, 2009); Chaffee, Muslim Merchants, pp. 82-3; China and the World: Shipwrecks and Export Porcelain on the Maritime Silk Road (Beijing, 2017; text in Chinese with English and Chinese captions), pp. 190-201. 60. Wang Gungwu, ‘A Two-Ocean Mediterranean', in G. Wade and L. Tana, eds., Anthony Reid and the Study of the Southeast Asian Past (Singapore, 2012), pp. 68-84.

9. ‘I am about to cross the Great Ocean’

i. T. Power, The Red Sea from Byzantium to the Caliphate ad 500-1000 (Cairo, 2012); P. Crone, Meccan Trade and the Rise of Islam (Oxford, 1987). 2. Power, Red Sea, pp. 70-71, with telling criticisms of I. Shahid, ‘Byzantium in South Arabia’, Dumbarton Oaks Papers, vol. 33 (1979), pp. 27-94, especially p. 56; also G. Bowersock, The Throne of Adulis: Red Sea Wars on the Eve of Islam (Oxford, 2013), pp. 96-8. 3. Bowersock, Throne of Adulis, pp. 106-33. 4. David Abulafia, The Great Sea: a Human History of the Mediter­ranean (London, 2011), p. 221. 5. Power, Red Sea, pp. 103-9. 6. R. Hodges and D. White­house, Mohammed, Charlemagne and the Origins of Europe (London, 1983), pp. 126-9. 7. Quintus Horatius Flaccus, Epistles, 2.1,ll.156-7. 8. Hodges and Whitehouse, Mohammed, Charlemagne, pp. 131-2. 9. Xinru Liu, The Silk Road in World History (Oxford and New York, 2010), pp. 96-101; F. Wood, The Silk Road (London, 2002); P. Frankopan, The Silk Road: a New History of the World (London, 2015). 10. Hodges and Whitehouse, Moham­med, Charlemagne, pp. 115-18. 11. Slightly modified from the passage cited by S. M. Stern, ‘Ramisht of Siraf, a Merchant Millionaire of the Twelfth Century’, Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, n.s., vol. 99 (1967), pp. 10-14. 12. D. Abulafia, ‘Asia, Africa and the Trade of Medieval Europe’, in M. M. Postan, E. Miller and C. Postan, eds., The Cambridge Eco­nomic History of Europe (2nd edn, Cambridge, 1987), vol. 2, p. 451. 13. G. Ferrand, ed., Voyage du Marchand Arabe Sulayman en Inde et en Chine redige en 851 suivi de Remarques par Abu Zayd Hasan (vers 916) (Paris, 1922), pp. 35-7; Abu Zayd al-Siräfi, ‘Accounts of China and India’, in T. Mackintosh-Smith and J. Montgomery, eds., Two Arabic Travel Books (New York, 2014), pp. 28-31 (pp. 5-6 for the problem of authorship; pp. 84-5, 88-9, 136 n. 28 for the ‘China ships’). 14. Ferrand, ed., Voyage du Marchand Arabe, pp. 75-7; Abu Zayd al-Siräfi, ‘Accounts of China and India’, pp. 66-71; D. Heng, Sino-Malay Trade and Diplomacy from the Tenth through the Fourteenth Century (Athens, Oh., 2009), pp. 29, 34-5, giving a date of 873; A. Schottenhammer, ‘China’s Emergence as a Maritime Power’, in The Cambridge History of China, vol. 5, part 2: Sung China 960-1279 (Cambridge, 2015), pp. 437-525. 15. Ferrand, ed., Voyage du Marchand Arabe, pp. 81, 84; Abu Zayd al-Siräfi, ‘Accounts of China and India’, pp. 72-9. 16. Hodges and Whitehouse, Moham­med, Charlemagne, pp. 133-41; D. Whitehouse, ‘Siräf: a Medieval Port on the Persian Gulf’, World Archaeology, vol. 2 (1970), pp. 141-58. 17. Abulafia, Great Sea, p. 389. 18. Ibid., pp. 258-67 for the Jewish merchants from Cairo; and, more generally, pp. 268-317. 19. Power, Red Sea, pp. 146, 148-9. 20. Ibid., pp. 155-7; G. T. Scanlon, ‘Egypt and China: Trade and Imitation’, in D. S. Richards, ed., Islam and the Trade of Asia: a Colloquium (Oxford, 1970),pp. 81-95. 21. S. D. Goitein and M. Friedman, India Traders of the Middle Ages: Documents from the Cairo Geniza - ‘India Book’ (Leiden, 2008), pp. 387-9; E. Lam- bourn, Abraham’s Luggage: a Social Life of Things in the Medieval Indian Ocean World (Cambridge, 2018). 22. S. D. Goitein, A Mediterranean Society: the Jewish Communities of the Arab World as Portrayed in the Cairo Geniza, vol. 1: Economic Foundations (Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1967). 23. Cited in S. Reif, A Jewish Archive from Old Cairo: the History of Cambridge University’s Genizah Collection (Richmond, Surrey, 2000), p. 173. 24. See e.g. Goitein and Friedman, India Traders, pp. 160-61, 527, 535. 25. Ibid., p. 159. 26. Li Guo, Commerce, Culture, and Community in a Red Sea Port in the Thirteenth Century: the Arabic Documents from Quseir (Leiden, 2004); A. Regourd, ‘Arabic Language Documents on Paper’, in D. Peacock and L. Blue, eds., Myos Hormos - Quseir al-Qadim: Roman and Islamic Ports on the Red Sea, vol. 2: Finds from the Excavations 1999-2003 (Oxford, 2011), pp. 339­44. 27. Guo, Commerce, Culture, and Community, pp. 141, 143, 152, 159-60, 162, 235, texts 3, 4, 8, 11, 12, 43. 28. Ibid., p. 37. 29. Ibid., pp. 35-8. 30. Regourd, ‘Arabic Language Documents’, pp. 339-40. 31. Cited by Guo, Commerce, Culture, and Community, p. 29. 32. Goitein and Friedman, India Traders, p. 189: ‘hiring two camels from Qus to Aydhab’. 33. D. Peacock, ‘Regional Survey’, in D. Peacock and L. Blue, eds., Myos Hormos - Quseir al- Qadim: Roman and Islamic Ports on the Red Sea, vol. 1: Survey and Excavations 1999-2003 (Oxford, 2006), p. 12. 34. L. Blue, J. Whitewright and R. Thomas, ‘Ships and Ships’

Fittings', in Peacock and Blue, eds., Myos Hormos, vol. 2, p. 184. 35. Guo, Commerce, Culture, and Community, p. 137, text 1. 36. M. van der Veen, A. Cox and J. Morales, ‘Plant Remains', in Peacock and Blue, eds., Myos Hormos, vol. 2, pp. 228-31. 37. F. Hand­ley, ‘Basketry, Matting and Cordage', in Peacock and Blue, eds., Myos Hormos, vol. 2, pp. 306-7. 38. Guo, Commerce, Culture, and Community, pp. 38-9, 175, 181-2, 200, 203, 214-15, 219, 239, 257, 261, 280, texts 17, 20, 26, 27, 31, 32, 46, 58, 60, 67; Regourd, ‘Arabic Language Documents', pp. 342-3. 39. Guo, Commerce, Culture, and Community, pp. 225-6, text 36. 40. Ibid., pp. 51-4. 41. D. Agius, ‘The Inscribed Ostrich Egg', in Peacock and Blue, eds., Myos Hormos, vol. 1, p. 159 (punctuation modified here). 42. R. Bridgman, ‘Celadon and Qingbai Sherds: Preliminary Thoughts on the Medieval Ceramics', in Peacock and Blue, eds., Myos Hormos, vol. 2, pp. 43-6. 43. Guo, Commerce, Culture, and Community, pp. 63, 75-89, and plate 1, p. 79. 44. R. Margariti, Aden and the Indian Ocean Trade: 150 Years in the Life of a Medieval Arabian Port (Chapel Hill, 2007), p. 71; Goitein and Friedman, India Traders, p. 295. 45. Margariti, Aden and the Indian Ocean Trade, pp. 47-67. 46. N. A. al-Shamrookh, The Commerce and Trade of the Rasulids in the Yemen, 630-858/1231- 1454 (Kuwait, 1996), pp. 101-29. 47. Goitein and Friedman, India Traders,pp. 439-47. 48. Alex­andria: Abulafia, Great Sea, pp. 296-7, 309. 49. Margariti, Aden and the Indian Ocean Trade, pp. 94-6, 101-2, 113, 115-19; for late medieval Yemen: al-Shamrookh, Commerce and Trade of the Rasulids, pp. 259-81, 315-36 (appendix 1). 50. Goitein and Friedman, India Traders, pp. 508-9: ‘no foreigner should be molested'; A. Hartman and D. Halkin, Epistles of Mai- monides: Crisis and Leadership (Philadelphia, 1993). 51. Margariti, Aden and the Indian Ocean Trade, pp. 120-21. 52. Ibid., pp. 153-4. 53. Goitein and Friedman, India Traders, p. 24. 54. Ibid., p. 534. 55. Ibid., pp. 147, 160-61. 56. E. Lambourn, K. Veluthat and R. Tomber, eds., The Kollam Plates in the World of the Ninth-Century Indian Ocean (New Delhi, 2020). 57. Ferrand, ed., Voyage du Marchand Arabe, pp. 18, 19, 40, 42; Abu Zayd al-Siräfi, ‘Accounts of China and India', pp. 30-33; J. Chaffee, The Muslim Merchants of Pre-Modern China: the History of a Maritime Asian Trade Diaspora, 750-1400 (Cambridge, 2018), pp. 21-3. 58. S. Digby, ‘The Maritime Trade of India', in T. Raychaudhuri and I. Habib, eds., The Cambridge Economic History of India, vol. 1: c. 1200-c.1750 (Cambridge, 1982), pp. 127, 146. 59. Goitein and Friedman, India Traders, pp. 288-93, 373-6. 60. Lambourn, Abraham’s Luggage., pp 00-0. 61. F. Hirth and W. W. Rockhill, eds., Chau Ju-kua: His Work on the Chinese and Arab Trade in the Twelfth and Thirteenth Centuries, Entitled Chu- fan-ch'i(St Petersburg, 1911), pp. 88- 9. 62. Goitein and Friedman, India Traders,pp. 314-17, 332, 555. 63. Digby, ‘Maritime Trade of India', pp. 125-6; Goitein and Friedman, India Traders, pp. 346, 576. 64. Goitein and Friedman, India Traders, pp. 54-68; also pp. 473, 476. 65. Ibid., p. 71; Abulafia, Great Sea, pp. 319-20. 66. Hirth and Rockhill, eds., Chau Ju-kua, p. 87. 67. Goitein and Friedman, India Traders, pp. 35 n. 15, 210; Chaffee, Muslim Merchants, p. 31. 68. Goitein and Friedman, India Traders, pp. 124-5. 69. Ibid., pp. 387­9. 70. Digby, ‘Maritime Trade of India', p. 133. 71. Abulafia, Great Sea, p. 296. 72. Abulafia, ‘Asia, Africa and the Trade of Medieval Europe', pp. 437-43; for Islamic maps of the Indian Ocean, Y. Rapoport and E. Savage-Smith, Lost Maps of the Caliphs (Oxford, 2018).

10. The Rising and the Setting Sun

1. I. Morris, The World of the Shining Prince: Court Life in Ancient Japan (Oxford, 1964), p. 87. 2. See e.g. W. McCullough, ‘The Heian Court, 794-1070', in The Cambridge History of Japan, vol. 2: Heian Japan (Cambridge, 1999), p. 83. 3. C. von Verschuer, Across the Perilous Sea: Japanese Trade with China and Korea from the Seventh to the Sixteenth Cen­turies (Ithaca, NY, 2006), p. 3; B. Batten, Gateway to Japan: Hakata in War and Peace, 500-1300 (Honolulu, 2006), pp. 61-2; also David C. Kang, East Asia before the West: Five Centuries of Trade and Tribute (New York, 2010), p. 60. 4. Five embassies between 664 and 671: Batten, Gateway to Japan, p. 25. 5. G. Sansom, Japan: a Short Cultural History (4th edn, Stanford, 1978), p. 35. 6. Kim Pusik, The Silla Annals of the Samguk Sagi [‘His­tory of the Three Kingdoms'], ed. and transl. E. Shultz, H. Kang and D. Kane (Seongnam-si, 2012), p. 26. 7. I am very grateful to Professor Hiroshi Takayama of Tokyo University for showing me the Munakata Grand Shrine and its small but spectacular museum in 2000. 8. Von Verschuer, Across the Perilous Sea, p. 67; Batten, Gateway to Japan, p. 28; in fact Tsushima is a pair of islands very close together. 9. McCullough, ‘Heian Court', p. 81. 10. Masao Yaku, The Kojiki in the Life of Japan (Tokyo, 1969). 11. Von Verschuer, Across the Perilous Sea, p. 2. 12. R. Bowring and P. Kornicki, eds., Cambridge Encyclopaedia of Japan (Cambridge, 1993), p. 47. 13. McCullough, ‘Heian Court', p. 81; C. Eckert, K. Lee, Y. I. Lew et al., Korea Old and New: a History (Seoul and Cambridge, Mass., 1990), p. 42; Jung-Pang Lo, China as a Sea Power, 1127-1368: a Preliminary Survey of the Maritime Expansion and Naval Exploits of the Chinese People during the Southern Song and Yuan Periods, ed. B. Elleman (Singapore, 2012), pp. 52-4. 14. Batten, Gateway to Japan, pp. 52-3, 55, 57-8. 15. Kim Pusik, Silla Annals, p. 308; another T'aeryom served as ambassador to Tang China in 828 and brought back the seeds of tea-shrubs: p. 345; also p. 159 n. 42. 16. Ibid., p. 207. 17. Ibid., pp. 264, 267, 297; also p. 294 [742]: ‘an envoy from Japan arrived, but he was not received.' Cf. pp. 329, 366, 371, 373. 18. R. Borgen, Sugawara no Michizane and the Early Heian Court (Cambridge, Mass., 1986), pp. 228-40. 19. Von Verschuer, Across the Perilous Sea, pp. 5-8, 11-13, 15; Batten, Gateway to Japan, p. 63, table 2. 20. Batten, Gateway to Japan, pp. 51-2; Kang, East Asia before the West,pp. 71-2. 21. Batten, Gateway to Japan, pp. 41-5; poem: pp. 41-2, cited from P. Doe, A Warbler’s Song in the Dusk: the Life and Work of Otomo Yakamochi (718-85) (Berkeley, 1982),pp. 219-20. 22. Batten, Gateway to Japan, pp. 55, 59, 65. 23. Ibid., pp. 69-76, noting p. 72, table 3, and p. 74, fig. 10 (wooden toilet sticks). 24. Ibid., pp. 3-4, 55, 69-70; also p. 2, fig. 1. 25. Ibid., pp. 67-8. 26. Von Verschuer, Across the Perilous Sea, pp. 20-21; McCullough, ‘Heian Court', p. 91. 27. Murasaki Shikibu, The Tale of Genji, transl. E. Siedensticker (London, 1992), p. 18. 28. Sansom, Japan, pp. 29-30. 29. C. von Verschuer, Les Relations officielles du Japon avec la Chine aux VIII^e et IX^e siecles (Geneva, 1985), pp. 3, 55-60; Borgen, Suga­wara no Michizane, p. 227. 30. J. Stanley-Baker, Japanese Art (London, 1984), pp. 100-101, fig. 67. 31. Von Verschuer, Relations officielles, p. 42. 32. Sansom, Japan, pp. 88-9. 33. Ibid., pp. 60-61. 34. G. Reeves, ed. and transl., The Lotus Sutra (Somerville, 2008); G. Tan­abe, ed., The Lotus Sutra in Japanese Culture (Honolulu, 1989). 35. Von Verschuer, Across the Perilous Sea, p. 10. 36. Von Verschuer, Relations officielles, pp. 216-20; von Verschuer, Across the Perilous Sea, pp. 18-19. 37. Borgen, Sugawara no Michizane, pp. 242-3; McCullough, ‘Heian Court', p. 85; see von Verschuer, Relations officielles, pp. 163-4, and her discussion, pp. 161-80. 38. Borgen, Sugawara no Michizane, pp. 227-53. 39. Von Verschuer, Across the Perilous Sea, pp. 14-16. 40. Stanley-Baker, Japanese Art, pp. 53-7; von Verschuer, Across the Perilous Sea, p. 18. 41. E. Reischauer, ed. and transl., Ennin’s Diary: the Record of a Pilgrimage to China (New York, 1955); E. Reischauer, Ennin’s Travels in Tang China (New York, 1955); the French edition, Ennin: Journal d’un voyageur en Chine au IXe siecle (Paris, 1961) is translated from Reischauer's English but has a useful introduction by R. Levy. For Ken'in, see Reischauer, Ennin’s Travels, p. 17, and Ennin’s Diary, p. 410. 42. Reischauer, ed. and transl., Ennin’s Diary, p. 5 n. 13. 43. Reischauer, Ennin’s Travels, pp. 48-51. 44. Ibid., pp. 53-8. 45. Reischauer, ed. and transl., Ennin’s Diary, pp. 100, 118. 46. Kim Pusik, Silla Annals, pp. 346-7. 47. Reischauer, Ennin’s Travels, pp. 60, 63. 48. Ibid., p. 64. 49. Ibid., pp. 65-7. 50. Reischauer, ed. and transl., Ennin’s Diary, p. 8. 51. Ibid., pp. 6-21; Reischauer, Ennin’s Travels, pp. 70-71. 52. Reischauer, ed. and transl., Ennin’s Diary, p. 34. 53. Ibid., pp. 97, 99-101. 54. Ibid., pp. 114-16. 55. Ibid., p. 98; also Reischauer, Ennin’s Travels, p. 97. 56. Reischauer, Ennin’s Travels, p. 83. 57. Ibid., pp. 81-6; Reischauer, ed. and transl., Ennin’s Diary, pp. 95, 122-4; Levy, Ennin, p. 17. 58. Reischauer, ed. and transl., Ennin’s Diary, pp. 94-5; Reischauer, Ennin’s Travels, pp. 84-5. 59. Von Verschuer, Relations officielles, p. 205. 60. Reischauer, ed. and transl., Ennin’s Diary, pp. 102-3, 112. 61. Ibid., pp. 102-5; Levy, Ennin, pp. 13­14. 62. Reischauer, ed. and transl., Ennin’s Diary, pp. 105-7. 63. Ibid., p. 111. 64. Reischauer, Ennin’s Travels, pp. 94-6. 65. Reischauer, ed. and transl., Ennin’s Diary, p. 131; Reischauer, Ennin’s Travels, pp. 289-90. 66. Reischauer, Ennin’s Travels, pp. 100-113. 67. Ibid., p. 29; also pp. 217-71; Reischauer, ed. and transl., Ennin’s Diary, pp. 342-89. 68. Reischauer, ed. and transl., Ennin’s Diary, pp. 390, 394. 69. Ibid., pp. 398-404; Levy, Ennin, pp. 32-3. 70. Kim Pusik, Silla Annals, p. 344; Eckert, Lee, Lew et al., Korea Old and New, p. 59; von Verschuer, Relations officielles, p. 451 n. 488. 71. Ilyon, Samguk Yusa: Legends and History of the Three Kingdoms of Ancient Korea, ed. and transl. Ha Tae-Hung and G. Mintz (Seoul, 2006), book ii, section 47. 72. Von Verschuer, Relations officielles, p. 139; pp. 358-9, giving the text of a document of 842. 73. Reischauer, ed. and transl., Ennin’s Diary, pp. 100, 118; letters: pp. 167-9; Reischauer, Ennin’s Travels, pp. 289-90. 74. Kim Pusik, Silla Annals, p. 349. 75. Ilyon, Samguk Yusa, book ii, section 47; cf. Reischauer, Ennin’s Travels, pp. 287-94. 76. Kim Pusik, Silla Annals, p. 356, where Wihün is yet another name for Yomjang.

11. ‘Now the world is the world’s world’

i. K. Yamamura, ‘The Growth of Commerce in Medieval Japan’, in The Cambridge History of Japan, vol. 3: Medieval Japan (Cambridge, 1990), pp. 357, 364; E. Segal, Coins, Trade, and the State: Economic Growth in Early Medieval Japan (Cambridge, Mass., 2011), pp. 50-51. 2. K. Shoji, ‘Japan and East Asia’, in Cambridge History of Japan, vol. 3, pp. 410­11. 3. Yamamura, ‘Growth of Commerce’, pp. 347, 351-6; T. Toyoda, History of pre-Meij i Commerce in Japan (Tokyo, 1969), pp. 21-8. 4. Segal, Coins, Trade, and the State, pp. 74-80. 5. Ibid., p. 77, fig. 4. 6. Yamamura, ‘Growth of Commerce’, pp. 359-60; Segal, Coins, Trade, and the State, pp. 46-7, 53. 7. Segal, Coins, Trade, and the State, p. 93; S. Gay, The Moneylenders of Late Medieval Kyoto (Honolulu, 2001). 8. P. F. Souyri, The World Turned Upside Down: Medieval Japanese Society (London, 2002), pp. 87-8, 92-5, 154-6; cf. David Abulafia, The Great Sea: a Human History of the Mediterranean (London, 2011), p. 400 and plate 51; Yamamura, ‘Growth of Commerce’, pp. 366-8. 9. Segal, Coins, Trade, and the State, pp. 59, 84-5. 10. C. von Verschuer, Across the Perilous Sea: Japanese Trade with China and Korea from the Seventh to the Sixteenth Centuries (Ithaca, NY, 2006), pp. 43, 45. 11. W. McCullough, ‘The Heian Court, 794-1070’, in The Cambridge History of Japan, vol. 2: Heian Japan (Cambridge, 1999), pp. 87-8. 12. Von Verschuer, Across the Perilous Sea, pp. 53-4, 61-2. 13. Ibid., pp. 101-2. 14. N. C. Rousmaniere, Vessels of Influence: China and the Birth of Porcelain in Medieval and Early Modern Japan (London, 2012), pp. 78-82; C. von Verschuer, Les Relations officielles du Japon avec la Chine aux VIII^e et IX^e siecles (Geneva, 1985), p. 251; von Verschuer, Across the Perilous Sea, pp. 63-8. 15. Chinese thirteenth-century treatise quoted in von Verschuer, Across the Perilous Sea, p. 68. 16. Von Verschuer, Across the Perilous Sea, pp. 71-3. 17. Ibid., pp. 45-6,60. 18. Ibid., pp. 58-9. 19. Ibid., p. 42. 20. Ibid., p. 47. 21. Souyri, World Turned Upside Down, pp. 1-2; for the Taira and Chinese trade, see Von Verschuer, Across the Per­ilous Sea, p. 46. 22. Von Verschuer, Across the Perilous Sea, p. 79. 23. Chung Yang Mo, ‘The Kinds of Ceramic Articles Discovered in Sinan, and Problems about Them’, in Tokyo kokuritsu kakabutsukan, Shin’an kaitei hikiage bunbutsu: Sunken Treasures off the Sinan Coast (Tokyo, Nagoya and Fukoaka, 1983), pp. 84-7; see also pp. 58-66 and colour plates 1-39 (celadons), pp. 69-70 and colour plates 53-6 (white porcelain). 24. Segal, Coins, Trade, and the State, p. 53. 25. Youn Moo-byong, ‘Recovery of Seabed Relics at Sinan and Its Results from the Viewpoint of Underwater Archaeology’, in Shin’an kaitei hikiage bun­butsu, pp. 81-3; von Verschuer, Across the Perilous Sea, pp. 95-7. 26. Chung, ‘Kinds of Ceramic Articles’, p. 87. 27. Von Verschuer, Across the Perilous Sea, p. 81; Shoji, ‘Japan and East Asia’, pp. 405-7. 28. Souyri, World Turned Upside Down, pp. 158-60. 29. Von Verschuer, Across the Perilous Sea, pp. 108-10; F. Gipouloux, The Asian Mediterranean: Port Cities and Trading Networks in China, Japan and Southeast Asia, 13th-21st century (Cheltenham, 2011), pp. 64-5; Toyoda, History of pre-Meiji Commerce, p. 30; Cs. Olah, Räuberische Chinesen und tückische Japaner: die diplomatischen Beziehungen zwischen China und Japan im 15. und 16. Jahrhundert (Wiesbaden, 2009), pp. 141-5. 30. Letters cited from Wang Yi-T’ung, Official Relations between China and Japan 1368-1549 (Cambridge, Mass., 1953), pp. 18-19; Kanenaga: Toyoda, History of pre-Meij i Commerce, p. 29. 31. Von Verschuer, Across the Perilous Sea, pp. 113-17; Gipouloux, Asian Mediter­ranean, pp. 65-6; Shoji, ‘Japan and East Asia', pp. 428-32. 32. Von Verschuer, Across the Perilous Sea, p. 121. 33. T. Conlan, In Little Need of Divine Inter-vention: Takezaki Suena- ga’s Scrolls of the Mongol Invasions of Japan (Ithaca, NY, 2001). 34. Shoji, ‘Japan and East Asia', pp. 414-15; S. Turnbull, The Mongol Invasions of Japan 1274 and 1281 (Botley, Oxford, 2010), pp. 8-10; J. Clements, A Brief History of Khubilai Khan (London, 2010); M. Rossabi, Khubilai Khan: His Life and Times (Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1988). 35. Slightly modernized from Henry Yule and Henri Cordier, transl. and eds., The Travels of Marco Polo: the Complete Yule-Cordier Edition (3 vols. bound as 2, New York, 1993), vol. 2, pp. 253-5; Shoji, ‘Japan and East Asia', p. 419; cf. F. Wood, Did Marco Polo Go to China? (London, 1995). 36. Conlan, In Little Need of Divine Intervention, p. 201, doc. 1. 37. Turnbull, Mongol Invasions, p. 11. 38. J. Delgado, Khubilai Khan’s Lost Fleet: History’s Greatest Naval Disaster (London, 2009), pp. 89-90; Conlan, In Little Need of Divine Inter­vention, p. 256. 39. Shoji, ‘Japan and East Asia', pp. 411-15; T. Brook, The Troubled Empire: China in the Yuan and Ming Dynasties (Cambridge, Mass., 2010), p. 26; Souyri, World Turned Upside Down, p. 79. 40. Turnbull, Mongol Invasions, p. 13. 41. Conlan, In Little Need of Divine Intervention, p. 205, doc. 5. 42. Brook, Troubled Empire, p. 26. 43. Conlan, In Little Need of Divine Intervention, p. 50. 44. Shoji, ‘Japan and East Asia', p. 418; Turnbull, Mongol Invasions, pp. 32-50, especially pp. 49-50; Delgado, Khu­bilai Khan’s Lost Fleet, pp. 92, 97. 45. Delgado, Khubilai Khan’s Lost Fleet, pp. 73-4; Brook, Troubled Empire, p. 26. 46. Delgado, Khubilai Khan’s Lost Fleet, p. 100. 47. B. Batten, Gateway to Japan: Hakata in War and Peace, 500- 1300 (Honolulu, 2006), pp. 48, 132-3, and p. 49, fig. 8; Conlan, In Little Need of Divine Inter-vention, pp. 235-6, doc. 41. 48. Turnbull, Mongol Invasions, pp. 56, 60-61, for maps. 49. For small boats, see illustrations from the war scrolls in Conlan, In Little Need of Divine Inter-vention, pp. 140-46, 151. 50. Turnbull, Mongol Invasions, pp. 63-4; Clements, Brief History of Khu­bilai Khan, p. 161. 51. Clements, Brief History of Khubilai Khan, p. 159. 52. Conlan, In Little Need of Divine Intervention, p. 154. 53. Kadenokoji Kanenanka (1243-1308), cited in Conlan, In Little Need of Divine Intervention, pp. 266-7; ibid., pp. 254, 259. 54. Del­gado, Khubilai Khan’s Lost Fleet, pp. 106-8. 55. Yule and Cordier, transl. and eds., Travels of Marco Polo, vol. 2, p. 255; Delgado, Khubilai Khan’s Lost Fleet, p. 111. 56. Yule and Cordier, transl. and eds., Travels of Marco Polo, pp. 255-60. 57. Clements, Brief History of Khubilai Khan, p. 163. 58. Delgado, Khubilai Khan’s Lost Fleet, pp. 126-53. 59. Ibid., pp. 158-64 (Vietnam); pp. 164-7 (Java); Clements, Brief History of Khubilai Khan, pp. 192-206 (Vietnam), pp. 215-18 (Java); Yule and Cordier, transl. and eds., Travels of Marco Polo, vol. 2, pp. 272-5 (Java). 60. Conlan, In Little Need of Divine Intervention, pp. 246-53, docs. 57-65. 61. Souyri, World Turned Upside Down, p. 62. 62. A. Kobata and M. Matsuda, Ryukyuan Relations with Korea and South Sea Countries: an Annotated Translation of Documents in the Rekidai Hoan (Tokyo, 1969), p. 69. 63. R. Pearson, Ancient Ryukyu: an Archaeological Study of Island Communities (Honolulu, 2013), p. 196, and frontispiece. 64. Ibid., pp. 273-4, 290-91. 65. David C. Kang, East Asia before the West: Five Centuries of Trade and Tribute (New York, 2010), p. 72. 66. G. Kerr, Okinawa: the History of an Island People (2nd edn, BostonandTokyo, 2000),pp. 22-3, 39-42, 45-50, 52. 67. Pearson, Ancient Ryukyu, pp. 202-4. 68. Kerr, Okinawa, pp. 55-6. 69. Ibid., pp. 62-71; Kobata and Matsuda, Ryukyuan Relations, pp. 1-2; Pearson, Ancient Ryukyu, p. 198. 70. Kobata and Matsuda, Ryukyuan Relations, p. 26. 71. Pearson, Ancient Ryukyu, pp. 207-11, 214-19. 72. Cited by Gipouloux, Asian Mediterranean, p. 66, and in part by Souyri, World Turned Upside Down, p. 152. 73. Cited by Gipouloux, Asian Mediterranean, p. 71; sapanwood: Wang, Official Relations, p. 97. 74. Gipouloux, Asian Mediterranean, p. 70; Pearson, Ancient Ryukyu, pp. 205-7. 75. Pearson, Ancient Ryukyu, pp. 224-5, table 8.2; also pp. 300-301, 315-18. 76. Gipouloux, Asian Mediterranean, p. 68. 77. G. Kerr, Ryukyu Kingdom and Province before 1945 (Pacific Science Board, Wash­ington DC, 1953), p. 41 n. 36; Kobata and Matsuda, Ryukyuan Relations, p. 53. 78. Kobata and Matsuda, Ryukyuan Relations, plate section, p. 2. 79. Ibid., p. 19. 80. Ibid., pp. 55-6; Kerr, Ryukyu, p. 46. 81. Kobata and Matsuda, Ryukyuan Relations, pp. 86-7. 82. Ibid.,

pp. 93-6. 83. Kerr, Okinawa, p. 92. 84. Kobata and Matsuda, Ryukyuan Relations, pp. 104-5,107. 85. Pearson, Ancient Ryukyu,pp.309-14. 86. Kerr, Okinawa, pp. 93-5, 120; Kobata and Matsuda, Ryukyuan Relations, p. 24. 87. Kerr, Ryukyu, pp. 45-7 (and n. 38a); Kobata and Matsuda, Ryukyuan Relations,pp. 101-29 (Melaka),pp. 147-63 (Java),pp. 124-5 (licence of 1511); Souyri, World Turned Upside Down, p. 152. 88. Armando Cortesao, transl. and ed., The Suma Oriental of Tome Pires (London, 1944), vol. 1, pp. 128-31; cf. Kobata and Matsuda, Ryukyuan Relations, pp. 126-9, citing the Commentaries of the Great Afonso d’Albuquerque. 89. Souyri, World Turned Upside Down, pp. 148-51.

12. The Dragon Goes to Sea

i. A. Schottenhammer, Das Songzeitliche Quanzhou im S'pannungsfeld zwischen Zentral­regierung und maritimem Handel: unerwartete Konsequenzen des Zentralstaatlichen Zug­riffs auf den Reichtum einer Küstenregion (Stuttgart, 2002), pp. 5, 51, 176-7; Y. Shiba, Commerce and Society in Sung China (Ann Arbor, 1970), pp. 90-91. 2. B. Hayton, The South China Sea: the Struggle for Power in Asia (New Haven and London, 2014). 3. M. Pollak, Mandarins, Jews, and Missionaries: the Jewish Experience in the Chinese Empire (2nd edn, Philadelphia, 1983), pp. 266-7. 4. Jung-Pang Lo, China as a Sea Power, 1127­1368: a Preliminary Survey of the Maritime Expansion and Naval Exploits of the Chinese People during the Southern Song and Yuan Periods, ed. B. Elleman (Singapore, 2012), pp. 197-201; A. Schottenhammer, ‘China's Emergence as a Maritime Power', in The Cambridge History of China, vol. 5, part 2: Sung China 960-1279 (Cambridge, 2015), p. 492. 5. D. Heng, Sino-Malay Trade and Diplomacy from the Tenth through the Fourteenth Century (Athens, Ohio, 2009), pp. 133-4; Lo, China as a Sea Power, pp. 201-2. 6. H. Clark, Com­munity, Trade, and Networks: Southern Fujian Province from the Third to the Thirteenth Century (Cambridge, 1991); W. Eichhorn, Chinese Civilization: an Introduction (London, 1969), pp. 262-7; Heng, Sino-Malay Trade, pp. 38-63; Schottenhammer, ‘China's Emergence as a Maritime Power', pp. 437-525. 7. Schottenhammer, ‘China's Emergence as a Maritime Power', p. 487, table 14. 8. Lo, China as a Sea Power, p. 204. 9. Ibid., pp. 56-7. 10. Heng, Sino-Malay Trade, pp. 40-44. 11. Ibid., p. 125. 12. Ibid., pp. 44-8, 59, 161-7; also Schottenhammer, ‘China's Emergence as a Maritime Power', pp. 485-91. 13. Lo, China as a Sea Power, pp. 67-70. 14. Ibid., pp. 61-4. 15. Heng, Sino-Malay Trade, pp. 54-6, 59-62; Schottenhammer, ‘China's Emergence as a Maritime Power', pp. 509­18. 16. Shiba, Commerce and Society, p. 46; Heng, Sino-Malay Trade, p. 58. 17. Heng, Sino-Malay Trade, pp. 149-90. 18. Lo, China as a Sea Power, p. 197. 19. Schottenham­mer, ‘China's Emergence as a Maritime Power', pp. 493-501. 20. J. Chaffee, ‘The Impact of the Song Imperial Clan on the Overseas Trade of Quanzhou', in A. Schottenhammer, ed., The Emporium of the World: Maritime Quanzhou, 1000-1400 (Leiden, 2001), pp. 34-5;

J. Kuwabara, ‘On P'u Shou-keng, a Man of the Western Regions, Who was Superintendent of the Trading Ships' Office in Ch'üan-ch'ou towards the End of the Sung Dynasty', Memoirs of the Research Department of the Toyo Bunko, vol. 2 (1928), pp. 1-79, and vol. 7 (1935), pp. 1-104. 21. Jung-Pang Lo, ‘Maritime Commerce and Its Relation to the Sung Navy', Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient, vol. 12 (1969), p. 68; Lo, China as a Sea Power, pp. 121-85. 22. Zhu Yu (1111-17), cited in J. Needham and C. Ronan, The Shorter Science and Civilization in China (Cambridge, 1986), vol. 3 (largely devoted to navigation, and bringing together material from several parts of the complete work), pp. 28-9, and more extensively pp. 1-59; J. Needham, Clerks and Craftsmen in China and the West (Cambridge, 1970), pp. 243-4; also cited by A. Aczel, The Riddle of the Compass: the Invention That Changed the World (New York, 2001), p. 86; J. Huth, The Lost Art of Find­ing Our Way (Cambridge, Mass., 2013), p. 99. 23. Needham and Ronan, Shorter Science and Civilization, vol. 3, pp. 2, 9, 56, 59. 24. Lo, ‘Maritime Commerce', p. 69; Schotten­hammer, Songzeitliche Quanzhou, pp. 295-9; H. Clark, ‘Overseas Trade and Social Change in Quanzhou through the Song', in Schottenhammer, ed., Emporium of the World, pp. 51-2. 25. Schottenhammer, Songzeitliche Quanzhou, pp. 86-7. 26. Clark, ‘Overseas Trade and Social Change', p. 51; J. Guy, ‘Tamil Merchant Guilds and the Quanzhou Trade', in Schottenhammer, ed., Emporium of the World, pp. 283-308; Schottenhammer, ‘China's Emergence as a Maritime Power', p. 444. 27. J. Stargardt, ‘Behind the Shadows: Archaeo­logical Data on Two-Way Sea-Trade between Quanzhou and Satingpra, South Thailand, ioth-i4th century', in Schottenhammer, ed., Emporium of the World, pp. 308-93. 28.

K. Hall, Maritime Trade and State Development in Early Southeast Asia (Honolulu, 1985), p. 207. 29. R. Pearson, Li Min and Li Guo, ‘Port, City, and Hinterlands: Archaeological Perspectives on Quanzhou and Its Overseas Trade', in Schottenhammer, ed., Emporium of the World, pp. 194-201; G. Kerr, Okinawa: the History of an Island People (2nd edn, Boston and Tokyo, 2000), pp. 62-71. 3°. Lo, ‘Maritime Commerce', pp. 70-77; Shiba, Commerce and Society, pp. 187-8. 31. Hung Mai, cited in Shiba, Commerce and Society, pp. 192-3; Clark, ‘Overseas Trade and Social Change', pp. 47-8; Champa: Hall, Maritime Trade and State Development, pp. 183, 187; J. Chaffee, The Muslim Merchants of Pre-Modern China: the History of a Maritime Asian Trade Diaspora, 750-1400 (Cambridge, 2018), pp. 59­60. 32. Yang Fang, cited in Shiba, Commerce and Society, p. 203. 33. Shiba, Commerce and Society, pp. 204-6. 34. Ibid., pp. 182-3; Clark, ‘Overseas Trade and Social Change', pp. 53-4. 35. David Abulafia, The Great Sea: a Human History of the Mediterranean (London, 2011), pp. 254-5, 270. 36. Ho Chuimei, ‘The Ceramic Boom in Minnan during Song and Yuan Times', in Schottenhammer, ed., Emporium of the World, pp. 237-81. 37. Schottenhammer, Songzeitliche Quanzhou, pp. 197-215, 225-67; Shiba, Commerce and Society, pp. 6-10. 38. Chaffee, ‘Impact of the Song Imperial Clan', pp. 33-5. 39. Schot­tenhammer, Songzeitliche Quanzhou, pp. 279-80 (diagram and photograph), 287-91; Need­ham and Ronan, Shorter Science and Civilization, vol. 3, pp. 87-9. 4°. Needham and Ronan, Shorter Science and Civilization, vol. 3, pp. 68-75. 4¹. Henry Yule and Henri Cordier, transl. and eds., The Travels of Marco Polo: the Complete Yule-Cordier Edition (3 vols. bound as 2, New York, 1993), vol. 2, pp. 249-53; even more fanciful than the hungry whale is D. Selbourne, The City of Light (London, 1999), with its nonsensical claims that similarly grand ships owned by Spanish Jews regularly travelled back and forth from the Middle East to China in the thirteenth century; see D. Abulafia, ‘Oriente ed Occidente: considerazioni sul commercio di Ancona nel Medioevo - East and West: Observations on the Commerce of Ancona in the Middle Ages', in Atti e Memorie della Società Dalmata di Storia Patria, vol. 26, M. P. Ghezzo, ed., Città e sistema adriatico alla fine del Medioevo. Bilancio degli studi e prospettive di ricerca (Venice, 1997),pp. 27-66. 42. Yule and Cordier, transl. and eds., Travels of Marco Polo, vol. 2, pp. 234-6. 43. Heng, Sino-Malay Trade, pp.

65-9. 44. A. Schottenhammer, ‘The Role of Metals and the Impact of the Introduction of Huizi Paper Notes in Quanzhou on the Development of Maritime Trade in the Song Period', in Schottenhammer, ed., Emporium of the World, pp. 125, 147, 149; Pearson, Min and Guo, ‘Port, City, and Hinterlands', pp. 201-3. 45. Schottenhammer, ‘Role of Metals', p. 152.

13. Light over the Western Ocean

i. Wang Yi-T'ung, Official Relations between China and Japan 1368-1549 (Cambridge, Mass., 1953), pp. 22-4; Shih-Shan Henry Tsai, Perpetual Happiness: the Ming Emperor Yongle (Seattle, 2001), pp. 193-6. 2. E. Dreyer, Zheng He: China and the Oceans in the Early Ming Dynasty, 1405-1433 (New York, 2007), p. 25. 3. Ibid., p. 220; cf. L. Levathes, When China Ruled the Seas: the Treasure Fleet of the Dragon Throne, 1405-33 (New York, 1994), p. 82; original text: Luo Maodeng, San Bao tai jian xi yang ji (Beijing, 1995) - I am grateful to Chang Na for supplying these details. 4. Dreyer, Zheng He, p. 126. 5. Ibid., pp. 99, 181; T. Brook, The Troubled Empire: China in the Yuan and Ming Dynasties (Cam­bridge, Mass., 2010), pp. 93-4; Zheng Kan-zhu, Zheng He vs. Ge Lun-bu (Hong Kong, 2005), with thanks again to Chang Na; and J. Needham, Science and Civilization in China, vol 1: Introductory Orientations (Cambridge, 1954); on Needham, there is an admiring but sensationalist biography by S. Winchester, Bomb, Book and Compass: Joseph Needham and the Great Secrets of China (London, 2008; US edition: The Man Who Loved China, New York, 2008). 6. G. Menzies, 1421: the Year China Discovered the World (London, 2004); G. Menzies, 1434: the Year a Magnificent Chinese Fleet Sailed to Italy and Ignited the Renaissance (London, 2008); J. Needham and C. Ronan, The Shorter Science and Civiliza­tion in China (Cambridge, 1986), vol. 3, pp. 152-9. 7. B. Olshin, The Mysteries of the Marco Polo Maps (Chicago, 2014). 8. Wang Gungwu, ‘The Opening of Relations between China and Malacca, 1403-05’, in L. Suryadinata, Admiral Zheng He and Southeast Asia (Singapore, 2005); Tan Ta Sen, Cheng Ho and Malacca (Melaka and Singapore, 2005). 9. Dreyer, Zheng He, p. 16. 10. Tsai, Perpetual Happiness, pp. 178-86. 11. Ibid., pp. 187­93. 12. Ibid., p. 80. 13. C. Clunas and J. Harrison-Hall, eds., Ming: 50 Years That Changed China (London, 2014). 14. Tsai, Perpetual Happiness, p. 71; Hong-wu: Dreyer, Zheng He, pp. 17-20. 15. Dreyer, Zheng He, p. 182. 16. Ibid., pp. 147, 157-9, 162-3 (okapi), 182 (giraffe), 192 (giraffe); T. Filesi, China and Africa in the Middle Ages (London, 1972), pp. 29-30, 80 n. 99, and plate 6 (giraffe). 17. Ma Huan, Ying-Yai Sheng-Lan, ‘The Overall Survey of the Ocean’s Shores’ [1433], transl. J. V. G. Mills (Cambridge, 1970); Fei Hsin, Hsing- Ch’a Sheng-Lan: the Overall Survey of the Star Raft, transl. J. V. G. Mills and

R. Ptak (Wiesbaden, 1996). 18. Ma Huan, Ying-Yai Sheng-Lan, pp. 34, 36; Fei Hsin, Hsing-Ch’a Sheng-Lan, pp. 81-97, including Cambodia, Taiwan, Ryukyu, etc. 19. O. W. Wolters, The Fall of Srivijaya in Malay History (London, 1970), p. 155. 20. Cited from the Qing dynasty official history of the Ming by Dreyer, Zheng He, p. 180. 21. Wolters, Fall of Srivijaya, p. 156. 22. Tan Ta Sen, Cheng Ho and Islam in Southeast Asia (Singapore, 2009); Dreyer, Zheng He, pp. 68-9. 23. Dreyer, Zheng He, pp. 11-12; Levathes, When China Ruled the Seas, pp. 61-3. 24. Dreyer, Zheng He, p. 50. 25. Ibid., pp. 52, 148-9, and p. 191, doc. ii; Levathes, When China Ruled the Seas, pp. 89-92. 26. Dreyer, Zheng He,pp. 18-19,23. 27. Fei Hsin, Hsing-Ch’a Sheng-Lan, p. 33: ‘27,000 government troops’; see the reconstruction of a ship’s hold in the charming Cheng Ho Museum in Melaka; cf. Dreyer, Zheng He, p. 105. 28. Henry Yule and Henri Cordier, transl. and eds., The Travels of Marco Polo: the Complete Yule-Cordier Edition (3 vols. bound as 2, New York, 1993), vol. 2, pp. 249-53; Dreyer, Zheng He, p. 109. 29. Dreyer, Zheng He, pp. 102-3, 113, 116. 30. Ibid., pp. 116-21. 31. David Abulafia, The Great Sea: a Human History of the Mediterranean (London, 2011), p. 156; Dreyer, Zheng He, p. 112, table of dimensions. 32.

S. Church, ‘Zheng He: an Investigation into the Plausibility of 450-ft Treasure Ships’, Monu­menta Serica, vol. 53 (2005), pp. 1-43. 33. Levathes, When China Ruled the Seas, pp. 96-100, with quotation from the Taizong Shilu on p. 100. 34. Ma Huan, Ying-Yai Sheng- Lan, pp. 137-40 (see p. 138 n. 9); Fei Hsin, Hsing-Ch’a Sheng-Lan, p. 67; Levathes, When China Ruled the Seas, pp. 100-101; on Ma Huan: J. L. L. Duyvendak, Ma Huan Re-Examined (Verhandelingen der Koninklijke akademie van wetenschappen te Amsterdam. Afdeeling letterkunde. Nieuwe reeks, deel XXXII, no. 2, Amsterdam, 1933); and Mills’s introduction to Ma Huan, Ying-Yai Sheng-Lan, pp. 34-66. 35. Wolters, Fall of Srivijaya, p. 74. 36. Fei Hsin, Hsing-Ch’a Sheng-Lan, p. 53; Taizong Shilu, cited in Dreyer, Zheng He, p. 55; Levathes, When China Ruled the Seas, p. 102; also Wolters, Fall of Srivijaya, pp. 73-4. 37. Liujiagang inscription of 1431, in Dreyer, Zheng He, Appendix ii, p. 192; also Changle inscription of 1431, ibid., Appendix iii, pp. 195-6; Levathes, When China Ruled the Seas, p. 103. 38. Yule and Cordier, transl. and eds., Travels of Marco Polo, vol. 1, pp. 423­30. 39. Melaka: Fei Hsin, Hsing-Ch’a Sheng-Lan, pp. 55. 40. Dreyer, Zheng He, pp. 62-5. 41. Taizong Shilu ibid., pp. 67-8; Fei Hsin, Hsing-Ch’a Sheng-Lan, pp. 64-5. 42. Levathes, When China Ruled the Seas, p. 116. 43. Ibid., pp. 116-17. 44. Text in Levathes, When China Ruled the Seas, p. 113. 45. Dreyer, Zheng He, pp. 68-9, 71. 46. Text trans­lated by Chu Hung-lam and J. Geiss in Levathes, When China Ruled the Seas, pp. 218-19 n. 108. 47. Wolters, Fall of Srivijaya, p. 157. 48. Fei Hsin, Hsing-Ch’a Sheng-Lan, pp. 53-5. 49. Tan, Cheng Ho and Malacca; Dreyer, 'Zheng He, pp. 77, 79-81. 50. Maldives and Laccadives: Ma Huan, Ying-YaiSheng-Lan,pp. 146-51;Hormuz (Hu-lu-mo-ssu): ibid., pp. 165-72. 51. Dreyer, Zheng He, p. 78. 52. Ma Huan, Ying-Ya- Sheng-Lan, p. 168; also Fei Hsin, Hsing-Ch’a Sheng-Lan,pp. 70-72. 53. Dreyer, Zheng He, pp. 84, 86. 54. N. A. al-Shamrookh, The Commerce and Trade of the Rasulids in the Yemen, 630-858/1231-1454 (Kuwait, 1996); Dreyer, Zheng He, p. 87. 55. Ma Huan, Ying-Yai Sheng-Lan, pp. 154-9; also Fei Hsin, Hsing-Ch’a Sheng-Lan, pp. 98-9. 56. Dreyer, Zheng He, pp. 88-90; text of inscription in Filesi, China and Africa, pp. 60-61; Fei Hsin, Hsing-Ch’a Sheng-Lan, pp. 101-2. 57. Filesi, China and Africa, pp. 18-20. 58. G. T. Scanlon, ‘Egypt and China: Trade and Imitation', in D. S. Richards, ed., Islam and the Trade of Asia: a Colloquium (Oxford, 1970), pp. 81-96; also N. Chittick, ‘East African Trade with the Orient', ibid., pp. 97-104. 59. Filesi, China and Africa, p. 21. 60. Ibid., pp. 42-5; also plates 8-10 and 14. 61. Dreyer, Zheng He, pp. 91-7. 62. Ibid., p. 137. 63. Ibid., p. 144; Levathes, When China Ruled the Seas, pp. 162, 169. 64. Changle inscription of 143 1, in Dreyer, Zheng He, Appendix iii, p. 197. 65. Liujiagang inscription of 1431, ibid., Appendix ii, p. 192. 66. Changle inscription of 1431, ibid., Appendix iii, p. 195; Levathes, When China Ruled the Seas, p. 170. 67. Ma Huan, Ying-Yai Sheng-Lan, pp. 159-65; Fei Hsin, Hsing-Ch’a Sheng- Lan, pp. 73-7; Dreyer, Zheng He, pp. 152-8; Dreyer implausibly considers that the 1431 description of storms at sea reflects experiences in 1432! 68. Ma Huan, Ying-Yai Sheng- Lan, pp. 173-8; cf. Fei Hsin, Hsing-Ch’a Sheng-Lan,pp. 104-5. 69. Cited from Xuanzong Shilu by Dreyer, Zheng He, pp. 162-3. 70. Levathes, When China Ruled the Seas, pp. 173-4. 71. Dreyer, Zheng He, p. 185; also Zheng, Zheng He vs. Ge Lun-bu.

14. Lions, Deer and Hunting Dogs

i. Henry Yule and Henri Cordier, transl. and eds., The Travels of Marco Polo: the Complete Yule-Cordier Edition (3 vols. bound as 2, New York, 1993), vol. 2, pp. 272-4. 2. K. Hall, Maritime Trade and State Development in Early Southeast Asia (Honolulu, 1985), pp. 176, 194; G. Spencer, The Politics of Expansion: the Chola Conquest of Sri Lanka and Sri Vijaya (Madras, 1983); D. Heng, S ino-M alay Trade and Diplomacy from the Tenth through the Fourteenth Century (Athens, Ohio, 2009), pp. 85, 87. 3. O. W. Wolters, The Fall of Srivijaya in Malay History (London, 1970), pp. 42-3, 48; Heng, Sino-Malay Trade, pp. 96-100, 117-18. 4. C. C. Brown, ed., Sejarah Melayu, or ‘Malay Annals’ (2nd edn, Kuala Lumpur and Singapore, 1970), p. 36. 5. Hall, Maritime Trade and State Development, pp. 219­22. 6. D. Garnier, Ayutthaya: Venice of the East (Bangkok, 2004), p. 23. 7. Ibid., p. 39; C. Baker and P. Phongpaichit, A History of Ayutthaya: Siam in the Early Modern World (Cambridge, 2017), pp. 55-7; C. Kasetsiri, The Rise of Ayudhya: a History of Siam in the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Centuries (Kuala Lumpur, 1976), pp. 57-64; C. Kasetsiri, ‘Origins of a Capital and Seaport: the Early Settlement of Ayutthaya and Its East Asian Trade', in

K. Breazeale, ed., From Japan to Arabia: Ayutthaya’s Maritime Relations with Asia (Bang­kok, 1999), pp. 55-79. 8. Garnier, Ayutthaya, pp. 39, 41, 49. 9. Ibid., p. 18; K. Breazeale, ‘Thai Maritime Trade and the Ministry Responsible', in Breazeale, ed., From Japan to Arabia, pp. 20-21. 10. Kasetsiri, ‘Origins of a Capital', pp. 65, 68; Baker and Phongpaichit, History of Ayutthaya, pp. 51-5. 11. Garnier, Ayutthaya, pp. 13-18; Kasetsiri, ‘Origins of a Capital', pp. 64-71; D. Wyatt, ‘Ayutthaya, 1409-24: Internal Politics and International Relations', in Breazeale, ed., From Japan to Arabia, pp. 80-88. 12. Heng, Sino-Malay Trade, p. 106. 13. Ibid., pp. 107-9, 122. 14. Hall, Maritime Trade and State Development, p. 211; Wolters, Fall of Srivijaya, pp. 44-6. 15. Wolters, Fall of Srivijaya, p. 78; F. Hirth and W. W. Rockhill, eds., Chau Ju-kua: His Work on the Chinese and Arab Trade in the Twelfth and Thirteenth Centuries, Entitled Chu-fan-ch'-i (St Petersburg, 1911), pp. 75-8, 82-5. 16. P. Rawson, The Art of Southeast Asia (London, 1967), pp. 254-72. 17. Hall, Maritime Trade and State Development, p. 234. 18. Ibid., pp. 235-7. 19. Ibid., pp. 238-41, 245-7. 20. Wolters, Fall of Srivijaya, p. 66. 21. E. Dreyer, Zheng He: China and the Oceans in the Early Ming Dynasty, 1405-1433 (New York, 2007), p. 63. 22. Hall, Maritime Trade and State Devel­opment, pp. 253, 255. 23. V. Glendinning, Raffles and the Golden Opportunity (London,

2012), pp. 217-19; M. R. Frost and Yu-Mei Balasingamchow, Singapore: a Biography (Singa­pore and Hong Kong, 2009), pp. 40-45; J. Miksic, Singapore and the Silk Road of the Sea, 1300-1800 (Singapore, 2013), pp. 154-5. 24. Brown, ed., Sejarah Melayu, pp. x-xi; Miksic, Singapore and the Silk Road, pp. 146-7; K. C. Guan, D. Heng and T. T. Yong, Singapore: a 700-Year History (National Archives, Singapore, 2009), pp. 11-15. 25. Brown, ed., Sejarah Melayu, p. 2. 26. Ibid., p. 14; Miksic, Singapore and the Silk Road, pp. 147-8. 27. Wolters, Fall of Srivijaya, pp. 128-35. 28. Brown, ed., Sejarah Melayu, p. 18. 29. Miksic, Singapore and the Silk Road, p. 150. 30. Brown, ed., Sejarah Melayu, pp. 19-20; Miksic, Singapore and the Silk Road, pp. 150-51. 31. Frost and Balasingamchow, Singapore, p. 25; other interpretations of the name include ‘stop-over place' and ‘gateway'. 32. Brown, ed., Sejarah Melayu, p. 21. 33. Ibid., pp. 22-3. 34. Ibid., p. 40; Frost and Balasingamchow, Singapore, p. 26; Miksic, Singapore and the Silk Road, pp. 152-3. 35. Brown, ed., Sejarah Melayu, p. 41; Frost and Balasingamchow, Singapore, pp. 26, 28. 36. Wang Du-yuan in Miksic, Singapore and the Silk Road, pp. 174-5, 177-8; Guan, Heng and Yong, Singapore, pp. 27-8,47. 37. Miksic, Singapore and the Silk Road,pp. 181-2,185. 38. Dreyer, Zheng He, pp. 40-41. 39. Wolters, Fall of Srivijaya, pp. 113, 120-21; Dreyer, Zheng He, pp. 42-3. 40. Brown, ed., Sejarah Melayu, pp. 20-21; Guan, Heng and Yong, Singapore, p. 10. 41. Guan, Heng and Yong, Singapore, pp. 28-9. 42. Ibid., p. 10, with illustration. 43. Brown, ed., Sejarah Melayu, pp. 26-7; Miksic, Singapore and the Silk Road, pp. 12-16, fig. 0.17 44. Brown, ed., Sejarah Melayu, p. 26. 45. Guan, Heng and Yong, Singapore, pp. 33-52. 46. Miksic, Singapore and the Silk Road,pp.222-40. 47. Ibid., pp. 295-310. 48. Ibid., pp. 167-8; Wolters, Fall of Srivijaya, p. 131; Dreyer, Zheng He, p. 42. 49. Wolters, Fall of Srivijaya, pp. 77-153. 50. Armando Cortesäo, transl. and ed., The Suma Oriental of Tome Pires (London, 1944), vol. 2, p. 233; Miksic, Singapore and the Silk Road, pp. 156-62. 51. Brown, ed., Sejarah Melayu, pp. 241-2; Wolters, Fall of Srivijaya, p. 108-9. 52. Cortesäo, transl. and ed., Suma Oriental of Tome Pires, vol. 2, p. 232. 53. Brown, ed., Sejarah Melayu, p. 42; cf. Cortesäo, transl. and ed., Suma Oriental of Tome Pires, vol. 2, pp. 236-7. 54. Miksic, Singapore and the Silk Road, p. 400. 55. Brown, ed., Sejarah Melayu, p. 127. 56. Ibid., pp. 43-4. 57. Wolters, Fall of Srivijaya, p. 240 n. 42; Cortesäo, transl. and ed., Suma Oriental of Tome Pires, vol. 2, p. 241. 58. Wolters, Fall of Srivijaya, pp. 160-63. 59. D. Freeman, The Straits of Malacca: Gateway or Gauntlet? (Montreal, 2003). 60. Dreyer, Zheng He, p. 42. 61. Brown, ed., Sejarah Melayu, p. 80. 62. Ibid., p. 81. 63. Kamis bin Hj. Abbas, ed., Melaka Dalam Dunia Maritim - Melaka in the Maritime World (Melaka, 2004), p. 23; Brown, ed., Sejarah Melayu, pp. 56, 58-9. 64. Brown, ed., Sejarah Melayu, pp. 150-51. 65. Ibid., pp. 44-9. 66. F. Fernandez-Armesto, 1492: the Year Our World Began (London, 2010), pp. 226-7, 266, 268. 67. Brown, ed., Sejarah Melayu, p. 151; Camoens, The Lusiads, transl. W. Atkinson (Harmondsworth, 1952), p. 242.

PART THREE

THE YOUNG OCEAN: THE ATLANTIC, 22,000 BC-AD 15OO

15. Living on the Edge

i. B. Bailyn, Atlantic History: Concept and Contours (Cambridge, Mass., 2005). 2. B. Cunliffe, Facing the Ocean: the Atlantic and Its Peoples 8000 bc-ad 1500 (Oxford, 2001); see also his Europe between the Oceans, Themes and Variations: 9000 bc-ad 1000 (New Haven, 2008), Britain Begins (Oxford, 2012) and On the Ocean: the Mediterranean and the Atlantic from Prehistory to ad 1500 (Oxford, 2017), and ‘Atlantic Sea-Ways', Revista de Guimaraes, special vol. 1 (Guimaraes, 1999), pp. 93-105; E. G. Bowen, Britain and the Western Seaways (London, 1972). 3. J. Henderson, The Atlantic Iron Age: Settlement and Identity in the First Millennium BC (London, 2007), pp. 11-22, 27-34. 4. Ibid., p. 31, fig. 2.1. 5. Ibid., pp. 30-31. 6. Ibid., pp. 10-11; B. Quinn, The Atlantean Irish: Ireland’s Oriental and Maritime Heritage (Dublin, 2005), which overstates its case. 7. Henderson, Atlantic Iron Age, p. 36. 8. V. Gaffney, K. Thomson and S. Fitch, Mapping Doggerland: the Mesolithic Landscapes of the Southern North Sea (Oxford, 2007). 9. Cunliffe, Facing the Ocean, p. 110. 10. A. Saville, ‘Orkney and Scotland before the Neolithic period', in A. Ritchie, ed., Neolithic Orkney in Its European Context (McDonald Institute Mono­graphs, Cambridge, 2000), pp. 95-8. 11. C. Finlayson, The Humans Who Went Extinct: Why Neanderthals Died Out and We Survived (Oxford, 2009); D. Papagianni and M. Morse, The Neanderthals Rediscovered: How Modern Science is Rewriting Their Story (London,

2013), pp. 174-7. 12. Cunliffe, Facing the Ocean, pp. 109, 115. 13. Henderson, Atlantic Iron Age, p. 52. 14. P. Mellars et al., Excavations on Oronsay: Prehistoric Human Ecology on a Small Island (Edinburgh, 1987); Cunliffe, Facing the Ocean, pp. 124-5, and plate 4.11. 15. G. Marchand, ‘Le Mesolithique final en Bretagne: une combinaison des faits archeologiques', in S. J. de Laet, ed., Acculturation and Continuity in Atlantic Europe Mainly during the Neolithic period and the Bronze Age: Papers Presented at the IV Atlantic Col­loquium, Ghent, 1975 (Bruges, 1976), pp. 67-86; C. Dupont and Y. Gruet, ‘Malacofaune et crustaces marins des amas coquilliers mesolithiques de Beg-an-Dorchenn (Plomeur, Fin- istère) et de Beg-er-Vil (Quiberon, Morbihan),' in de Laet, ed., Acculturation and Continuity, pp. 139-61; Cunliffe, Facing the Ocean, p. 417. 16. Cunliffe, Facing the Ocean, pp. 120­22. 17. M. Ruiz-Galvez Priego, La Europa atlàntica en la Edad del Bronce (Barcelona, 1998), pp. 126-7. 18. C. Renfrew, ‘Megaliths, Territories and Populations', in de Laet, ed., Acculturation and Continuity, pp. 200, 218. 19. L. Laporte, ‘Neolithisations de la facade atlantique du Centre-Ouest et de l'Ouest de la France', in de Laet, ed., Acculturation and Continuity, pp. 99-125. 20. R. Schulting, ‘Comme la mer qui se retire: les changements dans l'exploitation des ressources marines du Mesolithique au Neolithique en Bretagne', in de Laet, Acculturation and Continuity, pp. 163-88; Cunliffe, Facing the Ocean, p. 119. 21. A. Sheridan, ‘Les elements d'origine bretonne autour de 4000 av. J.-C. en Ecosse: temoign- ages d'alliance, d'influence, de deplacement, ou quoi d'autre?', in de Laet, ed., Acculturation and Continuity, pp. 25-37; N. Milner and P. Woodman, ‘Combler les lacunes... L'evenement le plus etudie, le mieux date et le moins compris du Flandrien', in de Laet, ed., Acculturation and Continuity, pp. 39-46. 22. Bowen, Britain and the Western Seaways, pp. 19-21. 23. J. Briard, ‘Acculturations neolithiques et campaniformes dans les tumulus armoricains', in de Laet, ed., Acculturation and Continuity, pp. 34-44. 24. H. N. Savory, ‘The Role of Iberian Communal Tombs in Mediterranean and Atlantic Prehistory', in V. Markotic, Ancient Europe and the Mediterranean: Studies Presented in Honour of Hugh Hencken (Warminster, 1977), pp. 161-80. 25. A. A. Rodriguez Casal, ‘An Introduction to the Atlantic Megalithic Complex', in A. A. Rodriguez Casal, ed., Le Megalithisme atlantique - the Atlantic Megaliths: Actes du XIVème Congrès UISPP, Universite de Liège, Belgique, 2-8 septembre 2001 (BAR Interenational series, no. 1521, Oxford, 2006), p. 1. 26. Renfrew, ‘Megaliths, Territories and Populations', pp. 198-9; J. L'Helgouac'h, ‘Les premiers monuments megalith- iques de l'Ouest de la France', in A. A. Rodriguez Casal, ed., O Neolitico atlàntico e as orixes do Megalitismo: actas do coloquio internacional (Santiago de Compostela, 1-6 de abril de 1996) (Cursos e congresos da Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, no. 101, Santiago de Compostela, 1996), p. 199. 27. Map in Bowen, Britain and the Western Seaways, p. 33; Rod­riguez Casal, ‘Introduction', p. 2. 28. Renfrew, ‘Megaliths, Territories and Populations', p. 199. 29. Renfrew, ‘Megaliths, Territories and Populations', p. 204; Rodriguez Casal, ‘Intro­duction', p. 2. 30. A. Ritchie, ‘The First Settlers', in C. Renfrew, ed., The Prehistory of Orkney BC 4000-1000 ad (2nd edn, Edinburgh, 1990), pp. 36-9; A. Ritchie, Prehistoric Orkney (Lon­don, 1995), p. 21. 31. D. V. Clarke and N. Sharples, ‘Settlements and Subsistence in the Third Millennium bc', in Renfrew, ed., Prehistory of Orkney, p. 77. 32. Ibid., pp. 58-68. 33. Ritchie, ‘First Settlers', pp. 41-50; Ritchie, Prehistoric Orkney, p. 22. 34. H. Palsson and P. Edwards, transl., Orkneyinga Saga: the History of the Earls of Orkney (Harmondsworth, 1981), p. 188, cap. 93. 35. A. Henshall, ‘The Chambered Cairns', in Renfrew, ed., Prehistory of Orkney, pp. 96-8. 36. C. Renfrew, ‘The Auld Hoose Spaeks: Society and Life in Stone Age Orkney', in A. Ritchie, ed., Neolithic Orkney in Its European Context (McDonald Institute Monographs, Cambridge, 2000), pp. 1-20; A. Shepherd, ‘Skara Brae: Expressing Identity in a Neolithic Community', in Ritchie, ed., Neolithic Orkney, pp. 139-58. 37. David Abulafia, The Great Sea: a Human History of the Mediterranean (London, 2011), pp. 10-12. 38.

M. Fernandez-Miranda, ‘Aspects of Talayotic Culture', in M. Balmuth, A. Gilman and

L. Prados-Torreira, eds., Encounters and Transformations: the Archaeology of Iberia in Transition (Sheffield, 1997), pp. 59-68. 39. G. Daniel, The Megalith Builders of Western Europe (2nd edn, Harmondsworth, 1963), pp. 26-8, 75-7, to cite just one work by this author; Savory, ‘Role of Iberian Communal Tombs', pp. 169, 175; Rodriguez Casal, ‘Intro­duction', pp. 4-5. 40. Savory, ‘Role of Iberian Communal Tombs', p. 174; E. Shee Twohig, ‘Megalithic Tombs and Megalithic Art in Atlantic Europe', in C. Scarre and F. Healy, eds., Trade and Exchange in Prehistoric Europe: Proceedings of a Conference Held at the Uni­versity of Bristol, April 1992 (Oxford, 1993), pp. 87-99; A. A. Rodriguez Casal, O Megalit- ismo: a primeira arquitectura monumental de Galicia (Santiago, 1990), pp. 135-41; also G. and V. Leisner, Die Megalithgräber der Iberischen Halbinsel, vol. I: Der Süden (2 vols., Berlin, 1943), and vol. II: Der Westen (3 vols., Berlin, 1965). 41. Renfrew, ‘Megaliths, Territories and Populations', pp. 208, 218; and several articles and comments in Rodriguez Casal, ed., O Neolitico atlantico: E. Shee Twohig, ‘Perspectives on the Megaliths of North West Eur­ope', pp. 117-27; C.-T. Le Roux, ‘Aspects non funeraires du megalithisme armoricain', p. 234; C. Tavares da Silva, ‘O Neolitico antigo e a origem do Megalitismo no Sul de Portugal', pp. 575-85; J. Soares, ‘A transigo para as forma^oes sociais neoliticas na costa sudoeste portuguesa', pp. 587-608.

16. Swords and Ploughshares

i. A. Coffyn, Le Bronze Final Atlantique dans la Peninsule Iberique (Paris, 1985), p. 113; also p. 112, fig. 53. 2. J. Henderson, The Atlantic Iron Age: Settlement and Identity in the First Millennium bc (London, 2007), p. 58; R. Harrison, Spain at the Dawn of History (London, 1988), p. 40; J. Briard, The Bronze Age in Barbarian Europe: From the Megaliths to the Celts, transl. M. Turton (London, 1979), p. 76. 3. M. Ruiz-Galvez Priego, ‘The West of Iberia: Meeting Point between the Mediterranean and the Atlantic at the End of the Bronze Age', in M. Balmuth, A. Gilman and L. Prados-Torreira, eds., Encounters and Transforma­tions: the Archaeology of Iberia in Transition (Sheffield, 1997), pp. 95-120; Briard, Bronze Age in Barbarian Europe, pp. 95-7. 4. M. Ruiz-Galvez Priego, La Europa atlantica en la Edad del Bronce (Barcelona, 1998), pp. 121-5. 5. M. C. Fernandez Castro, Iberia in Pre­history (Oxford, 1995), p. 140; Briard, Bronze Age in Barbarian Europe, p. 200. 6. Briard, Bronze Age in Barbarian Europe, p. 76. 7. Coffyn, Bronze Final Atlantique, p. 17. 8. Henderson, Atlantic Iron Age, p. 59, fig. 3.1. 9. Ruiz-Galvez, Europa atlantica, pp. 348­58. 10. Coffyn, Bronze Final Atlantique, pp. 140-41, map 22. 11. S. Bowman and S. Needham, ‘The Dunaverney and Little Thetford Flesh-Hooks: History, Technology and Their Position within the Later Bronze Age Atlantic Zone Feasting Complex', Antiquaries Journal, vol. 87 (2007), pp. 53-108; Ruiz-Galvez, Europa atlantica, pp. 281-2, figs. 89-90; Henderson, Atlantic Iron Age, pp. 63-8; map showing cauldrons, p. 64, fig. 3.5; swords: p. 66, fig. 3.7. 12. Coffyn, Bronze Final Atlantique, pp. 48, 82, 84; also pp. 106-7, figs. 48-9, and p. 135, map 18; quotation from p. 142. 13. C. Burgess and B. O'Connor, ‘Iberia, the Atlantic Bronze Age and the Mediterranean', in S. Celestino, N. Rafel and X.-L. Armada, eds., Contacto cultural entre el Mediterraneo y el Atlantico (siglos XII-VIII ane): la precolonizacion a debate (Rome and Madrid, 2008), pp. 41-58; Ruiz-Galvez, Europa atlantica, p. 206; Coffyn, Bronze Final Atlantique, pp. 143, 181-2, 205-11; but cf. Ruiz-Galvez, ‘West of Iberia', p. 11 (arguing against a shipwreck). 14. H. Hencken, ‘Carp's Tongue Swords in Spain, France and Italy', Zephyrus, vol. 7 (1956), pp. 125-78. 15. Henderson, Atlantic Iron Age, pp. 69-71; Briard, Bronze Age in Barbarian Europe, p. 202. 16. J. Briard, ‘Relations between Brittany and Great Britain during the Bronze Age', in C. Scarre and F. Healy, eds., Trade and Exchange in Prehistoric Europe: Proceedings of a Conference Held at the University of Bristol, April 1992 (Oxford, 1993), pp. 183­90. 17. K. Muckleroy, ‘Middle Bronze Age Trade between Britain and Europe: a Maritime Perspective', Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society, vol. 47 (1981), pp. 275-97; Ruiz-Galvez, Europa atlantica, p. 141. 18. Henderson, Atlantic Iron Age, pp. 80, 308 n. 11;

O. Crumlin-Pedersen, Archaeology and the Sea in Scandinavia and Britain: a Personal Account (Roskilde, 2010), pp. 56-7. 19. Briard, Bronze Age in Barbarian Europe, pp. 205-6. 20. Ibid., pp. 196-7. 21. Henderson, Atlantic Iron Age, pp. 93-5 and fig. 3.19; Ruiz-Galvez, Europa atlantica, p. 207; Briard, Bronze Age in Barbarian Europe, pp. 206­8. 22. Henderson, Atlantic Iron Age, pp. 86-8. 23. Ruiz-Galvez, Europa atlantica, pp. 348-58; Henderson, Atlantic Iron Age, pp. 87, 99-116. 24. Ruiz-Galvez, Europa atlantica, pp. 83-6, and fig. 17; Muckleroy, ‘Middle Bronze Age Trade', pp. 279-80. 25. Coffyn, Bronze Final Atlantique, plate xiv. 26. S. McGrail, ‘Prehistoric Seafaring in the Channel', in Scarre and Healy, eds., Trade and Exchange in Prehistoric Europe, pp. 199-210; Muck­leroy, ‘Middle Bronze Age Trade', p. 275; Briard, Bronze Age in Barbarian Europe, pp. 67-8. 27. Bercy boats: Ruiz-Galvez, Europa atlantica, p. 91. 28. C. Renfrew, ‘Trade beyond the Material', in Scarre and Healy, eds., Trade and Exchange in Prehistoric Europe, pp. 10-11. 29. Ruiz-Galvez, ‘West of Iberia', pp. 95, 99; S. Celestino and C. Lopez-Ruiz, Tartessos and the Phoenicians in Iberia (Oxford, 2016), pp. 170-72; J. M. Gutierrez Lopez et al., ‘La Cueva de Gorham (Gibraltar): un santuario fenicio en el confin occidental del Mediterraneo', in F. Prados, I. Garcia and G. Bernard, eds., Confines: el Extremo del Mundo durante la Antigüedad (Alicante, 2012), pp.303-81. 30. M. E. Aubet, Phoenicians and the West: Politics, Colonies and Trade (2nd edn, Cambridge, 2001), pp. 301-2. 31. A. Jodin, Mogador: Comptoir phenicien du Maroc atlantique (Tangier, 1966). 32. Burgess and O'Connor, ‘Iberia, the Atlantic Bronze Age and the Mediterranean', p. 51. 33. Cf. G. Daniel, The Megalith Builders of Western Europe (2nd edn, Harmondsworth, 1963), pp. 89-91.

17. Tin Traders

i. J. Henderson, The Atlantic Iron Age: Settlement and Identity in the First Millennium BC (London, 2007), pp. 121-2. 2. Ibid., pp. 122, 136, 212. 3. A. Ritchie, Prehistoric Orkney (London,1995),pp.96-116. 4. Henderson, Atlantic Iron Age, p. 168. 5. Ibid., p. 276. 6. Julius Caesar, Gallic Wars, 3.12. 7. Henderson, Atlantic Iron Age, p. 129, fig. 4.13. 8.

M. Costa et al., Casa dos Nichos, nucleo de arqueologia (Gabineto de Arqueologia, Viana do Castelo, s.d.). 9. J. Koch, Tartessian: Celtic in the South-West at the Dawn of History (2nd edn, Aberystwyth, 2013), p. 270. 10. Ibid., pp. 81 (J.14.1) and 223-4; cf. S. Celestino and C. Lopez-Ruiz, Tartessos and the Phoenicians in Iberia (Oxford, 2016), pp. 289­300. 11. Caesar, Gallic Wars, 3.13. 12. B. Cunliffe, The Extraordinary Voyage of Pytheas the Greek (2nd edn, London, 2002), pp. 104-5. 13. I. Finkel, The Ark before Noah (London,

2014). 14. Herodotos, 1.163-7; David Abulafia, The Great Sea: a Human History of the Mediterranean (London, 2011), pp. 123-5; Cunliffe, Pytheas the Greek, pp. 6-8. 15. Facsimile of editio princeps in Avienus, Ora Maritima, ed. J. P. Murphy (Chicago, 1977), pp. 101-39; see L. Antonelli, Il Periplo nascosto: Lettura stratigrafica e Commento storico­archeologico dell’Ora Maritima di Avieno (Padua, 1998) (with edition); F. J. Gonzalez Ponce, Avieno y el Periplo (Ecija, 1995). 16. A. Jodin, Mogador: Comptoir phenicien du Maroc atlantique (Tangier, 1966), pp. 191-3. 17. Cunliffe, Pytheas the Greek, pp. 45-7. 18. Avienus, ll. 85, 267-74; Celestino and Lopez-Ruiz, Tartessos, pp. 88-91. 19. Avienus, ll. 80-332, especially ll. 85, 113-16, 254, 308, 290-98. 20. Cunliffe, Pytheas the Greek, p. 46; Avienus, ll. 95-9, 154-7. 21. Avienus, ll. 98-109, modified from Murphy's translation. 22. Ibid., ll. 110-16. 23. Ibid., ll. 164-71. 24. Ibid., ll. 202-4. 25. Ibid., ll. 390-93. 26. Pytheas of Massalia, On the Ocean, ed. C. H. Roseman (Chicago, 1994). 27. M. Cary and E. H. Warmington, The Ancient Explorers (2nd edn, Harmonds- worth, 1963), p. 47. 28. See the front cover of the Penguin edition of Cunliffe, Pytheas the Greek. 29. Strabo, Geography, 1:4.3, in Pytheas, On the Ocean, p. 25, and 3:2.11, p. 60, as also 1:4.5 and 2:3.5, pp. 38, 46. 30. Ibid., 2:4.2, pp. 48-9; the second quotation was cited by Strabo from the works of the cosmographer Eratosthenes. 31. Cf. Cary and Warmington, Ancient Explorers, p. 48. 32. Roseman in Pytheas, On the Ocean, pp. 152­3. 33. Ibid., pp. 148-50. 34. Cf. Cary and Warmington, Ancient Explorers, p. 47. 35.

Cunliffe, Pytheas the Greek, pp. 56-8, 61; Roseman in Pytheas, On the Ocean, pp. 152-4. 36. Cunliffe, Pytheas the Greek, pp. 65-6. 37. Diodoros the Sicilian, 5.21; compare the imagery c.1500 in D. Abulafia, The Discovery of Mankind: Atlantic Encounters in the Age of Columbus (New Haven, 2008). 38. Roseman in Pytheas, On the Ocean, pp. 18-19; cf. Cunliffe, Pytheas the Greek, pp. 75-7; Cary and Warmington, Ancient Explorers, p. 49. 39. Diodoros the Sicilian, 5.1-4; Pliny the Elder, Natural History, 4.104; Cary and Warmington, Ancient Explorers, p. 47. 40. Strabo, Geography, 2:1.17. 41. Pliny the Elder, Natural History, 4.103, in Pytheas, On the Ocean, pp. 89-90; cf. Cunliffe, Pytheas the Greek, p. 100, assuming Pliny was definitely citing Pytheas. 42. Pliny the Elder, Natural History, 2.186-7 and 4.104, in Pytheas, On the Ocean, pp. 75, 91-2; Cunliffe, Pytheas the Greek, p. 127. 43. Cunliffe, Pytheas the Greek, p. 125. 44. J. Byock, Viking Age Iceland (London, 2001), p. 11. 45. Pliny the Elder, Natural History, 37.35-6; Cunliffe, Pytheas the Greek, p. 144. 46. Cunliffe, Pytheas the Greek, p. 140. 47. Ibid., p. 142.

18. North Sea Raiders

i. J. Jensen, The Prehistory of Denmark from the Stone Age to the Vikings (Copenhagen,

2013), pp. 74, 94, 99, 145, 159. 2. G. Graichen and A. Hesse, Die Bernsteinstrafie: Verbor­gene Handelswege zwischen Ostsee und Nil (Hamburg, 2013); Jensen, Prehistory of Den­mark, pp. 410-12, 503-6. 3. M. North, The Baltic: a History (Cambridge, Mass., 2015), pp. 25-6. 4. Jensen, Prehistory of Denmark, pp. 706, 753, 768. 5. L. Gylfason, ed., Njdl’s Saga (London, 1998), p. 10. 6. Jensen, Prehistory of Denmark, pp. 582-3. 7. Tacitus, Germania, ch. 44. 8. Jensen, Prehistory of Denmark, pp. 326-7, 812-15; J. Haywood, Dark Age Naval Power: a Reassessment of Frankish and Anglo-Saxon Seafaring Activity (London, 1991), pp. 63-5, with a diagram on p. 64; O. Crumlin-Pedersen, Archaeology and the Sea in Scandinavia and Britain: a Personal Account (Roskilde, 2010), pp. 65-7. 9. Haywood, Dark Age Naval Power, p. 66. 10. Ibid., pp. 17-18; R. Unger, The Ship in the Medieval Economy 600-1600 (London, 1980), p. 60. 11. Tacitus, Agricola, ch. 28; Hay­wood, Dark Age Naval Power, pp. 5-6. 12. Haywood, Dark Age Naval Power, p. 9. 13. Tacitus, Annals, 11.19; E. Knoll and N. IJssennagger, ‘Palaeogeography and People: Histor­ical Frisians in an Archeological Light', in J. Hines and N. IJssennagger, Frisians and Their North Sea Neighbours from the Fifth Century to the Viking Age (Woodbridge, 2017), pp. 10-11. 14. Tacitus, Histories, 5.23. 15. C. Krebs, A Most Dangerous Book: Tacitus’s Ger­mania from the Roman Empire to the Third Reich (New York, 2011). 16. Haywood, Dark Age Naval Power, p. 12. 17. Ibid., pp. 24-34; L. P. Louwe Kooijmans, ‘Archaeology and Coastal Change in the Netherlands', in F. H. Thompson, ed., Archaeology and Coastal Change (London, 1980), pp. 106-33. 18. Haywood, Dark Age Naval Power, pp. 37-41. 19. Ammi­anus Marcellinus, 26.4.5; 27.8.1. 20. J. N. L. Myres, The Oxford History of England, vol. 1b: The English Settlements: English Political and Social Life from the Collapse of Roman Rule to the Emergence of Anglo-Saxon Kingdoms (2nd edn, Oxford, 1989), pp. 74-103. 21. Ibid., pp. 55, 107-8. 22. Haywood, Dark Age Naval Power, pp. 78-85, 179 (with extracts from the sources); Gregory of Tours, The History of the Franks, transl. L. Thorpe (Harmonds- worth, 1974), pp. 163-4. 23. Beowulf, l. 407 (in Seamus Heaney's translation, London, 2000); also ll. 812, 1202-14, 1820, 1830, 2354-68, 2497-2506. 24. R. Hodges and D. Whitehouse, Mohammed, Charlemagne and the Origins of Europe (London, 1983), p. 79. 25. B. Ward­Perkins, The Fall of Rome and the End of Civilization (Oxford, 2005). 26. Haywood, Dark Age Naval Power, pp. 6 6-7 3; Unger, Ship in the Medieval Economy, pp. 63-4; Crumlin-Pedersen, Archaeology and the Sea, pp. 96-7; G. Asaert, Westeuropese Scheepvaart in de Middeleeuwen (Bussum, 1974), pp. 14-15. 27. M. Alexander, transl., The Earliest English Poems (Harmondsworth, 1966), p. 70. 28. Ibid., p. 75. 29. Beowulf, ll. 32-40, 47-50, 240 (in Heaney's translation). 30. Ibid., ll. 216, 218-19. 31. Ibid., ll. 1905­13. 32. C. Loveluck, Northwest Europe in the Early Middle Ages, c. ad 600- 1150 (Cambridge, 2013), pp. 191-2; Knoll and IJssennagger, ‘Paleogeography and People', pp. 6, 9-10. 33.

M. Pye, The Edge of the World: How the North Sea Made Us Who We Are (London, 2014), p. 35; R. Latouche, The Birth of Western Economy: Economic Aspects of the Dark Ages (London, 1961), pp. 122, 134-6. 34. Haywood, Dark Age Naval Power, pp. 88-9; S. Leb- ecq, Marchands et navigateurs frisons du haut moyen age (2 vols., Lille, 1983), vol. 1, pp. 114, 123-7, and vol. 2, pp. 258-9, doc. 52.5. 35. Lebecq, Marchands et navigateurs, vol. 2, pp. 59, doc. 10.2, and p. 63, doc. 11.1; W. Levison, England and the Continent in the Eighth Century (Oxford, 1946), pp. 49-54; H. Mayr-Harting, The Coming of Christianity to Anglo-Saxon England (London, 1972), pp. 129-47; J. Hines, ‘The Anglo-Frisian Ques­tion', and T. Pestell, ‘The Kingdom of East Anglia, Frisia and Continental Connections, c. ad 600-900', both in Hines and IJssennagger, Frisians, pp. 25-42, 193-222. 36. Lebecq, Marchands et navigateurs, vol. 2, p. 232, doc. 46.5. 37. Loveluck, Northwest Europe, pp. 186, 194-7. 38. A. Verhulst, The Rise of Cities in North-West Europe (Cambridge, 1999), p. 20; D. Meier, Seafarers, Merchants and Pirates in the Middle Ages (Woodbridge, 2006), pp. 56-62. 39. Hodges and Whitehouse, Mohammed, Charlemagne, pp. 93-101; Lebecq, Marchands et navigateurs, vol. 1, pp. 78-83, 149-63; quotation from C. Wickham, Framing the Early Middle Ages: Europe and the Mediterranean, 400-800 (Oxford, 2005), pp. 682-5, who gives a smaller area (sixty hectares). 40. Lebecq, Marchands et navigateurs, vol. 1, pp. 60-66; Verhulst, Rise of Cities, pp. 27-8; good illustrations in J. Rozemeyer, De Ontdek- king van Dorestad (Breda, 2012), pp. 20-30 (ignoring the attempt to identify Dorestad as Utrecht), and also in Unger, Ship in the Medieval Economy, p. 79, fig. 5; Asaert, Westeur- opese Scheepvaart, pp. 18-19. 41. Verhulst, Rise of Cities, pp. 45-6. 42. Lebecq, March­ands et navigateurs, vol. 1, pp. 169-76. 43. Ibid., vol. 1, pp. 190-95, 213-15, 258-61. 44. Pye, Edge of the World, p. 44. 45. Lebecq, Marchands et navigateurs, vol. 1, p. 260, and vol. 2, pp. 281-2; Alpertus van Metz, Gebeurtenissen van deze tijd en Een fragment over bisschop Diederik I van Metz, ed. H. van Rij and A. Sapir Abulafia (Amsterdam, 1980), pp. 18-19.

19. ‘This iron-studded dragon'

i. From a poem by Fjodolfr Arnorsson, cited by G. Williams, The Viking Ship (London,

2014), p. 8. 2. Out of a vast general literature see in particular J. Brondsted, The Vikings (2nd edn, Harmondsworth, 1965); E. Oxenstierna, The Norsemen (London, 1966); G. Jones, A History of the Vikings (2nd edn, Oxford, 1984); E. Roesdahl, The Vikings (2nd edn, London, 1998); F. D. Logan, The Vikings in History (3rd edn, London, 2005); P. Parker, The Norsemen’s Fury: a History of the Viking World (London, 2014). 3. Anglo-Saxon Chron­icle, Cambridge MS (Parker Library, Corpus Christi College), s.a. 878. 4. Ibid., various versions, s.a. 789. 5. Ibid., Peterborough MS, s.a. 793, 794. 6. Ibid., Cambridge MS, s.a. 835, 837, 838, 855. 7. P. Sawyer, The Age of the Vikings (2nd edn, London, 1971), p. 202. 8. Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, Cambridge MS, s.a. 865. 9. Brondsted, Vikings, p. 34. 10. Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, Cambridge MS, s.a. 882. 11. Ibid., s.a. 896. 12. J. Hay­wood, Dark Age Naval Power: a Reassessment of Frankish and Anglo-Saxon Seafaring Activity (London, 1991), pp. 75-6. 13. Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, Cambridge MS, s.a. 917. 14. M. Lawson, Cnut: the Danes in England in the Early Eleventh Century (Harlow, 1993), pp. 16-48. 15. M. Magnusson and H. Palsson, eds. and transl., King Harald’s Saga: Harald Hardradi of Norway, from Snorri Sturluson’s Heimskringla (Harmondsworth, 1966), pp. 133-54. 16. Brondsted, Vikings, pp. 36-9; J. Byock, Viking Age Iceland (London, 2001), pp. 12-13. 17. H. Ellis Davidson, The Viking Road to Byzantium (London, 1976); E. Christiansen, The Northern Crusades (2nd edn, London, 1997). 18. Brondsted, Vikings, pp. 31-6. 19. Byock, Viking Age Iceland, pp. 82-4. 20. From the Old Norse poem Hdvamdl, transl. H. A. Bellows, The Poetic Edda (New York, 1923), p. 44, stanza 77; J. de Vries, Heroic Song and Heroic Legend (London and Oxford, 1963), pp. 184, 187. 21.

H. Palsson and P. Edwards, transl., Orkneyinga Saga: the History of the Earls of Orkney (Harmondsworth, 1981), pp. 214-16. 22. Sawyer, Age of the Vikings, p. 206. 23. Ibn Fadlan, ‘The Book of Ahmad ibn Fadlan', in C. Stone and P. Lunde, ed. and transl., Ibn Fadlän and the Land of Darkness: Arab Travellers in the Far North (London, 2012), pp. 45-55, and other extracts in the same volume. 24. S. Kleingärtner and G. Williams, ‘Con­tact and Exchange', in G. Williams, P. Pentz and M. Wemhoff, eds., Vikings: Life and Legend (London, 2014), p. 54. 25. B. Magnus and I. Gustin, Birka and Hovgarden - a Story That Enriches Time (Stockholm, 2012); D. Skre and F.-A. Stylegar, Kaupang the Viking Town: the Kaupang Exhibition at UKM, Oslo, 2004-2005 (Oslo, 2004). 26. R. Hodges and D. Whitehouse, Mohammed, Charlemagne and the Origins of Europe (London, 1983), p. in; K. Struve, ‘Haithabu and the Early Harbours of the Baltic Sea', in The World of the Vikings: an Exhibition Mounted by the Statens Historiska Museum Stockholm in Co­operation with the National Maritime Museum, Greenwich, London (London, 1973), pp. 27-8; D. Meier, Seafarers, Merchants and Pirates in the Middle Ages (Woodbridge, 2006), pp. 76-9. 27. M. North, The Baltic: a History (Cambridge, Mass., 2015), pp. 14-15, for the Obodrites. 28. Ibid., pp. 19-20. 29. Meier, Seafarers, Merchants and Pirates, pp. 72-3, 80. 30. J. Ahola, Frog and J. Lucenius, eds., The Viking Age in Aland: Insights into Identity and Remnants of Culture (Helsinki, 2014). 31. Hodges and Whitehouse, Moham­med, Charlemagne, p. 116, fig. 46; generally, L. Thälin, ‘Baltic Trade and the Varangians', in World of the Vikings, pp. 22-3. 32. Hodges and Whitehouse, Mohammed, Charlemagne, p. 119, fig. 49. 33. Ibid., p. 118. 34. Ibid., pp. 114-15, 117, and fig. 47, p. 116. 35. North, Baltic, p. 9, citing Adam of Bremen. 36. R. Ohrman, Gotlands Fornsal: Bildstenar (2nd edn, Visby, 2000); E. Nylen and J. P. Lamm, Stones, Ships and Symbols: the Picture Stones of Gotland from the Viking Age and Before (Stockholm, 1988), pp. 62-3, 68-71, 109-35, 162-9; D. Rossi, ed., Guta Saga: la Saga dei Gotlandesi (Milan, 2010), pp. 26-7. 37. Nylen and Lamm, Stones, Ships and Symbols, pp. 42, 166-7; R. Simek, Die Schiffe der Wikinger (Stuttgart, 2014), pp. 54-5. 38. Williams, Viking Ship, pp. 34-9; Simek, Schiffe der Wikinger, pp. 79-82; D. Ellmers, ‘The Ships of the Vikings', in World of the Vikings, pp. 13-14. 39. J. Bill, ‘The Oseberg Ship and Ritual Burial', in Williams et al., eds., Vikings, pp. 200-201. 40. Williams, Viking Ship, pp. 26-7, 48-52; G. Asaert, Westeuropese Scheepvaart in de Middeleeuwen (Bussum, 1974), pp. 20-22; my special thanks go to Professor Jon Vioar Sigurosson for guiding me around the Viking Ship Museum in Oslo. 41. Williams, Viking Ship, pp. 52-5; R. Unger, The Ship in the Medieval Economy 600-1600 (London,

1980), pp. 82-9. 42. ‘Zuhri on Viking Ships c.1160', in Stone and Lunde, ed. and transl., Ibn Fadlän and the Land of Darkness, p. 110. 43. A. Christys, Vikings in the South: Voyages to Iberia and the Mediterranean (London, 2015), pp. 19-25. 44. ‘Ibn Hayyän on the Viking Attack on Seville 844', in Stone and Lunde, ed. and transl., Ibn Fadlän and the Land of Dark­ness, pp. 105-9; E. Morales Romero, Historia de los Vikingos en Espana: Ataques e Incur­siones contra los Reinos Cristianos y Musulmanes de la Peninsula Ibèrica en los siglos IX-XI (2nd edn, Madrid, 2006), pp. 127-47; Christys, Vikings in the South, pp. 29-45. 45. Simek, Schiffe der Wikinger, pp. 64-5; F. Brandt, ‘On the Navigation of the Vikings', in World of the Vikings, pp. 14-18. 46. Williams, Viking Ship, p. 30; O. Crumlin-Pedersen, Archaeology and the Sea in Scandinavia and Britain: a Personal Account (Roskilde, 2010), pp. 82-8. 47. The ship Roskilde 6, centrepiece of the British Museum Viking exhibition in 2014: J. Bill, ‘Roskilde 6', in Williams et al., eds., Vikings, pp. 228-33; Williams, Viking Ship, pp. 67-73. 48. Williams, Viking Ship, pp. 74-81; Unger, Ship in the Medieval Economy, p. 91; Crumlin- Pedersen, Archaeology and the Sea, pp. 109-13. 49. M. Egeler, Islands in the West: Classical Myth and the Medieval Norse and Irish Geographical Imagination (Turnhout, 2017).

20. New Island Worlds

i. F. D. Logan, The Vikings in History (3rd edn, London, 2005), pp. 21-2, 26-8; A. Forte, R. Oram and F. Pedersen, Viking Empires (Cambridge, 2005), p. 265. 2. H. Palsson and P. Edwards, transl., Orkneyinga Saga: the History of the Earls of Orkney (Harmondsworth,

1981), p. 215. 3. J. Jesch, The Viking Diaspora (London, 2015), pp. 32-3. 4. Forte et al., Viking Empires, p. 268. 5. Palsson and Edwards, transl., Orkneyinga Saga, pp. 26-7. 6. B. Crawford, The Northern Earldoms: Orkney and Caithness from AD 870 to 1470 (Edinburgh, 2013), pp. 36, 85-7. 7. Palsson and Edwards, transl., Orkneyinga Saga, pp. 28-31. 8. Ibid., p. 34. 9. Ibid.,pp.36-8;Crawford, NorthernEarldoms,pp. 125-8;Forte et al., Viking Empires, p. 270. 10. Palsson and Edwards, transl., Orkneyinga Saga, pp. 50-53. 11. Ibid., p. 84. 12. Crawford, Northern Earldoms, pp. 68, 198-212; black-and- white plate 1. 13. Palsson and Edwards, transl., Orkneyinga Saga, pp. 85-6. 14. Ibid., p. 85. 15. R. A. McDonald, ‘The Manx Sea Kings and the Western Oceans: the Late Norse Isle of Man in Its North Atlantic Context, 1079-1265’, in B. Hudson, ed., Studies in the Medieval Atlantic (New York, 2012), p. 150; P. Sawyer, Kings and Vikings: Scandinavia and Europe ad 700-1100 (New York, 1994), p. 111; A. W. Moore, A History of the Isle of Man (London, 1900), vol. 1, p. 102. 16. Crawford, Northern Earldoms, pp. 166-7. 17. Sawyer, Kings and Vikings, p. 110; Logan, Vikings in History, pp. 27-8; M. Barnes, The Norn Lan­guage of Orkney and Shetland (Lerwick, 1998). 18. Logan, Vikings in History, p. 29. 19. Ibid., pp. 30, 32-5; D. Meier, Seafarers, Merchants and Pirates in the Middle Ages (Wood­bridge, 2006), p. 108. 20. Logan, Vikings in History, pp. 38-40. 21. C. Sauer, Northern Mists (2nd edn, San Francisco, 1973), pp. 84-6; R. Painter, transl., Faroe-Islander Saga (Jefferson, NC, 2016). 22. Jesch, Viking Diaspora, pp. 48-9. 23. Ibid., p. 22; S. Auge, ‘Vikings in the Faeroe Islands’, in W. W. Fitzhugh and E. I. Ward, eds., Vikings: the North Atlantic Saga (Washington D C, 2000), pp. 154-63. 24. Jesch, Viking Diaspora, p. 30. 25. Cited from Logan, Vikings in History, p. 44 (with slight amendments); G. Turville-Petre, The Heroic Age of Scandinavia (London, 1951), pp. 95-6; G. J. Marcus, The Conquest of the North Atlantic (Woodbridge, 1980), pp. 22-3. 26. V. Szabo, ‘Subsistence Whaling and the Norse Diaspora: Norsemen, Basques, and Whale Use in the Western North Atlantic, ca. ad 900-1640’, in Hudson, ed., Studies in the Medieval Atlantic, p. 82. 27. Marcus, Con­quest of the North Atlantic, pp. 16-17. 28. Irish Life of St Brendan in the Book of Lismore, in S. Webb, ed., The Voyage of Saint Brendan (2014), doc. 1. 29. Navigatio Brendani, in Webb, ed., Voyage of Saint Brendan, doc. 2. 30. Marcus, Conquest of the North Atlantic, pp. 19-20. 31. D. Abulafia, The Discovery of Mankind: Atlantic Encounters in the Age of Columbus (New Haven, 2008), p. 41; M. Egeler, Islands in the West: Classical Myth and the Medieval Norse and Irish Geographical Imagination (Turnhout, 2017). 32. Forte et al., Viking Empires, pp. 304-6; Logan, Vikings in History, pp. 43-5. 33. Logan, Vikings in History, p. 45; also Jesch, Viking Diaspora, p. 182. 34. Jesch, Viking Diaspora, pp. 194-8. 35. Citations from the twelfth-century Landnamabok, in Logan, Vikings in History, pp. 47-8; Turville-Petre, Heroic Age of Scandinavia, pp. 97-8; Sauer, Northern Mists, pp. 86-94. 36. J. Byock, Viking Age Iceland (London, 2001), pp. 48-51 (citing the Saga of the Foster-Brothers), and p. 56; Jesch, Viking Diaspora, p. 22; also Sauer, Northern Mists, pp. 94-6. 37. Jesch, Viking Diaspora, p. 40. 38. Byock, Viking Age Iceland, pp. 10-11. 39. Jesch, Viking Diaspora, pp. 34-5, 56-7. 40. Logan, Vikings in History, p. 51. 41. Jesch, Viking Diaspora, p. 39; Byock, Viking Age Iceland, pp. 57­62. 42. Logan, Vikings in History, pp. 45-7; Turville-Petre, Heroic Age of Scandinavia, pp. 100-101. 43. Marcus, Conquest of the North Atlantic, p. 26. 44. Byock, Viking Age Iceland, pp. 10-11, 82-4, 86. 45. Ibid., pp. 14, 174, 294; Logan, Vikings in History, p. 53. 46. Turville-Petre, Heroic Age of Scandinavia, pp. 101-2. 47. Byock, Viking Age Iceland, pp. 292-301; Logan, Vikings in History, p. 54; Turville-Petre, Heroic Age of Scan­dinavia, pp. 101, 107. 48. ‘Egil’s Saga’, in The Sagas of the Icelanders (New York, 2000; edition based on The Complete Sagas of Icelanders, vols. 1-5, Reykjavik, 1997), ch. 27, pp. 46-7. 49. Ibid., ch. 33, p. 54 50. Ibid., ch. 39, p. 61. 51. Ibid., ch. 46, pp. 71-4. 52. Ibid., ch. 63, p. 120; B. Gelsinger, Icelandic Enterprise: Commerce and Economy in the Middle Ages (Columbia, SC, 1981), p. 126. 53. Ibid., p. 31. 54. S. Bagge, Cross and Scep­ter: the Rise of the Scandinavian Kingdoms from the Vikings to the Reformation (Princeton, 2014), p. 137. 55. The major work on vaftmal, unfortunately only in Icelandic and with no summary, is: H. Eorlaksson, Vaftmal og Verftlag: Vaftmal i Utanlandsviftskiptum og Buskop Islendinga ά 13. og 14. Old [Vaftmaland prices: vaftmal in the foreign shipping and farming of 13th and 14th-century Iceland’] (Reykjavik, 1991); but for its arguments see O. Vesteinsson, ‘Commercial Shipping and the Political Economy of Medieval Iceland’, in J. Barrett and D. Orton, eds., Cod and Herring: the Archaeology and History of

Medieval Sea Fishing (Oxford, 2016), pp. 71-9. 56. Gelsinger, Icelandic Enterprise, pp. 34-6, 46-7, 77-8. 57. Ibid., pp. 69-76. 58. E. Carus-Wilson, ‘The Iceland Venture', in E. Carus-Wilson, Medieval Merchant Venturers: Collected Studies (2nd edn, London, 1967), pp. 98-142. 59. Gelsinger, Icelandic Enterprise, pp. 127, 154. 60. D. Abulafia, Frederick II: a Medieval Emperor (London, 1988), p. 268. 61. Gelsinger, Icelandic Enterprise, pp. 83, 151.

21. White Bears, Whales and Walruses

i. K. Seaver, The Last Vikings: the Epic Story of the Great Norse Voyages (2nd edn, London,

2015), fig. 2, p. xxiii, and p. 3; K. Seaver, The Frozen Echo: Greenland and the Exploration of North America ca ad 1000-1500 (Stanford, 1996); also F. Gad, The History of Greenland, vol. 1: Earliest Times to 1700 (London, 1970), pp. 1-7; and now the often acerbic A. Ned- kvitne, Norse Greenland: Viking Peasants in the Arctic (Abingdon, 2019). 2. H. Palsson and M. Magnusson, ed. and transl., The Vinland Sagas: the Norse Discovery of America (Harmondsworth, 1965), pp. 15, 39; Seaver, Last Vikings, pp. 14-15. 3. Seaver, Last Vikings, p. 8; Nedkvitne, Norse Greenland, pp. 21-30. 4. Estimates from the ‘Book of the Settlements' (Landndmabok ), in G. Jones, The Norse Atlantic Saga, being the Norse Voyages of Discovery and Settlement to Iceland, Greenland, and North America (2nd edn, Oxford, 1986), p. 157; Palsson and Magnusson, ed. and transl., Vinland Sagas,pp. 14-15. 5. Seaver, Last Vikings, p. 16; Gad, History of Greenland, vol. 1, p. 27. 6. Jones, Norse Atlantic Saga, pp. 73-7; Gad, History of Greenland, vol. 1, p. 29. 7. Gad, History of Greenland, vol. 1, pp. 103-4. 8. ‘Greenlanders' Saga', in Jones, Norse Atlantic Saga, p. 187; Palsson and Magnusson, ed. and transl., VinlandSagas, p. 50. 9. Seaver, Last Vikings, pp. 15-16; Jones, Norse Atlantic Saga, p. 77. 10. Gad, History of Greenland, vol. 1, pp. 33-4, 42-5. 11. Objects in the Greenland room, Nationalmuseet, Copenhagen; Seaver, Last Vikings, p. 104; Gad, History of Greenland, vol. 1, p. 85; B. Star et al., ‘Ancient DNA Reveals the Chron­ology of Walrus Ivory Trade in Norse Greenland', Proceedings of the Royal Society B, vol. 285 (2018), 2018.0978; Nedkvitne, Norse Greenland, pp. 170-72. 12. Seaver, Last Vikings, pp. 102-3; G. J. Marcus, The Conquest of the North Atlantic (Woodbridge, 1980), p. 92; D. Abulafia, Frederick II: a Medieval Emperor (London, 1988), p. 268. 13. Seaver, Last Vikings, p. 101; Marcus, Conquest of the North Atlantic, pp. 91, 96; J. Arneborg, ‘Greenland and Europe', in W. W. Fitzhugh and E. I. Ward, eds., Vikings: the North Atlantic Saga (Washington DC, 2000), pp. 304-17. 14. Gad, History of Greenland, vol. 1, p. 172; G. Davies, Vikings in America (Edinburgh, 2009), pp. 130-38, discounting the arguments about metalworking. 15. Ari Frodi, tslendingabok, cited in Gad, History of Greenland, vol.

1, p. 19. 16. Gad, History of Greenland, vol. 1, pp. 20-21. 17. Ibid., pp. 23-4, 91-3, 97-102;Jones, Norse Atlantic Saga, pp. 93-5; H. C. Gullov, ‘Natives and Norse in Greenland', in Fitzhugh and Ward, eds., Vikings, pp. 318-26; V. Szabo, ‘Subsistence Whaling and the Norse Diaspora: Norsemen, Basques, and Whale Use in the Western North Atlantic, ca. ad 900-1640', in B. Hudson, ed., Studies in the Medieval Atlantic (New York, 2012), p. 83; Nedkvitne, Norse Greenland, p. 328. 18. Warp weight in the Greenland room, National­museet, Copenhagen; Jones, Norse Atlantic Saga, pp. 84-5; Seaver, Last Vikings, p. 35; Gad, History of Greenland, vol. 1, pp. 39, 84-5. 19. Seaver, Last Vikings, p. 23. 20. ‘Eirik the Red's Saga', in Jones, Norse Atlantic Saga, pp. 216-17; Palsson and Magnusson, ed. and transl., Vinland Sagas, pp. 85-6; Brattahlid church: Gad, History of Greenland, vol. 1, pp. 41-2. 21. G. Turville-Petre, The Heroic Age of Scandinavia (London, 1951), p. 138; Seaver, Last Vikings, pp. 26-9. 22. ‘Authun and the Bear', in G. Jones, ed. and transl., Eirik the Red and Other Icelandic Sagas (Oxford, 1961), pp. 163-70. 23. Gad, History of Greenland, vol. 1, pp. 57, 62-3; Marcus, Conquest of the North Atlantic, p. 92. 24. Seaver, Last Vikings, p. 114. 25. Ibid.,pp.111,118-19. 26. Ivar Bardason, cited by Marcus, Conquest of the North Atlantic, p. 98; also Jones, Norse Atlantic Saga, pp. 89-92. 27. Jones, Norse Atlantic Saga, p. 95; Nedkvitne, Norse Greenland, pp. 343-9. 28. J. Berglund, ‘The Farm beneath the Sand', in Fitzhugh and Ward, eds., Vikings, pp. 295-303. 29. Objects in the Greenland room, Nationalmuseet, Copenhagen; Gad, History of Greenland, vol. 1, pp. 154-61; Jones, Norse Atlantic Saga, pp. 110-11; Seaver, Last Vikings, p. 112. 30. B. Fagan, Fish on Friday: Feasting, Fasting, and the Discovery of the New World (New York, 2007); Gad, His­tory of Greenland, vol. 1, pp. 161-2, 181-2; Seaver, Last Vikings, p. 143. 31. T. McGovern, ‘The Demise of Norse Greenland', in Fitzhugh and Ward, eds., Vikings, pp. 327-39. 32. Text in H. Ingstad, Land under the Pole Star (London, 1966), pp. 329- 30; Gad, History of Greenland, vol. 1, pp. 158-9. 33. Gad, History of Greenland, vol. 1, p. 164; Jones, Norse Atlantic Saga, pp. 112-13. 34. ‘Ungortok the Chief of Kakorttok', in Jones, Norse Atlantic Saga, Appendix iii, pp. 262-7. 35. McGovern, ‘Demise of Norse Greenland', p. 338. 36. N. Lynnerup, ‘Life and Death in Norse Greenland', in Fitzhugh and Ward, eds., Vikings, pp. 285-94. 37. Seaver, Last Vikings, pp. 159, 163. 38. Jones, Norse Atlantic Saga, p. 87. 39. Palsson and Magnus­son, ed. and transl., Vinland Sagas, pp. 29-35. 40. Rune-stone and carvings in the Greenland room, Nationalmuseet, Copenhagen; Palsson and Magnusson, ed. and transl., Vinland Sagas, p. 21; Jones, Norse Atlantic Saga, p. 80; Seaver, Last Vikings, pp. 42, 112. 41. R. McGhee, ‘Remarks on the Arctic Finds', in Jones, Norse Atlantic Saga, Appendix v, p. 283; P. Sutherland, ‘The Norse and Native North Americans', in Fitzhugh and Ward, eds., Vikings, pp. 23 8-47. 42. P. Schledermann, ‘Ellesmere: Vikings in the Far North', in Fitzhugh and Ward, eds., Vikings, pp. 248-56; Davies, Vikings in America, pp. 89-104. 43. Marcus, Conquest of the North Atlantic, p. 92; T. Haine, ‘Greenland Norse Knowledge of the North Atlantic Environment', in Hudson, ed., Studies in the Medieval Atlantic, pp. 110-16. 44. Displayed in the Greenland room, Nationalmuseet, Copenhagen. 45. Skdlholtsanndll, cited from Jones, Norse Atlantic Saga, p. 136; K. Seaver, ‘Unanswered Questions', in Fitzhugh and Ward, eds., Vikings, p. 275; Seaver, Last Vikings, p. 59. 46. Cited in Palsson and Magnusson, ed. and transl., VinlandSagas, p. 15. 47. Jones, Norse Atlantic Saga, p. 285; M. Egeler, Islands in the West: Classical Myth and the Medieval Norse and Irish Geographical Imagination (Turnhout, 2017). 48. Among the j ustifiably incredulous: K. Seaver, Maps, Myths, and Men: the Story of the Vinland Map (Stanford, 2004); among the unjustifiably defensive: Davies, Vikings in America; among the supporters of the map: R. Skelton, T. Marston and G. Painter, The Vinland Map and the Tartar Relation (2nd edn, New Haven, 1995); see also S. Cox, ‘A Norse Penny from Maine', in Fitzhugh and Ward, eds., Vikings, pp. 206-7. 49. Palsson and Magnusson, ed. and transl., VinlandSagas, pp. 53-4. 50. Jones, Norse Atlantic Saga, p. 117. 51. Palsson and Magnusson, ed. and transl., Vinland Sagas, pp. 55-8. 52. E. Wahlgren, The Vikings and America (London, 1986), pp. 139­46, 158; cf. Davies, Vikings in America, pp. 74-5, and Jones, Norse Atlantic Saga, p. 124. 53. Sutherland, ‘The Norse and Native North Americans', pp. 238-9. 54. Wahlgren, Vikings and America, pp. 74, 92-3. 55. Palsson and Magnusson, ed. and transl., Vinland Sagas, pp. 64­5. 56. Ibid., pp. 66, 70-71. 57. Ibid., pp. 70-71. 58. Ibid., pp. 67-70,100. 59. N. Brown, The Far Traveler: Voyages of a Viking Woman (New York, 2007); Palsson and Magnusson, ed. and transl., Vinland Sagas, p. 71. 60. Palsson and Magnusson, ed. and transl., Vinland Sagas, p. 63. 61. H. Ingstad, Westward to Vinland: the Discovery of Pre-Columbian Norse House­Sites in North America (London, 1969); B. Linderoth Wallace, ‘The Viking Settlement at L'Anse aux Meadows', in Fitzhugh and Ward, eds., Vikings, pp. 208-16; B. Linderoth Wallace, ‘The Anse aux Meadows site', in Jones, Norse Atlantic Saga, Appendix vii, pp. 285-304; Seaver, Last Vikings, pp. 50-52; Jones, Norse Atlantic Saga, pp. 129-30; Davies, Vikings in America, pp. 76-81; P. Berg^orsson, The Wineland Millennium (Reykjavik, 2000).

22. From Russia with Profit

i. P. Dollinger, The German Hansa (London, 1970), p. 3; H. Brand and E. Knol, eds., Koggen, Kooplieden en Kantoren: de Hanze, een praktisch Netwerk (Hilversum, 2011). 2. David Abulafia, The Great Sea: a Human History of the Mediterranean (London, 2011), pp. 287-369. 3. Dollinger, German Hansa, pp. xix-xx. 4. G. Graichen et al., Die Deutsche Hanse: eine heimliche Supermacht (Reinbek bei Hamburg, 2011), p. 115. 5. D. Abulafia, Frederick II: a Medieval Emperor (London, 1988), p. 229. 6. J. Schildhauer, K. Fritze and W. Stark, Die Hanse (Berlin, DDR, 1982); J. Schildhauer, The Hansa: History and Culture (Leipzig, 1985). 7. Graichen et al., Deutsche Hanse, p. 6. 8. Dollinger, German Hansa, p. xx. 9. See the EU - funded Hansekarte: Map of the Hanseatic League (Lübeck, 2014). 10.

J. Sarnowsky, ‘Die Hanse und der Deutsche Orden - eine ertragreiche Beziehung', in Graichen et al., Deutsche Hanse, pp. 163-81. 11. A. Kasekamp, A History of the Baltic States (Bas­ingstoke, 2010), pp. 12- 13. 12. E. Christiansen, The Northern Crusades (2nd edn, London, 1997), pp. 94-5. 13. Kasekamp, History of the Baltic States, p. 200 n. 37. 14. Christian­sen, Northern Crusades, pp. 79-82, 99-103. 15. Kasekamp, History of the Baltic States, pp. 9, 11. 16. Christiansen, Northern Crusades, pp. 54-5, 120. 17. Dollinger, German Hansa, p. 4. 18. Christiansen, Northern Crusades, pp. 29-31. ^T9. Schildhauer, The Hansa, p. 20. 20. Dollinger, German Hansa, doc. 1, p. 379. 21. Ibid., p. 22. 22. Ibid., doc. 1, p. 380; Schildhauer, The Hansa, p. 19. 23. R. Hammel-Kiesow, ‘Novgorod und Lübeck: Siedlungsgefüge zweier Handelsstädte im Vergleich', in N. Angermann and K. Fried­land, eds., Novgorod: Markt und Kontor der Hanse (Cologne, 2002), p. 53. 24. Dollinger, German Hansa, pp. 31-5; R. Bartlett, The Making of Europe: Conquest, Colonization and Cultural Change 950-1300 (London, 1993). 25. Abulafia, Frederick II, p. 229. 26.

G. Westholm, Visby 1361 Invasionen (Stockholm, 2007), and exhibits in the Gotland Museum, Visby, and Historiska Museet, Stockholm. 27. Dollinger, German Hansa, pp. 70-71. 28. Schildhauer, The Hansa, pp. 73-4. 29. Hermen Rode's work is both in Sankt- Annen-Museum, Lübeck, and in Historiska Museet, Stockholm; M. North, The Baltic: a History (Cambridge, Mass., 2015), pp. 77-80. 30. North, Baltic, pp. 80-82. 31. D. Kat- tinger, Die Gotländische Gesellschaft: der frühhansisch-gotlandische Handel in Nord- und Westeuropa (Cologne, 1999). 32. Dollinger, German Hansa, pp. 7-8, 27; North, Baltic, pp. 43-6. 33. M. W. Thompson, eds., Novgorod the Great: Excavations at the Medieval City 1951-62 directed by A. V. Artikhovsky and B. A. Kolchin (London, 1967), p. 12; Hammel-Kiesow, ‘Novgorod und Lübeck', p. 60; E. A. Rybina, ‘Früher Handel und west­europäische Funde in Novgorod', in Angermann and Friedland, eds., Novgorod, pp. 121-32. 34. Dating revised from 1189: A. Choroskevic, ‘Der Ostsee Handel und der deutsch- russisch-gotländische Vertrag 1191/1192', in S. Jenks and M. North, eds., Der Hansische Sonderweg? Beiträge zur Sozial- und Wirtschaftsgeschichte der Hanse (Cologne, 1993), pp. 1-12; also B. Schubert, ‘Die Russische Kaufmannschaft und ihre Beziehung zur Hanse', in Jenks and North, eds., Hansische Sonderweg?, pp. 13-22; B. Schubert, ‘Hansische Kaufleute im Novgoroder Handelskontor', in Angermann and Friedland, eds., Novgorod, pp. 79-95; E. Harder-Gersdorff, ‘Hansische Handelsgüter auf dem Großmarkt Novgorod (13.-17. Jh.): Grundstrukturen und Forschungsfragen', in Angermann and Friedland, eds., Novgorod, pp. 133-43. 35. Dollinger, German Hansa, pp. 27-30. 36. North, Baltic, pp. 40-43. 37. G. Hoffmann and U. Schnall, eds., Die Kogge: Sternstunde des deutschen Schiffsarchäologie (Hamburg, 2003); also S. Rose, The Medieval Sea (London, 2007), pp. 16, 21-2. 38. O. Crumlin-Pedersen, ‘To be or not to be a cog: the Bremen Cog in Perspective', International Journal of Nautical Archaeology, vol. 29 (2000), pp. 230-46. 39. B. Fagan, Fish on Friday: Feasting, Fasting, and the Discovery of the New World (New York, 2007), pp. 51-6. 40. J. van Houtte, An Economic History of the Low Countries 800-1800 (London, 1977), p. 90. 41. Saxo Grammaticus (c.1150-c.1220), cited by J. Gade, The Hanseatic Control of Norwegian Commerce during the Late Middle Ages (Leiden, 1951), p. 17; P. Holm, ‘Commercial Sea Fisheries in the Baltic Region c.AD 1000-1600', in J. Barrett and D. Orton, eds., Cod and Herring: the Archaeology and History of Medieval Sea Fishing (Oxford, 2016), pp. 13- 22. 42. Gade, Hanseatic Control, pp. 17-18. 43. Schildhauer et al., Die Hanse, pp. 99-100. 44. A. R. Bridbury, England and the Salt Trade in the Later Middle Ages (Oxford, 1955), pp. 94­8. 45. A. de Oliveira Marques, Hansa e Portugal na Idade Mèdia (Lisbon, 1993).

23. Stockfish and Spices

i. H. Spruyt, The Sovereign State and Its Competitors: an Analysis of Systems Change (Princeton, 1994), pp. 109-29; T. Brady, Turning Swiss: Cities and Empire, 1450-1550 (Cambridge, 1985). 2. P. Dollinger, The German Hansa (London, 1970), pp. 62-3. 3. Ibid.,pp.88-93. 4. Ibid.,pp.ix-x. 5. Ibid., p. 91. 6. V. Etting, Queen Margarete, 1353­1412, and the Founding of the Nordic Union (Leiden, 2004). 7. M. Puhle, Die Vitalien- brüder: Klaus Stortebeker und die Seeräuber der Hanse (Frankfurt-am-Main, 1992). 8. Dollinger, German Hansa, p. 96. 9. W. Stieda, Hildebrand Veckinchusen: Briefwechsel eines deutschen Kaufmanns im 15. Jahrhundert (Leipzig, 1921); M. Lesnikov, Die Handels­bücher des Hansischen Kaufmannes Veckinchusen (Berlin, 1973); M. Lesnikov and W. Stark, Die Handelsbücher des Hildebrand Veckinchusen (Cologne, 2013); A. Lorenz-Ridderbecks, Krisenhandel und Ruin des Hansekaufmanns Hildebrand Veckinchusen im späten Mittel­alter: Untersuchung des Briefwechsels (1417-1428) (Hamburg, 2014), pp. 13, 15, 27, 32-3; G. Graichen et al., Die Deutsche Hanse: eine heimliche Supermacht (Reinbek bei Hamburg, 2011), pp. 222, 233 (illustrating the chest full of pepper). 10. Graichen et al., Die Deutsche Hanse, p. 223. 11. Ibid., p. 227; Lorenz-Ridderbecks, Krisenhandel und Ruin, p. 25. 12. A. Vandewalle, Hanze@Mˆdici: Bruges, Crossroads of European Cultures (Oostkamp, 2002), pp. 48-9 and accompanying map. 13. J. van Houtte, Bruges: essai d’histoire urbaine (Brussels, 1967), p. 90. 14. Graichen et al., Die Deutsche Hanse, pp. 231-2. 15. Van Houtte, Bruges, pp. 41, 57-8; J. Murray, Bruges, Cradle of Capitalism, 1280-1390 (Cam­bridge, 2005), pp. 244-5. 16. J. and F. Gies, Merchants and Moneymen: the Commercial Revolution, 1000-1500 (London, 1972), pp. 199-202, 205. 17. Graichen et al., Die Deutsche Hanse, p. 229. 18. J. Martin, Treasure in the Land of Darkness: the Fur Trade and Its Significance for Medieval Russia (Cambridge, 1986). 19. Graichen et al., Die Deutsche Hanse, p. 234. 20. Gies, Merchants and Moneymen, p. 206. 21. P. Lantschner, The Logic of Political Conflict in Medieval Cities: Italy and the Southern Low Countries, 1370-1440 (Oxford, 2015). 22. Gies, Merchants and Moneymen, pp. 206-8, 211. 23. Ibid., p. 209; Graichen et al., Die Deutsche Hanse, pp. 235-6; Lorenz-Ridderbecks, Krisen­handel und Ruin, pp. 33-40. 24. Dollinger, German Hansa, p. 216. 25. Gies, Merchants and Moneymen, pp. 210-11; Graichen et al., Die Deutsche Hanse, p. 239. 26. Gies, Mer­chants and Moneymen, p. 214; Graichen et al., Die Deutsche Hanse, pp. 240-42; Lorenz- Ridderbecks, Krisenhandel und Ruin, pp. 69-95. 27. In modern German: Gott erbarme, daß es mit Dir so gekommen ist: Lorenz-Ridderbecks, Krisenhandel und Ruin, p. 13. 28. Dollinger, German Hansa, pp. 165-6, 173-6; Gies, Merchants and Moneymen, pp. 209­14. 29. K. Helle, ‘The Emergence of the Town of Bergen in the Light of the Latest Research Results', in A. Graßmann, ed., Das Hansische Kontor zu Bergen und die Lübecker Bergenfahrer - International Workshop Lübeck 2003 (Lübeck, 2005), pp. 12-27; also A. Nedkvitne, The German Hansa and Bergen 1100-1600 (Cologne, 2013). 30. A. Liestol, ‘The Runes from Bergen: Voices from the Middle Ages', Minnesota History, vol. 40 (1966), part 2, pp. 49-58. 31. Cited from the Sverre Saga, ch. 104, in J. Gade, The Hanseatic Con­trol of Norwegian Commerce during the Late Middle Ages (Leiden, 1951), pp. 30-31. 32. Text in Gade, Hanseatic Contro^pp.38-41. 33. Ibid., p. 30 n. 1. 34. Ibid., p. 55. 35. G. A. Ersland, ‘Was the Kontor in Bergen a Topographically Closed Entity?', in Graßmann, ed., Das Hansische Kontor zu Bergen, pp. 41-57; Gade, Hanseatic Control, p. 51. 36. David Abulafia, The Great Sea: a Human History of the Mediterranean (London, 2011), pp. 298-9. 37. Ersland, ‘Was the Kontor?', pp. 47, 53. 38. Gade, Hanseatic Control, pp. 74-7, 80-81.

24. The English Challenge

1. P. D. A. Harvey, ‘The English Inflation of 1180-1220', Past and Present, no. 61 (1973), pp. 26-7. 2. T. H. Lloyd, England and the German Hanse 1157-1611: a Study of Their Trade and Diplomacy (Cambridge, 1991), p. 15; T. H. Lloyd, Alien Merchants in England in the High Middle Ages (Brighton, 1982), pp. 128-9. 3. P. Richards, ‘The Hinterland and Overseas Trade of King's Lynn 1205-1537: an Introduction', in K. Friedland and P. Richards, eds., Essays in Hanseatic History: the King’s Lynn Symposium 1998 (Dereham, Norfolk,

2005), pp. 10-21. 4. Lloyd, Alien Merchants, pp. 130-31. 5. Lloyd, England and the German Hanse, pp. 23-31. 6. G. Cushway, Edward III and the War at Sea, 1327-1377 (Woodbridge, 2011). 7. Lloyd, England and the German Hanse, pp. 73, 89; S. Jenks, ‘Lynn and the Hanse: Trade and Relations in the Middle Ages', in Friedland and Richards, eds., Essays in Hanseatic History, pp. 101-3. 8. E. Carus-Wilson, ‘Trends in the Export of Eng­lish Woollens in the Fourteenth Century', in E. Carus-Wilson, Medieval Merchant Venturers: Collected Studies (2nd edn, London, 1967), pp. 239-64; J. Fudge, Cargoes, Embargoes, and Emissaries: the Commercial and Political Interaction of England and the German Hanse 1450-1510 (Toronto, 1995), p. 5. 9. Richards, ‘Hinterland and Overseas Trade', p. 19; W. Stark, ‘English Merchants in Danzig', in Friedland and Richards, eds., Essays in Hanseatic History, pp. 64-6; Fudge, Cargoes, Embargoes, p. 10. 10. E. Christiansen, The Northern Crusades (2nd edn, London, 1997), pp. 156-7; Lloyd, England and the German Hanse, pp. 131-2; Fudge, Cargoes, Embargoes, pp. 7-9. 11. M. Burleigh, Prussian Society and the German Order: an Aristocratic Corporation in Crisis c. 1410- 1466 (Cambridge, 1984); Lloyd, England and the German Hanse, pp. 178-9; M. M. Postan, ‘The Economic and Political Relations of England and the Hanse from 1400 to 1475', in M. M. Postan and E. Power, eds., Studies in English Trade in the Fifteenth Century (London, 1933), pp. 91-153; S. Jenks, England, die Hanse und Preußen: Handel und Diplomatie 1377-1474 (3 vols., Cologne, 1992). 12. Fudge, Cargoes, Embargoes, pp. 66-74. 13. E. Carus-Wilson, ‘The Overseas Trade of Bristol in the Fifteenth Century', in Carus-Wilson, Medieval Merchant Venturers, pp. 1-97; also Carus-Wilson, ‘The Iceland Venture', ibid., pp. 98-142. 14. Fudge, Cargoes, Embargoes, pp. 144-51. 15. Cited in Jenks, ‘Lynn and the Hanse', p. 103; Fudge, Cargoes, Embargoes, pp. 74, 109-10. 16. D. Pifarre Torres, El comer$ internacional de Barcelona i el Mar del Nord (Bruges) a Finals del segle XIV (Montserrat, 2002); J. Hinojosa Montalvo, De Valencia a Flandes: la nave della frutta (Valencia, 2007). 17. A. Ruddock, Italian Merchants and Shipping in Southampton, 1270-1600 (Southampton, 1951); D. Abulafia, ‘Cittadino e denizen: mercanti mediterranei a Southampton e a Londra', in M. del Treppo, ed., Sistema di rapporti ed elites economiche in Europa (secoli XII-XVII) (Naples, 1994), pp. 273-91, repr. in D. Abulafia, Mediterranean Encounters, Economic, Religious, Political, 1100-1550 (Aldershot, 2000), essay VII. 18. C. Platt, Medieval Southampton: the Port and the Trading Community, a.D. 100o-1600 (London, 1973), pp. 262-3. ^T9. B. Kedar, Merchants in Crisis: Genoese and Venetian Men of Affairs and the Fourteenth-Century Depression (New Haven, 1976), pp. 31-7; P. Strohm, ‘Trade, Treason and the Murder of Janus Imperial', Journal of British Studies, vol. 35 (1996), pp. 1-23. 20. Abulafia, ‘Cittadino e denizen', pp. 278-9; Platt, Medieval Southampton, pp. 229-30; Ruddock, Italian Mer­chants, pp. 183-5. 21. Lloyd, Alien Merchants, p. 163. 22. W. Childs, Anglo-Castilian Trade in the Later Middle Ages (Manchester, 1978); T. Ruiz, ‘Castilian Merchants in Eng­land, 1248-1350', in W. C. Jordan, B. McNab and T. Ruiz, eds., Order and Innovation in the Middle Ages: Essays in Honor of Joseph R. Strayer (Princeton, 1976), pp. 173-85; Lloyd, Alien Merchants, pp. 164-5. 23. E. Ferreira Priegue, Galicia en el comercio maritimo medi­eval (Santiago de Compostela, 1988). 24. Childs, Anglo-Castilian Trade,pp. 227-30. 25. G. Warner, ed., The Libelle of Englyshe Polycye: a Poem on the Use of Sea-Power, 1436 (Oxford, 1926), p. 4. 26. V. Kostic, Dubrovnik i Engleska, 1300-1650 (Belgrade, 1975), pp. 113, 572, 576. 27. M. Pratt, Winchelsea: the Tale of a Medieval Town (Bexhill-on-Sea, 2005), pp. 41-50. 28. Ibid., p. 131. 29. Ibid., pp. 95-8, 112. 30. Ibid., p. 78. 31. Carus- Wilson, Medieval Merchant Venturers, p. 2. 32. T. O'Neill, Merchants and Mariners in Medieval Ireland (Dublin, 1987), pp. 29, 67-8, 108; Carus-Wilson, Medieval Merchant Venturers, pp. 13-28. 33. Carus-Wilson, Medieval Merchant Venturers, pp. 5-11. 34. A. Crawford, Bristol and the Wine Trade (Bristol, 1984); M. K. James, Studies in the Medi­eval Wine Trade (Oxford, 1971). 35. J. Bernard, Navires et gens de mer a Bordeaux (vers 1400-vers 1500) (3 vols., Paris, 1968); Carus-Wilson, Medieval Merchant Venturers, pp. 32-6. 36. Carus-Wilson, Medieval Merchant Venturers, p. 43. 37. M. Barkham, ‘The Offshore and Distant-Water Fisheries of the Spanish Basques, c.1500-1650', in D. Starkey, J. For and I. Heidbrink, eds., A History of the North Atlantic Fisheries, vol. 1: From Early Times to the mid-Nineteenth Century (Bremerhaven, 2009), pp. 229-49; J. Proulx, ‘The Presence of Basques in Labrador in the 16th Century', in R. Grenier, M.-A. Bernier and W. Stevens, eds., The Underwater Archaeology of Red Bay: Basque Shipbuilding and Whaling in the 16th Century (5 vols., Ottawa, 2007), vol. 1: Archaeology Underwater: the Project, pp. 25-42. 38. See the twelve first-class essays in E. Jones and R. Stone, eds., The World of the Newport Medieval Ship: Trade, Politics and Shipping in the mid-Fifteenth Century (Cardiff, 2018). 39. Carus-Wilson, Medieval Merchant Venturers, pp. 47-9, 53-4, 58-64; I. Sanderson, A History of Whaling (New York, 1993), pp. 136-41. 40. B. Little and J. Sansom, The Story of Bristol from the Middle Ages to Today (3rd edn, Wellington, Somerset, 2003), pp. 14-15; Carus-Wilson, Medieval Merchant Venturers, pp. 80-81. 41. S. Jenks, Robert Sturmy’s Commercial Expedition to the Mediterranean (1457/8) (Bristol,

2006). 42. Carus-Wilson, Medieval Merchant Venturers, pp. 67-8. 43. D. H. Sacks, The Widening Gate: Bristol and the Atlantic Economy, 1450- 1700 (Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1991), p. 33; Carus-Wilson, Medieval Merchant Venturers, pp. 70-71. 44. B. Gelsinger, Icelandic Enterprise: Commerce and Economy in the Middle Ages (Columbia, SC, 1981), p. 190. 45. Cited in Carus-Wilson, Medieval Merchant Venturers, p. 111, and in Gelsinger, Icelandic Enterprise, p. 192. 46. Carus-Wilson, Medieval Merchant Venturers, pp. 101, 103-4, 110-13. 47. Ibid., pp. 113, 115, 118-20, 125, 131, 137. 48. Gelsinger, Icelandic Enterprise, p. 193; Carus-Wilson, Medieval Merchant Venturers, pp. 133-42. 49. Cited in D. Quinn, ‘The Argument for the English Discovery of America between 1480 and 1494’, Geographical Journal, vol. 127 (1961), p. 277; for the original text from Archivo General de Simancas, Estado de Castilla, leg. 2, f. 6r-v, see plates between p. 284 and p. 285; J. Wil­liamson, ed., The Cabot Voyages and Bristol Discovery under Henry VII (Cambridge, 1962), pp. 30-31; E. Jones and M. Condon, Cabot and Bristol’s Age of Discovery: the Bristol Discovery Voyages 1480-1508 (Bristol, 2016), p. 18. 50. Williamson, ed., Cabot Voyages, pp. 19-32. 51. William of Worcester, Itinerarium, ibid., pp. 187-8 (doc. 6). 52. William­son, ed., Cabot Voyages, pp. 19-20, 175 (doc. 1, ii). 53. Ibid., pp. 188-9 (doc. 7, i and ii); Jones and Condon, Cabot and Bristol’s Age of Discovery,pp. 15-17. 54. Quinn, ‘Argument for the English Discovery’, pp. 278-9; Carus-Wilson, Medieval Merchant Venturers, p. 97 (conflating the two voyages); Williamson, ed., Cabot Voyages, pp. 23-4. 55. C. Verlinden, The Beginnings of Modern Colonization (Ithaca, NY, 1970), pp. 181-95. 56. Williamson, ed., Cabot Voyages, p. 176 (doc. 1, vi). 57. Ibid., pp. 15, 187 (doc. 5); J. Blake, West Africa: Quest for God and Gold, 1454- 1587 (London, 1977), pp. 60-62.

25. Portugal Rising

i. W. Childs, Trade and Shipping in the Medieval West: Portugal, Castile and England (Porto,

2013), p. 139. 2. A. Christys, Vikings in the South: Voyages to Iberia and the Mediterranean (London, 2015), pp. 49-50, 73, 87-8. 3. C. Picard, L’Ocean Atlantique musulman de la conquete arabe a l’epoque almohade: Navigation et mise en valeur des cotes d’al-Andalus et du Maghreb occidental (Portugal-Espagne-Maroc) (Paris, 1997), pp. 79-80, 112, 118; also his Le Portugal musulman (VIIIe-XIIIe siecle): l’Occident d’al-Andalus sous domination islamique (Paris, 2000). 4. Picard, Ocean Atlantique musulman, pp. 112, 361-3, 375, 434-44, 518. 5. Ibid., pp. 39, 42-3, 132-4, 171. 6. C. W. David, ed., De Expugnatione Lyxbonensi: the Conquest of Lisbon (2nd edn, revised by J. Phillips, New York, 2001). 7. Pic­ard, Ocean Atlantique musulman, pp. 125, 174, 181, 353, 355-6; Picard, Portugal musulman, pp. 105, 110; S. Lay, The Reconquest Kings of Portugal: Political and Cultural Reorientation on the Medieval Frontier (Basingstoke, 2009), pp. 152-3. 8. B. Diffie, Prelude to Empire: Portugal Overseas before Henry the Navigator (Lincoln, Neb., 1960), pp. 30, 32-3. 9. F. Miranda, Portugal and the Medieval Atlantic: Commercial Diplomacy, Merchants, and Trade, 1143-1488 (Porto, 2012), pp. 2, 72; T. Viula de Faria, The Politics of Anglo-Portuguese Relations and Their Protagonists in the Later Middle Ages (c. 1369-c.1449) (D.Phil. thesis, University of Oxford, 2012); V. Shillington and A. Wallis Chapman, The Commercial Rela­tions of England and Portugal (London, 1907), pp. 31, 41-5; Childs, Trade and Shipping, pp. 83, 109, 113-14. 10. Miranda, Portugal and the Medieval Atlantic, pp. 65, 161, 183. ii. Cited ibid., p. 64. 12. C. Verlinden, The Beginnings of Modern Colonization (Ithaca, NY, 1970), pp. 98-112. 13. F. Themudo Barata, Navega^ao, comercio e relates politicas: os portugueses no Mediterraneo Ocidental (1385-1466) (Lisbon, 1998); J. Heers, ‘L’Expansion maritime portugaise à la fin du Moyen-Äge: la Mediterranee’, Aetas do III Coloquio internacional de estudios luso-brasileiros (Lisbon, 1960), vol. 2, pp. 138-47, repr. in J. Heers, Societe et economie à Gènes (XIVe-XVe siècles) (London, 1979), essay III;

H. Ferhat, Sabta des origines au XIVe siècle (Rabat 1993; repr. with new pagination, Rabat,

2014). 14. E. Ferreira Priegue, Galicia en el comercio maritimo medieval (Santiago de Compostela, 1988); J. Heers, ‘Le Commerce des Basques en Mediterranee au XVe siècle (d’après les archives de Genes)’, Bulletin Hispanique, vol. 57 (1955), pp. 292-324. 15. F. Fernandez-Armesto, ‘Atlantic Exploration before Columbus: the Evidence of Maps’, Renais­sance and Modern Studies, vol. 30 (1986), pp. 12-34, repr. in F. Fernandez-Armesto, ed., The European Opportunity: an Expanding World (Aldershot, 1995), vol. 2, pp. 278­300. 16. D. Abulafia, The Discovery of Mankind: Atlantic Encounters in the Age of Col­umbus (New Haven, 2008), p. 34. 17. Dante Alighieri, Divina Commedia, ‘Purgatorio’, canto 26, verses 133-5; T. Cachey, Le Isole Fortunate: appunti di storia letteraria italiana (Rome, 1995), p. 18. 18. Abulafia, Discovery of Mankind, pp. 49-64. 19. Giovanni Boc­caccio, De Canaria, in M. Pastore Stocchi, ‘Il “De Canaria” boccaccesco e un locus deperditus nel “De Insulis” di Domenico Silvestri’, Rinascimento, vol. 10 (1959), pp. 153-6. 20. Boccac­cio, De Canaria, p. 155. 21. Abulafia, Discovery of Mankind, pp. 65-7; F. Fernandez- Armesto, Before Columbus: Exploration and Colonization from the Mediterranean to the Atlantic, 1229-1492 (London, 1987), pp. 153- 9; A. Rumeu de Armas, El obispado de Telde: misioneros mallorquines y catalanes en el Atlantico (2nd edn, Madrid and Telde, 1986); J. Muldoon, Popes, Lawyers and Infidels: the Church and the non- Christian world, 1250­1500 (Liverpool, 1979). 22. Abulafia, Discovery of Mankind, pp. 42-4. 23. M. Adhikari, ‘Europe’s First Settler Colonial Incursion into Africa: the Genocide of Aboriginal Canary Islanders’, African Historical Review, vol. 49 (2017), pp. 1-26. 24. Fernandez-Armesto, Before Columbus, pp. 158, 167. 25. Ferhat, Sabta, pp. 19-28 (old edn), pp. 17-25 (new edn); L. Miguel Duarte, Ceuta 1415 (Lisbon, 2015), pp. 132-9; A. Unali, Ceuta 1415 (Rome, 2000). 26. D. Abulafia, The Two Italies: Economic Relations between the Norman King­dom of Sicily and the Northern Communes (Cambridge, 1977). 27. C. R. and W. D. Phillips, Spain’s Golden Fleece: Wool Production and the Wool Trade from the Middle Ages to the Nineteenth Century (Baltimore, 1997). 28. F. Miranda, ‘Os antecedentes economicos da conquista de Ceuta de 1415 reavaliados’, Congreso International: Los origines de la expan- sion europea: Ceuta 1415; VI Centenario de la Toma de Ceuta, Ceuta 1, 2 y 3 de octubre de 2015 (Ceuta, 2019); C. Gozalbes Cravioto, Ceuta en los portulanos medievales, siglos XIII, XIV y XV (Ceuta, 1997). 29. Ceuta en el Medievo: la ciudad en el mundo arabe. II. Jornadas de historia de Ceuta (Ceuta, 2002); M. Cherif, Ceuta aux epoques almohade et merinide (Paris, 1996). 30. D. Abulafia, Frederick II: a Medieval Emperor (London, 1988), p. 258. 31. Unali, Ceuta 1415, pp. 198-200. 32. Ibid., pp. 192-8. 33. Gomes Eanes de Zurara, Crònica da Tomada de Ceuta (Mem Martins, 1992), pp. 44-63. 34. King Duarte

I, cited by P. Russell, Prince Henry ‘the Navigator’: a Life (New Haven and London, 2000), p. 40. 35. Ibid., p. 44. 36. Duarte, Ceuta 1415, pp. 88-90. 37. Russell, Prince Henry, pp. 49, 51-2. 38. P. Drumond Braga, Uma lan^a em Àfrica: Historia da conquista de Ceuta (Lisbon, 2015), p. 58. 39. Luis Vaz de Camoes, The Lusiads, transl. L. White (Oxford, 1997), canto 4:49, p. 86. See also e.g. D. Nobre Santos, Povoamento da ilha da Madeira e o sentido ecumenico da cultura lusiada (Estudos Gerais Universitarios de Angola, Sa da Bandeira, Angola, 1966). 40. B. Rogerson, The Last Crusaders: the Hundred-Year Battle for the Centre of the World (London, 2009), pp. 399-402. 41. Russell, Prince Henry, pp. 120, 291-2.

26. Virgin Islands

i. S. Halikowski Smith, ‘The Mid-Atlantic Islands: a Theatre of Early Modern Ecocide?', International Review of Social History, vol. 55 (2010), Supplement, p. 52. 2. R. Carita, Historia da Madeira (1420-1566): Povoamento e produgdo agucareira (Funchal, 1989), pp. 35-9; F. Fernandez-Armesto, Before Columbus: Exploration and Colonization from the Mediterranean to the Atlantic, 1229-1492 (London, 1987), pp. 195-6. 3. C. Verlinden, The Beginnings of Modern Colonization (Ithaca, NY, 1970), pp. 206-19. 4. P. Russell, Prince Henry ‘the Navigator’: a Life (New Haven and London, 2000), pp. 94, 98. 5. Ibid., p. 91; J. H. Parry, The Discovery of the Sea (2nd edn, Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1991), p. 97. 6. Halikowski Smith, ‘Mid-Atlantic Islands', pp. 51-77. 7. A. da Ca da Mosto (Cada- mosto), The Voyages of Cadamosto and Other Documents on Western Africa in the Second Half of the Fifteenth Century, ed. C. R. Crone (London, 1937), ch. 6, p. 9; Fernandez- Armesto, Before Columbus, pp. 198-9. 8. D. Abulafia, ‘Sugar in Spain', European Review, vol. 16 (2008), pp. 191-210. 9. V. Rau, ‘The Madeiran Sugar Cane Plantations', in H. John­son, ed., From Reconquest to Empire: the Iberian Background to Latin American History (New York, 1970), p. 75. 10. A. Vieira, ‘Sugar Islands: the Sugar Economy of Madeira and the Canaries, 1450-1650', in S. Schwartz, ed., Tropical Babylons: Sugar and the Making of the Atlantic World, 1450-1680 (Chapel Hill, 2004), pp. 42-84. 11. Carita, Historia da Madeira, p. 92. 12. Halikowski Smith, ‘Mid-Atlantic Islands', p. 61. 13. Fernandez- Armesto, Before Columbus, pp. 159-66. 14. R. Fuson, Legendary Islands of the Ocean Sea (Sarasota, 1995), pp. 44-55, 103-17; D. Johnson, Phantom Islands of the Atlantic (London, 1997), pp. 91-128. 15. Russell, Prince Henry, pp. 102-3. ^T6. Fernandez-Armesto, Before Columbus, pp. 199-200; D. Birmingham, Trade and Empire in the Atlantic, 1400-1600 (London, 2000), pp. 14-15. 17. Parry, Discovery of the Sea, p. 99; Halikowski Smith, ‘Mid­Atlantic Islands', pp. 61-2. 18. Verlinden, Beginnings of Modern Colonization, pp. 220-27; A. Vieira, O comercio inter-insular nos seculos XV e XVI: Madeira, Agores e Canarias (Fun­chal, 1987). 19. Angra, a Terceira e os Agores nas rotas da India e das Americas (Angra do Heroismo, 1999). 20. Verlinden, Beginnings of Modern Colonization, pp. 161-80; A. Peluffo, ed., Antonio de Noli e l’inizio delle scoperte del Nuovo Mondo (Noli, 2013; online English edition: M. Ferrado de Noli, ed., Antonio de Noli and the Beginnings of the New World'), though some articles are tendentious. 21. A. Leao Silva, Historias de um Sahel Insular (Praia, 1995);

J. Blake, ed., Europeans in West Africa (1450- 1560): Documents to Illustrate the Nature and Scope of Portuguese Enterprise in West Africa (2 vols., London, 1942); Halikowski Smith, ‘Mid-Atlantic Islands', pp. 73-4. 22. T. Green, The Rise of the Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade in Western Africa, 1300-1589 (Cambridge, 2012), pp. 95-115; T. Hall, ed. and transl., Before Middle Passage: Translated Portuguese Manuscripts of Atlantic Slave Trading from West Africa to Iberian Territories, 1513-26 (Farnham, 2015). 23. Examples may be seen in the Ethno­graphic Museum in Praia, Santiago. 24. Green, Rise of the Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade, pp. 99-100; cotton: Hall, ed. and transl., Before Middle Passage, pp. 36, 149, 180, 213. 25. A. Carreira, Cabo Verde: Formagdo e Extingdo de uma Sociaedade escarvorata (1460-1878) (3rd edn, Praia de Santiago, 2000). 26. C. Evans, M. L. Stig Sorensen and K. Richter, ‘An Early Christian Church in the Tropics: Excavation of the N.^a S.^a de Concei^ao, Cidade Velha, Cape Verde', in T. Green, ed., Brokers of Change: Atlantic Commerce and Cultures in Precolonial Western Africa (Proceedings of the British Academy, vol. 178 (2012), pp. 173-92. 27. Hall, ed. and transl., Before Middle Passage, p. 15; T. Green, Masters of Difference: Creolization and the Jewish Presence in Cabo Verde 1497-1672 (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Birmingham,

2007), p. 74; Green, Rise of the Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade, p. 98; Evans et al., ‘An Early Chris­tian Church in the Tropics', pp. 175-6; Catalans in the Atlantic: I. Armenteros Martinez, Cata- luna en la era de las navegaciones: la participation catalana en la primera economia atlantica (c. 1470- 1540) (Barcelona, 2012). 28. T. Green, ‘The Export of Rice and Millet from Upper Guinea into the Sixteenth-Century Atlantic Trade', in R. Law, S. Schwarz and S. Strickrodt, eds., Commercial Agriculture, the Slave Trade and Slavery in Atlantic Africa (Woodbridge, 2013), pp. 79-97; T. Hall, ‘Portuguese Archival Documentation of Europe's First Colony in the Tropics: the Cape Verde Islands, 1460-1530', in L. McCrank, ed., Discovery in the Archives of Spain and Portugal: Quincentenary Essays, 1492- 1992 (New York, 1993), p. 389. 29. T. Hall, The Role of Cape Verde Islanders in Organizing and Operating Maritime Trade between West Africa and Iberian Territories, 1 441- 1616 (Ph.D. dissertation, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, 1992, distributed by University Microfilms International, 1992), p. 234; Hall, ed. and transl., Before Middle Passage, pp. 266, 275-6; Green, Rise of the Trans­Atlantic Slave Trade, p. 101. 30. I. Cabral, A primeira elite colonial atlantica: dos ‘homens honrados brancos’ de Santiago a ‘Nobreza da Terra’, finais do sec. V- inicio do sec. XVII (Praia,

2015) ; Z. Cohen, Os filhos da folha (Cabo Verde - seculos XV-XVIII) (Praia, 2007); Green, Rise of the Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade, pp. 103-7. 31. Historia geral do Cabo Verde (Lisbon and Praia de Santiago, 1991), vol. 1, pp. 264-7, 276-9; Hall, ed. and transl., Before Middle Passage, pp. 84-5. 32. Historia geral do Cabo Verde, corpo documenta I (Lisbon, 1988-90), vol. 2, pp. 234-8; Hall, ed. and transl., Before Middle Passage, pp. 185-91. 33. M. L. Stig Sorensen, C. Evans and K. Richter, ‘A Place of History: Archaeology and Heritage at Cidade Velha, Cape Verde', in P. Lane and K. McDonald, eds., Slavery in Africa: Archaeology and Memory (Proceedings of the British Academy, vol. 168, 2011), pp. 421-42; ‘A Place of Arrivals: Forging a Nation's Identity at Cidade Velha', World Archaeology Magazine, no. 75 (2016), pp. 32-6. 34. D. Blumenthal, Enemies and Familiars: Slavery and Mastery in Fifteenth-Century Valencia (Ithaca, NY, 2009). 35. J. Vogt, Portuguese Rule on the Gold Coast 1469-1692 (Athens, Ga., 1979), pp. 19-92; P. E. H. Hair, The Founding of the Castelo de Sao Jorge de Mina: an Analysis of the Sources (Madison, 1994); C. DeCorse, An Archaeology of Elmina: Africans and Europeans on the Gold Coast, 1400- 1900 (Washington DC, 2006); A. Ryder, Benin and the Europeans, 1485-1897 (London, 1969), pp. 42-5. 36. I. Batista de Sousa, Sao Tome et Principe de 1485 a 1755: une societe coloniale, de Blanc a Noir (Paris, 2008), p. 17;

G. Seibert, ‘Säo Tome & Principe: the First Plantation Economy in the Tropics', in R. Law, S. Schwarz and S. Strickrodt, eds., Commercial Agriculture, the Slave Trade and Slavery in Atlantic Africa (Woodbridge, 2013), pp. 54-78. 37. R. Garfield, A History of Sao Tome Island, 1470- 1655: the Key to Guinea (San Francisco, 1992), p. 64. 38. Seibert, ‘Säo Tome & Principe', pp. 60-61. 39. Batista de Souza, Sao Tome, pp. 21, 23; Garfield, History of Sao Tome, pp. 3 1, 35-6. 40. I. Castro Henriques, Sao Tome e Principe: a invengao de uma sociedade (Lisbon, 2000), p. 34. 41. F. Soyer, The Persecution of the Jews and Muslims of Portugal: King Manuel I and the End of Religious Tolerance (1496- 7) (Leiden, 2007). 42. Blake, ed., Europeans in West Africa, vol. 1, doc. 9, pp. 86-7. 43. Seibert, ‘Säo Tome & Principe', p. 58. 44. Samuel Usque, Consolation for the Tribulations of Israel, transl. M. Cohen (Philadelphia, 1965), pp. 201-2; Isaac Abravanel, Commentary to Exodus (Jerusalem, 1984), p. 67, cited by D. E. Cohen, The Biblical Exegesis of Don Isaac Abrabanel (Ph.D. dissertation, School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London, 2015), pp. 120, 428. 45. Garfield, History of Sao Tome, pp. 65, 71-2, 85; R. Garfield, ‘Public Christians, Secret Jews: Religion and Political Conflict on Säo Tome in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries', The Sixteenth Century Journal, vol. 21 (1990), pp. 645-54; Batista de Sousa, Sao Tome, pp. 50-56; Henriques, Sao Tome e Principe, pp. 63-92. 46. Garfield, History of Sao Tome, p. 31. 47. Blake, ed., Europeans in West Africa, vol. 1, pp. 89-90. 48. Ryder, Benin, pp. 42-3 n. 4, 55. 49. Vogt, Portuguese Rule, pp. 38, 46-7, 57-8, 72-3. 50. D. Abulafia, The Dis­covery of Mankind: Atlantic Encounters in the Age of Columbus (New Haven, 2008), pp. 145-61; R. Kowner, From White to Yellow: the Japanese in European Racial Thought, 1300-1735 (Montreal, 2014), pp. 50-51. 51. S. E. Morison, Portuguese Voyages to America in the Fifteenth Century (Cambridge, Mass., 1940). 52. Verlinden, Beginnings of Modern Colonization, pp. 181-95; Morison, Portuguese Voyages to America, pp. 44-50.

27. Guinea Gold and Guinea Slaves

i. Text from Zurara in M. Newitt, ed., The Portuguese in West Africa, 1415-1670: a Docu­mentary History (Cambridge, 2010), doc. 35, pp. 149-50. 2. A. Saunders, A Social History of Black Slaves and Freedmen in Portugal 1441-1555 (Cambridge, 1982), pp. 38-9. 3. D. Abulafia, The Discovery of Mankind: Atlantic Encounters in the Age of Columbus (New Haven, 2008), pp. 39, 43. 4. T. Hall, ed. and transl., Before Middle Passage: Translated Portuguese Manuscripts of Atlantic Slave Trading From West Africa to Iberian Territories, 1513-26 (Farnham, 2015), p. 52, also pp. 43, 45, 65. 5. R. Collins and J. Burns, A History of Sub-Saharan Africa (2nd edn, Cambridge, 2014), pp. 78-95; B. Davidson, West Africa before the Colonial Era: a History to 1850 (Harlow, 1998); N. Levtzion, Ancient Ghana and Mali (London, 1973). 6. E. Bovill, The Golden Trade of the Moors (2nd edn, Oxford, 1970); Levtzion, Ancient Ghana and Mali, pp. 81-4; M. Gomez, African Dominion: a New History of Empire in Early and Medieval West Africa (Princeton, 2018). 7. J. Day, ‘The Great Bullion Famine of the Fifteenth Century', Past and Present, no. 79 (1978), pp. 3-54. 8. S. Stantchev, Spiritual Rationality: Papal Embargo as Cultural Practice (Oxford, 2015). 9. J. H. Parry, The Discovery of the Sea (2nd edn, Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1991), pp. 99-100; J. Vogt, Portuguese Rule on the Gold Coast 1469- 1692 (Athens, Ga., 1979), p. 4. 10. Newitt, ed., Portuguese in West Africa, p. 47 n. 3. 11. J. Correia, LTmplantation de la ville portugaise en Afrique du Nord de la prise de Ceuta jusqu’au milieu du XVIe siecle (Porto, 2008; also published in a parallel Portuguese edition). 12. Newitt, ed., Portuguese in West Africa, pp. 148-50, doc. 35. 13. Vogt, Portuguese Rule, p. 7. 14. Hall, ed. and transl., Before Middle Passage, pp. 29-31. 15. A. da Ca da Mosto (Cadamosto), The Voyages of Cadamosto and Other Documents on Western Africa in the Second Half of the Fifteenth Century, ed. C. R. Crone (London, 1937), in Newitt, ed., Portuguese in West Africa, pp. 67-71, doc. 16. 16. Hall, ed. and transl., Before Middle Passage, p. 36. 17. Ibid., p. 39; T. Green, Rise of the Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade in Western Africa, 1300-1589 (Cambridge, 2012), p. 248. 18. Hall, ed. and transl., Before Mid­dle Passage, p. 227. 19. Ibid., pp. 5, 36, 222; C. Evans, M. L. Stig Sorensen and K. Richter, ‘An Early Christian Church in the Tropics: Excavation of the N.^a S.^a de Concei^äo, Cidade Velha, Cape Verde', in T. Green, ed., Brokers of Change: Atlantic Commerce and Cultures in Preco­lonial Western Africa (Proceedings of the British Academy, vol. 178 (2012)), pp. 173-92. 20.

J. Blake, West Africa: Quest for God and Gold, 1454- 1587 (London, 1977), pp. 32-4, 83. 21. I. Armenteros Martinez, Cataluna en la era de las navegaciones: la participation catalana en la primera economia atldntica (c. 1470-1540) (Barcelona, 20i2),pp. 72-80. 22. C. Verlinden, The Beginnings of Modern Colonization (Ithaca, NY, 1970), pp. 176-80. 23. Blake, West Africa, pp. 49-55. 24. Abulafia, Discovery of Mankind, p. 95; M. Ä. Ladero Quesada, Los ultimos anos de Fernando el Catolico 1505- 1517 (Madrid, 2016), p. 167 (1509 confirmation). 25. Vogt, Portuguese Rule, pp. 7-9. 26. A. Ryder, Benin and the Europeans, 1485- 1897 (London, 1969). 27. Vogt, Portuguese Rule, p. 9. 28. Armenteros Martinez, Cataluna en la era de las navegaciones, pp. 77-80. 29. Blake, West Africa, p. 37. 30. D. Escudier, ed., Voyage d’Eustache Delafosse sur la cote de Guinee, au Portugal et en Espagne (1479-1481) (Paris, 1992),pp.12-15. 31. Ibid., pp. 16-17. 32. Ibid.,pp.24-5,28-31. 33. Ibid., pp. 52-65. 34. Blake, West Africa, pp. 60-62. 35. P. E. H. Hair, The Founding of the Castelo de Sao Jorge da Mina: an Analysis of the Sources (Madison, 1994), p. 5. 36. C. Antero Ferreira, Castelo da Mina: da fundagao as representagoes iconogrdficas dos seculos XVIe XVII (Lisbon, 2007), p. 10. 37. Hair, Founding of the Castelo, pp. 7, 10-11. 38. Vogt, Portuguese Rule,pp. 20-21; Hair, Founding of the Castelo, pp. 14-15. 39. Hair, Founding of the Castelo, pp. 15-17; Blake, West Africa, p. 99; Parry, Discovery of the Sea, p. 108. 40. Hair, Founding of the Castelo, pp. 20-31. 41. Pina and Barros in Hair, Founding of the Castelo, pp. 22-3, 100-101, 104-5; Pina in Newitt, ed., Portuguese in West Africa, pp. 93-4; Vogt, Portuguese Rule, p. 25. 42. Vogt, Portuguese Rule, pp. 26-31; C. DeCorse, An Archeology of Elmina: Africans and Europeans on the Gold Coast, 1400-1900 (Washington DC, 2001), pp. 47-9; Blake, West Africa, p. 99. 43. DeCorse, Archeology of Elmina, pp. 49-51. 44. Vogt, Portuguese Rule, pp. 34-5, 38-9. 45. DeCorse, Archeology of Elmina, p. 51; Blake, West Africa, p. 100. 46. Letter of King Joäo III of 1523 in Newitt, ed., Portuguese in West Africa, pp. 96-7, doc. 23. 47.

H. Thomas, The Slave Trade: a History of the Atlantic Slave Trade 1 440-1 870 (London, 1997), p. 73. 48. Vogt, Portuguese Rule, p. 57. 49. Ibid., p. 209. 50. Escudier, ed., Voyage d’Eustache Delafosse, pp. 30-31; E. Axelson, Congo to Cape: Early Portuguese Explorers (London, 1973), pp. 39, 41; D. Peres, A History of the Portuguese Discoveries (Lisbon, 1960), p. 59. 51. Cited by Axelson, Congo to Cape, p. 42. 52. C. Marinescu, La Politique orientale dAlfonse Vd’Aragon roi de Naples (1416- 1458) (Barcelona, 1994), pp. 13-28. 53. Axelson, Congo to Cape,pp. 45-6, 50-51. 54. Ibid., p. 61; Peres, History of the Portuguese Discover­ies, pp. 60-61. 55. J. Manuel Garcia, Breve historia dos descobrimentos e expansao de Portugal (Lisbon, 1999), p. 50. 56. Axelson, Congo to Cape, pp. 63-4; Peres, History of the

Portuguese Discoveries, pp. 63-4. 57. Axelson, Congo to Cape, pp. 69-76. 58. Peres, History of the Portuguese Discoveries, p. 69. 59. Ibid., pp. 69-70. 60. Axelson, Congo to Cape, pp. 115-44, also plate vii opposite p. 113. 61. Ibid., p. 179.

PART FOUR

OCEANS IN CONVERSATION

28. The Great Acceleration

i. On Columbus: F. Fernandez-Armesto, Columbus (Oxford, 1991); W. D. Phillips and C. Phillips, The Worlds of Christopher Columbus (Cambridge, 1992); E. Taviani, Christopher Columbus (London, 1985); S. E. Morison, Admiral of the Ocean Sea (new edn, New York, 1992); V. Flint, The Imaginative Landscape of Christopher Columbus (Princeton, 1992). 2. On Cabot: J. Williamson, ed., The Cabot Voyages and Bristol Discovery under Henry VII (Cambridge, 1962); J. Williamson, The Voyages of John and Sebastian Cabot (London, 1937); P. Pope, The Many Landfalls of John Cabot (Toronto, 1997); E. Jones, ‘Alwyn Ruddock: “John Cabot and the Discovery of America” ', Historical Research, vol. 81 (2008), pp. 224- 54; E. Jones and M. Condon, Cabot and Bristol’s Age of Discovery: the Bristol Discovery Voyages 1480-1508 (Bristol, 2016). 3. On Vespucci: L. Formisano, ed., Letters from a New World: Amerigo Vespucci’s Discovery of America (New York, 1992); F. Fernandez-Armesto, Amerigo: the Man Who Gave His Name to America (London, 2006). 4. The World Encompassed by Sir Francis Drake, being his Next Voyage to that to Nombre de Dios formerly imprinted, Carefully collected out of the notes of Master Francis Fletcher (London, 1628); this phrase is taken as the title of Geoffrey Scammell, The World Encompassed: the First European Maritime Empires, c. 800-1650 (London, 1981); H. Kelsey, Juan Rodriguez Cabrillo (2nd edn, San Marino, Calif.,1998). 5. W. Keegan and C. Hofman, The Caribbean before Columbus (Oxford and New York, 2017), p. 23. 6. D. Abulafia, The Discovery of Mankind: Atlantic Encounters in the Age of Columbus (New Haven, 2008), pp. 115-30. 7. Keegan and Hofman, Caribbean before Columbus, pp. 11-15; P. Siegel, ‘Caribbean Archaeology in Historical Perspective', pp. 21-46, and other articles in W. Keegan, C. Hofman and R. Rodriguez Ramos, The Oxford Handbook of Caribbean Archaeology (Oxford and New York, 2013); J. Granberry and G. Vescelius, Languages of the pre-Columbian Antilles (Tuscaloosa, 2004); F. Moya Pons and

R. Flores Paz, eds, Los Tainos en 1492: el debate demografico (Santo Domingo, 2013); I. Rouse, The Tainos: Rise and Decline of the People Who Greeted Columbus (New Haven, 1992). 8.

S. Wilson, The Archaeology of the Caribbean (Cambridge, 2007), pp. 95-136. 9. Abulafia, Discovery of Mankind, p. 140; Ramon Pane, An Account of the Antiquities of the Indians, ed. J. J. Arrom and transl. S. Griswold (Durham, NC, 1999), ch. 10. 10. Abulafia, Discovery of Mankind, p. 181. 11. W. Keegan, The People Who Discovered Columbus (Gainesville, 1992), pp. 49-51; also Abulafia, Discovery of Mankind, p. 146. 12. Wilson, Archaeology of the Caribbean, pp. 137-54. 13. Abulafia, Discovery of Mankind, pp. 175-6. 14. Williamson, ed., Cabot Voyages, pp. 208-9, no. 23; Abulafia, Discovery of Mankind, p. 219. 15. Abulafia, Discovery of Mankind, p. 199. 16. D. C. West and A. Kling, eds., The Libro de las profecias of Christopher Columbus (Gainesville, 1991). 17. Abulafia, Discovery of Mankind, p. 13. 18. Fernandez-Armesto, Columbus, pp. 17-20. 19. Flint, Imaginative Landscape, p. 40, plate 12. 20. Henry Yule and Henri Cordier, transl. and eds., The Travels of Marco Polo: the Com­plete Yule-Cordier Edition (3 vols. bound as 2, New York, 1993), vol. 2, p. 253. 21. Ibid., pp. 253-5. 22. Focus Behaim- Globus (2 vols., Nuremberg, 1992); Fernandez-Armesto, Columbus, p. xxi; Phillips and Phillips, Worlds of Christopher Columbus, pp. 79-80. 23. Fernandez- Armesto, Columbus, p. 1. 24. Jones and Condon, Cabot and Bristol’s Age of Discovery, p. 21. 25. Fernandez-Armesto, Columbus, p. 17. 26. C. Varela, Colombo e i Fiorentini (Florence, 1991), pp. 55-60. 27. F. Bruscoli, ‘John Cabot and His Italian Financiers', Historical Research, vol. 85 (2012), pp. 372-93; and Jones and Condon, Cabot and Bristol’s Age of Discovery, pp. 33-4, both published as part of a wider ‘John Cabot Project' at the University of Bristol. 28. Varela, Colombo e i Fiorentini, pp. 44-100 (pp. 75-81 for Vespucci and Columbus). 29. Abulafia, Discovery of Mankind, p. 28. 30. Ibid., pp. 105-7. 31. Fernandez- Armesto, Columbus, p. 97. 32. Ibid., pp. 72-94. 33. Abulafia, Discovery of Mankind, p. 238. 34. Fernandez-Armesto, Columbus, pp. 102-14. 35. Abulafia, Discovery of Mankind, pp. 216-17. 36. Fernandez-Armesto, Columbus, pp. 124-51. 37. E. Mira Caballos, La gran armada colonizadora de Nicolas de Ovando, 1501-1502 (Santo Domingo, 2014). 38. C. Jant, ed., The Four Voyages of Columbus (2 vols., London, 1929-32), vol.2, pp. 90-93. 39. Fernandez-Armesto, Columbus, pp. 161-83. 40. Abulafia, Discovery of Mankind, p. 112. 41. C. Varela, La caida de Cristobal Colon: el juicio de Bobadilla (Madrid, 2006); Pane, Account of the Antiquities of the Indians. 42. C. Rogers, ‘Christopher Who?', History Today, vol. 67 (August 2017), pp. 38-49; Keegan and Hofman, Caribbean before Columbus, pp. 8, 14. 43. Abulafia, Discovery of Mankind,pp. 190-92. 44. Ibid., pp. 13, 179. 45. E. Jones, ‘The Mat­thew of Bristol and the Financiers of John Cabot's 1497 Voyage to North America', English Historical Review, vol. 121 (2006), pp. 778-95; Williamson, ed., Cabot Voyages, p. 206, nos. 19-20; A. Williams, John Cabot and Newfoundland (St John's, Nfdl., 1996); J. Butman and S. Targett, New World, Inc.: How England’s Merchants Founded America and Launched the British Empire (London, 2018), pp. 25-7. 46. Jones, Alwyn Ruddock', pp. 230-31. 47. Ibid., pp. 224-6, 253-4. 48. N. Wey Gomez, The Tropics of Empire: Why Columbus Sailed South to the Indies (Cambridge, Mass., 2008). 49. Williamson, ed., Cabot Voyages, p. 210, no. 24; Williamson, ibid., p. 41; Jones, ‘Alwyn Ruddock', p. 230. 50. Bruscoli, ‘John Cabot and His Italian Financiers'; Jones, ‘Alwyn Ruddock', pp. 231-2, 235-6. 51. Williamson, ed., Cabot Voyages, pp. 204-5, no. 18. 52. Jones and Condon, Cabot and Bristol’s Age of Discovery, pp. 39-48. 53. Williamson, ed., Cabot Voyages, pp. 208-9, no. 23; Jones and Condon, Cabot and Bristol’s Age of Discovery, p. 18. 54. Williamson, ed., Cabot Voyages, p. 213, no. 25. 55. Jones and Condon, Cabot and Bristol’s Age of Discovery, pp. 49-56. 56. Williamson, ed., Cabot Voyages, p. 220, no. 31 (i); cf. Williamson, Voyages of John and Sebastian Cabot, p. 15. 57. Williamson, ed., Cabot Voyages, p. 207, no. 21. 58. Ibid., p. 233, no. 40; also Wil­liamson, ibid., pp. 109-11; Jones, ‘Alwyn Ruddock', pp. 244-5. 59. Williamson, ed., Cabot Voyages, p. 202, no. 15; also Williamson, ibid., pp. 26-9. 60. S. E. Morison, Portuguese Voyages to America in the Fifteenth Century (Cambridge, Mass., 1940), pp. 51-68. 61. Ibid., pp. 68-72. 62. Ibid., p. 52; cf. Williamson, Voyages of John and Sebastian Cabot, pp. 14-15; Williamson in Cabot Voyages, pp. 132-9. 63. For dubious claims to Danish support, see S. Larsen, Dinamarca e Portugal no seculo XV (Lisbon, 1983).

29. Other Routes to the Indies

1. C. R. Boxer, The Portuguese Seaborne Empire 1415-1825 (London, 1991), pp. 35-7.

2. M. Kriegel and S. Subrahmanyam, ‘The Unity of Opposites: Abraham Zacut, Vasco da Gama and the Chronicler Gaspar Correia', in A. Disney and E. Booth, eds., Vasco da Gama and the Linking of Europe and Asia (New Delhi, 2000), pp. 48-71. 3. D. Abulafia, The Discovery of Mankind: Atlantic Encounters in the Age of Columbus (New Haven, 2008), pp. 24-30. 4. C. Verlinden, The Beginnings of Modern Colonization (Ithaca, NY, 1970), pp. 181-95; S. E. Morison, Portuguese Voyages to America in the Fifteenth Century (Cambridge, Mass., 1940), pp. 44-50. 5. S. Subrahmanyam, The Career and Legend of Vasco da Gama (Cambridge, 2007), pp. 54-7. 6. Popular accounts: R. Watkins, Unknown Seas: How Vasco da Gama Opened the East (London, 2003); N. Cliff, The Last Crusade: the Epic Voyages of Vasco da Gama (London, 2012); best of all, R. Crowley, Conquerors: How Portugal Seized the Indian Ocean and Forged the First Global Empire (London, 2015). 7. L. Adäo da Fonseca, Vasco da Gama: o Homem, a Viagem, a Epoca (Lisbon, 1998),pp. 9-80; G. Ames, Vasco da Gama: Renaissance Crusader (New York, 2005), pp. 17-21. 8. E. Ravenstein, ed., A Journal of the First Voyage of Vasco da Gama 1497- 1499 (new edn with introduction by J. M. Garcia, New Delhi and Madras, 1998), pp. 6-7. 9. Ibid., pp. 11, 13. 10. Ibid., pp. 17-20. 11. Ibid., p. 23. 12. Ibid., 13. Ibid., p. 36. 14. Fonseca, Vasco da Gama, pp. 149-52. 15. Ravenstein, ed., Journal of the First Voyage, pp. 48, 53-5; Fonseca, Vasco da Gama, pp. 142-3. 16. Ravenstein, ed., Journal of the First Voyage, pp. 52 n. 3, 53 illustration, 53-4 n. 2, 54 n. 2. 17. Ibid., p. 36 n. 1. 18. ‘Letter of Pedro Vaz de Caminha to King Manuel, 1 May 1500’, in W. Greenlee, ed., The Voyage of Pedro Alvares Cabral to Brazil and India from Contemporary Documents and Narratives (London, 1938); Morison, Portuguese Voyages to America, pp. 119-42. 19. Greenlee, ed., Voyage of Pedro Alvares Cabral, pp. lxvii-lxix; Crowley, Con­querors, pp. 101-17. 20. ‘Letter of Amerigo Vespucci to Lorenzo de’ Medici’, in Greenlee, ed., Voyage of Pedro Alvares Cabral, pp. 153-61. 21. Crowley, Conquerors, pp. 113-14; Subrahmanyam, Career and Legend, pp. 182-4; Ames, Vasco da Gama, pp. 84-5. 22. Sub- rahmanyam, Career and Legend, pp. 201-2, 206-10; Ames, Vasco da Gama, pp. 86, 89­90. 23. Ames, Vasco da Gama, pp. 93-4. 24. Subrahmanyam, Career and Legend, pp. 221-5; Ames, Vasco da Gama, pp. 93-100. 25. Subrahmanyam, Career and Legend, pp. 229-31. 26. D. Mearns, D. Parham and B. Frohlich, ‘A Portuguese East Indiaman from the 1502-1503 Fleet of Vasco da Gama off Al Hallaniyah Island, Oman: an Interim Report’, Inter­national Journal of Nautical Archaeology, vol. 45 (2016), pp. 331-51. 27. Girolamo Priuli cited by Crowley, Conquerors, p. 116. 28. ‘The Diary of Girolamo Priuli’, in Greenlee, ed., Voyage of Pedro Alvares Cabral, p. 136; also p. 134. 29. See also ‘Letters sent by Bartolomeo Marchioni to Florence’, in Greenlee, ed., Voyage of Pedro Alvares Cabral, p. 149. 30. K. O’Rourke and J. Williamson, Did Vasco da Gama Matter for European Markets? Testing Frederick Lane’s Hypothesis Fifty Years Later (IIIS Discussion Paper no. 118, Dublin, 2006); E. Ashtor, ‘La Decouverte de la voie maritime aux Indes et le prix des epices’, Melanges en l’honneur de Fernand Braudel, vol. 1: Histoire economique du monde Mediterraneen (Tou­louse, 1973), pp. 31-48; F. C. Lane, ‘Pepper Prices before da Gama’, Journal of Economic History, vol. 28 (1968), pp. 590-97. 31. ‘Letters sent by Bartolomeo Marchioni to Florence’, in Greenlee, ed., Voyage of Pedro Alvares Cabral, pp. 147-9; F. Guidi Bruscoli, Bartolomeo Marchionni ‘Homem de grossa fazenda’ (ca. 1450-1530) (Florence, 2014), pp. 135-86;

K. Lowe, ‘Understanding Cultural Exchange between Portugal and Italy in the Renaissance’, in K. Lowe, ed., Cultural Links between Portugal and Italy in the Renaissance (Oxford, 2000), pp. 8-9; M. Spallanzani, Mercanti fiorentini nellAsia portoghese (Florence, 1997), pp. 47­51. 32. Armando Cortesäo, transl. and ed., The Suma Oriental of Tome Pires (London, 1944), vol. 2, p. 268; M. Pearson, ‘The East African Coast in 1498’, in Disney and Booth, eds., Vasco da Gama, pp. 116-30; M. Pearson, Port Cities and Intruders: the Swahili Coast, India, and Portugal in the Early Modern Era (Baltimore, 1998), pp. 40-43. 33. Pearson, Port Cities and Intruders, pp. 131-4. 34. E. Axelson, Portuguese in South-East Africa 1488-1600 (Cape Town, 1973), p. 35; E. Axelson, South-East Africa 1488-1530 (London, 1940), p. 59. 35. S. Welch, South Africa under King Manuel 1495- 1521 (Cape Town and Johannesburg, 1946), p. 133. 36. Axelson, South-East Africa, p. 61. 37. Ibid., pp. 64-73; Welch, South Africa under King Manuel, pp. 138-41; Crowley, Conquerors, pp. 164-6. 38. Axelson, South-East Africa, pp. 73-8; quotation from Crowley, Conquerors, p. 170. 39. Axelson, South-East Africa, pp. 79-87, 110 n. 2, 112, 118-20; Axelson, Portuguese in South-East Africa, pp. 38-52. 40. Axelson, South-East Africa, pp. 98-107.

30. To the Antipodes

i. Thomas More, Utopia, ed. G. Logan and R. Adams (Cambridge, 1989), p. 10. 2.

L. Formisano, ed., Letters from a New World: Amerigo Vespucci’s Discovery of America (New York, 1992), app. E, p. 128. 3. F. Fernandez-Armesto, Amerigo: the Man Who Gave His Name to America (London, 2006). 4. [Vespucci], Letters from a New World, app. E, p. 151. 5. Ibid., ep. VI, p. 67; Lettera di Amerigo Vespucci delle isole nouamente trouate in quattro suoi viaggi (Florence, 1505), f. 5V. 6. [Vespucci], Letters from a New World, ep. VI, p. 68; Lettera di Amerigo Vespucci, f. 5 V. 7. [Vespucci], Letters from a New World,

ep. VI, p. 69; Lettera di Amerigo Vespucci, f. 6r. 8. [Vespucci], Letters from a New World,

ep. VI, p. 69; Lettera di Amerigo Vespucci, f. 6r. 9. [Vespucci], Letters from a New World,

ep. VI, p. 71; Lettera di Amerigo Vespucci, f. 7r. 10. Cf. [Vespucci], Letters from a New World, ep. I, p. ii. 11. Ibid., ep. V, p. 47. 12. Ibid., p. 45. 13. D. Abulafia, The Discovery of Mankind: Atlantic Encounters in the Age of Columbus (New Haven, 2008), pp. 287-92; D. MacCulloch, A History of Christianity (London, 2009), p. 783. 14. G. Eatough, ed., Selections from Peter Martyr (Turnhout, 1998), section 1:9:8. 15. W. Phillips, ed., Testimonies from the Columbian Lawsuits (Turnhout, 2000), section 13:4. 16. L. Vigneras, The Discovery of South America and the Andalusian Voyages (Chicago, 1976), p. 124. 17. Ibid., pp. 103­

4. 18. R. Fuson, Juan Ponce de Leon and the Spanish Discovery of Puerto Rico and Florida (Blacksburg, Va., 2000); D. Peck, Ponce de Leon and the Discovery of Florida: the Man, the Myth and the Truth (Florida, 1995). 19. J. Milanich, Florida’s Indians from Ancient Times to the Present (Gainesville, 1998); J. Milanich, Florida Indians and the Invasion from Europe (Gainesville, 1995). 20. D. Keith, J. Duff, S. James, et al., ‘The Molasses Reef Wreck, Turks and Caicos Islands, B.W.I.: a Preliminary Report', International Journal of Nautical Archae­ology and Underwater Exploration, vol. 13 (1984), pp. 45-63; D. Keith, ‘The Molasses Reef Wreck', in Heritage at Risk, Special Edition - Underwater Cultural Heritage at Risk: Managing Natural and Human Impacts, ed. R. Grenier, D. Nutley and I. Cochran (International Council on Monuments and Sites, Paris, April 2006), pp. 82-4. 21. P. Chaunu, Seville et l’Amerique aux XVIe et XVIIe siècles (Paris, 1977), pp. 75-6. 22. T. Floyd, The Columbus Dynasty in the Caribbean 1492-1526 (Albuquerque, 1973). 23. A. Devereux, Juan Ponce de Leon, King Ferdinand and the Fountain of Youth (Spartanburg, 1993). 24. T. Lester, The Fourth Part of the World: the Epic Story of History’s Greatest Map (London, 2009). 25. ‘Mundus Novus', ‘Terra Sanctae Crucis', ‘Terra de Brazil', plus ‘America Noviter Reperta': collection of the Jagiel- lonian University, Krakow; cf. the claims of S. Missinne, The Da Vinci Globe (Newcastle upon Tyne, 2018). 26. J. Williamson, The Voyages of John and Sebastian Cabot (London, 1937), pp. 17-18. 27. For highly sceptical views of the Gonneville narrative see J. L. de Pontharouart, Paulmier de Gonneville: son voyage imaginaire (Beauval-en-Caux, 2000), and the Australian Journal of French Studies, vol. 50 (2013), special issue edited by M. Sankey: M. Sankey, ‘The Abbe Jean Paulmier and French Missions in the Terres Australes’, pp. 3-15; J. Truchot, ‘Dans le miroir d'un cacique normand', pp. 16-34; J. Leblond, ‘L'Abbe Paulmier descendant d'un etranger des Terres australes?’, pp. 35-49; J. Letrouit, ‘Paulmier faussaire', pp. 50-74; W. Jen­nings, ‘Gonneville's Terra Australis: Too Good to be True?', pp. 75-86; M. Sankey, ‘L'Abbe Paulmier and the Rights of Man', pp. 87-99. 28. Paulmier de Gonneville, Relation authen- tique du voyage du Capitaine de Gonneville ès nouvelles terres des Indes, ed. M. d'Avezac (Paris, 1869), pp. 88-91; other editions: L. Perrone-Moises, ed., Vinte Luas: viagem de Paulmier de Gonneville ao Brasil : 1503-1505 (Säo Paulo, 1992); Le Voyage de Gonne-ville (1501- 1505) et la decouverte de la Normandie par les Indiens du Bresil (Paris, 1995); I. Mendes dos Santos, La Decouverte du Bresil (Paris, 2000), pp. 121-42. 29. Gonneville, Relation authentique, p. 88. 30. B. Diffie and G. Winius, Europe and the World in an Age of Expansion, vol. 1: Foundations of the Portuguese Empire 1415- 1580 (Minneapolis, 1977), p. 449. 31. M. Mollat, Le Commerce maritime normand à la fin du Moyen Age: Etude d’histoire economique et sociale (Paris, 1952). 32. P. Whitfield, The Charting of the Oceans: Ten Centuries of Maritime Maps (London, 1996), pp. 54-8. 33. Gonneville, Relationauthentique,pp. 93,95. 34. Ibid., pp. 99-102. 35. Ibid., pp. 105-6, 109. 36. Dos Santos, Decouverte du Bresil, p. 28. 37. Ibid., pp. 147-8. 38. Ibid., p. 29. 39. Ibid., pp. 143-59. 40. Mollat, Commerce maritime normand, pp. 120-21, 195, 215-21. 41. H. Touchard, Le Commerce maritime breton à la fin du Moyen Age (Paris, 1967), pp. 288-9;L.Wroth, The Voyages of Giovanni da Verrazzano (New Haven, 1970), pp. 8-9, 25-7. 42. Mollat, Commerce maritime normand, pp. 498-507. 43. Ibid., p. 501; Wroth, Voyages of Giovanni da Verrazzano, pp. 10-11, 57­64. 44. Cited by G. Masini and I. Gori, How Florence Invented America: Vespucci, Verrazzano, and Mazzei and Their Contribution to the Conception of the New World (New York, 1998), p. 101. 45. Wroth, Voyages of Giovanni da Verrazzano,pp. 14-16, 28-9. 46.

M. Mollat du Jourdin and J. Habert, Giovanni et Girolamo Verrazano, navigateurs de Francois I^er: Dossiers de voyages (Paris, 1982), pp. ix-x, 53, 66-7, 99. 47. H. Murphy, The Voyage of Verrazzano: a Chapter in the Early History of Maritime Discovery in America (New York, 1875). 48. Wroth, Voyages of Giovanni da Verrazzano, p. 228. 49. Ibid., pp. 255-62; Mollat du Jourdin and Habert, Giovanni et Girolamo Verrazano, pp. 117, 122-3.

31. The Binding of the Oceans

1. John Keats, ‘On First Looking into Chapman's Homer'. 2. D. Abulafia, The Discovery of Mankind: Atlantic Encounters in the Age of Columbus (New Haven, 2008), pp. 302-5.

3. G. Williams, ed., The Quest for the Northwest Passage (London, 2007); H. Dalton, Merchants and Explorers: Roger Barlow, Sebastian Cabot, and Networks of Atlantic Exchange 1500-1560 (Oxford, 2016). 4. J. Evans, Merchant Adventurers: the Voyage of Discovery That Transformed Tudor England (London, 2013). 5. R. Silverberg, The Longest Voyage: Circumnavigators in the Age of Discovery (Athens, Oh., 1972), pp. 98-9; H. Kelsey, The First Circumnavigators: Unsung Heroes of the Age of Discovery (New Haven, 2016). 6.

T. Joyner, Magellan (Camden, Me., 1992), pp. 38-49. 7. A. Pigafetta, Magellan’s Voyage: a Narrative Account of the First Circumnavigation, ed. and transl. R. Skelton (2 vols., New Haven, 1994), vol. 1, p. 116; Joyner, Magellan, pp. 48-51; S. E. Morison, The Great Explor­ers: the European Discovery of America (New York, 1976), p. 553; M. Mitchell, Elcano: the First Circumnavigator (London, 1958), p. 69. 8. G. Badger, ed., and J. Winter Jones, transl., The Travels of Ludovico di Varthema in Egypt, Syria, Arabia Deserta and Arabia Felix, in Persia, India, and Ethiopia, a.d. 1503 to 1508 (London, 1863), pp. lxxvii, xcii-iii, 245-6;Joyner, Magellan,pp. 311-12n. 50. 9. M. Camino, Exploring the Explorers: Span­iards in Oceania, 1519-1794 (Manchester, 2008), pp. 23-4. 10. M. Meilink-Roelofsz, Asian Trade and European Influence in the Indonesian Archipelago between 1500 and about 1630 (The Hague, 1962), pp. 123-35. 11. Note the misleading title of L. Bergreen, Over the Edge of the World: Magellan’s Terrifying Circumnavigation of the Globe (London, 2003). 12. Morison, Great Explorers, p. 553; Kelsey, First Circumnavigators, pp. 25-7. 13. Silverberg, Longest Voyage, pp. 97, 116-17; Mitchell, Elcano, pp. 41-2. 14. Mitchell, Elcano, p. 51. 15. A. Pigafetta, The First Voyage around the World, 1519- 1522: an Account of Magel­lan’s Expedition, ed. T. Cachey (Toronto, 2007); Pigafetta, Magellan’s Voyage, vol. 1, based on the French version in the Beinecke Library, Yale University, reproduced in facsimile in vol. 2; Magellan's logbook, an account by Genoese pilot and other sources in The First Voy­age round the World by Magellan translated from the Account of Pigafetta and Other Contemporary Letters, ed. Lord Stanley of Alderley (London, 1874). 16. Mitchell, Elcano, pp. 54-7. 17. Pigafetta, Magellan’s Voyage, vol. 1, pp. 46-50. 18. Morison, Great Explor­ers, pp. 599-600, with drawing of Schoner's western hemisphere. 19. M. Estensen, Dis­covery: The Quest for the Great South Land (London, 1999), pp. 8-9; N. Crane, Mercator: the Man Who Mapped the Planet (London, 2002), pp. 97-100; A. Taylor, The World of Gerard Mercator: the Mapmaker Who Revolutionized Geography (New York, 2004), pp. 88-90. 20. Pigafetta, Magellan’s Voyage, vol. 1, pp. 51-2, 57, 155. 21. Ibid., pp. 57, 60, 148. 22. Bergreen, Over the Edge of the World,pp.211-14,374-5,381. 23. Pigafetta, Magellan’s Voyage, vol. 1, pp. 60-62. 24. Ibid., pp. 67-9. 25. For example, ibid., pp. 95, 101, 103 (source of quotation). 26. Ibid., p. 75. 27. Ibid., pp. 79-84. 28. Ibid., pp. 87-9; Joyner, Magellan, pp. 191-6; Camino, Exploring the Explorers, p. 25. 29. Pigafetta, Magel­lan’s Voyage, vol. 1, p. 100; Mitchell, Elcano, p. 65. 30. Pigafetta, Magellan’s Voyage, vol. 1, pp. 113, 116. 31. Ibid., pp. 119-20, 169; Joyner, Magellan, pp. 214-15. 32. ‘Genoese Pilot's Account', in Pigafetta, First Voyage round the World, pp. 26-9; Morison, Great Explorers, pp. 660-62; Camino, Exploring the Explorers, p. 27. 33. Letter of Elcano to Charles V, 6 September 1522, in Mitchell, Elcano, pp. 87-9; Pigafetta, Magellan’s Voyage, vol. 1,pp. 146-7; Morison, Great Explorers,pp. 664-8. 34. Letter of Charles V, 31 Octo­ber 1522, cited in Mitchell, Elcano, p. 106. 35. Mitchell, Elcano, p. 105. 36. Silverberg, Longest Voyage, pp. 229-30. 37. Mitchell, Elcano, p. 115. 38. A. Giraldez, The Age of Trade: the Manila Galleons and the Dawn of the Global Economy (Lanham, 2015), p. 49. 39. Ibid., pp. 49-50; D. Brand, ‘Geographical Exploration by the Spaniards', in D. Flynn, A. Giraldez and J. Sobredo, eds., The Pacific World: Lands, Peoples and History of the Pacific, vol. 4: European Entry into the Pacific (Aldershot, 2001), p. 17 (original edi­tion: H. Friis, ed., The Pacific Basin: a History of Its Geographical Exploration (New York, 1967), p. 121); Camino, Exploring the Explorers, pp. 28-9; M. Mitchell, Friar Andres de

Urdaneta, O.S.A. (London, 1964). 40. H. Kelsey, Juan Rodriguez Cabrillo (2nd edn, San Marino, Calif., 1998), pp. 65-78; An Account of the Voyage of Juan Rodriguez Cabrillo (San Diego, 1999), pp. 18-19. 41. Brand, ‘Geographical Exploration', p. 25 (original edition: p. 129); Account of the Voyage of Juan Rodriguez Cabrillo, pp. 23, 29, 32; Kelsey, Juan Rodriguez Cabrillo, pp. 125-6; N. Lemke, Cabrillo: First European Explorer of the Cali­fornia Coast (San Luis Obispo, 1991); L. Gamble, The Chumash World at European Con­tact: Power, Trade, and Feasting among Complex Hunter-Gatherers (Berkeley and Los Angeles, 2008), pp. 38-9.

32. A New Atlantic

i. D. Abulafia, The Discovery of Mankind: Atlantic Encounters in the Age of Columbus (New Haven, 2008), pp. 201-12; P. Chaunu, Seville et l’Amerique aux XVIe et XVIIe siecles (Paris, 1977), pp. 80-86. 2. ‘ADN dominicano: 49 per cent de origen africano', in the Dominican newspaper Diario Libre, 6 July 2016, p. 4, reporting research under the auspices of the Academia Dominicana de la Historia. 3. R. Pike, ‘Sevillian Society in the Sixteenth Century: Slaves and Freedmen', Hispanic American Historical Review, vol. 47 (1967), pp. 344-59, partly reprinted as ‘Slavery in Seville at the Time of Columbus', in H. B. Johnson, ed., From Reconquest to Empire: the Iberian Background to Latin American History (New York, 1970), pp. 85-101. 4. M. L. Stig Sorensen, C. Evans and K. Richter, ‘A Place of History: Archaeology and Heritage at Cidade Velha, Cape Verde', in P. Lane and K. McDonald, eds., Slavery in Africa: Archaeology and Memory (Proceedings of the British Academy, vol. 168, 2011), pp. 422-5; A. Carreira, Cabo Verde: Formagao e Extingao de uma Sociaedade escarvorata (1460-1878) (3rd edn, Praia de Santiago, 2000); T. Hall, ed. and transl., Before Middle Passage: Translated Portuguese Manuscripts of Atlantic Slave Trading From West Africa to Iberian Territories, 1513-26 (Farnham, 2015). 5. K. Deagan and J. M. Cruxent, Archaeology at La Isabela: America’s First European Town (New Haven, 2002); K. Deagan and J. M. Cruxent, Columbus’s Outpost among the Tainos: Spain and America at La Isab­ela, 1493-1498 (New Haven, 2002); V. Flores Sasso and E. Prieto Vicioso, ‘Aportes a la historia de La Isabela: Primera ciudad europea en el Nuevo Mundo', Centro de Altos Estudios Humanisticos y del Idioma Espanol adscrito a la Universidad Nacional Pedro Henriquez Urena, Anuario, vol. 6 (2012-13), pp. 411-35. 6. Deagan and Cruxent, Columbus’s Out-post, pp. 53, 57,96-7, 180-81; Abulafia, Discovery of Mankind, pp. 202-3. 7. Deagan and Crux­ent, Columbus’s Outpost, pp. 146, 191-2. 8. Ibid., pp. 194-8. 9. T. Floyd, The Columbus Dynasty in the Caribbean 1492-1526 (Albuquerque, 1973), p. 55. 10. E. Mira Caballos, La gran armada colonizadora de Nicolas de Ovando, 1501-1502 (Santo Domingo, 2014); E. Perez Months, E. Prieto Vicioso and J. Chez Checo, eds., Basilica catedral de Santo Domingo (Santo Domingo, 2011). 11. Chaunu, Seville et l’Amerique, pp. 87-8. 12. Abulafia, Discovery of Mankind, p. 156. 13. R. Pike, Enterprise and Adventure: the Genoese in Seville and the Opening of the New World (Ithaca, NY, 1966), pp. 52-9; Floyd, Columbus Dynasty, pp. 67-8. 14. G. Rodriguez Morel, ‘The Sugar Economy of Espanola in the Sixteenth Century', in S. Schwartz, ed., Tropical Babylons: Sugar and the Making of the Atlantic World, 1450­1680 (Chapel Hill, 2004), pp. 85-6; Pike, Enter-prise and Adventure, pp. 128-33. 15. M. Ratekin, ‘The Early Sugar Industry in Espanola', Hispanic American Historical Review, vol. 34 (1954),pp. 3-7. 16. Ibid., pp. 6, 9-11; Rodriguez Morel, ‘Sugar Economy of Espanola', pp. 90-93, 105-6. 17. Ratekin, ‘Early Sugar Industry', p. 13; Rodriguez Morel, ‘Sugar Economy of Espanola', pp. 103-4; Chaunu, Seville et l’Amerique, pp. 88-9. 18. J. Friede, Los Welser en la conquista de Venezuela (Caracas and Madrid, 1961), p. 91. 19. Friede, Los Welser, pp. 91, 580 n. 16. 20. J. Denzer, ‘Die Welser in Venezuela - das Scheiten ihrer wirtschaftlichen Ziele', in M. Häberlein and J. Burkhardt, Die Welser: neue Forschungen zur Geschichte und Kultur des oberdeutschen Handelshauses (Berlin, 2002), pp. 290, 308, 313. 21. J. del Rio Moreno, Los Inicios de la Agricultura europea en el Nuevo Mundo, 1492- 1542 (2nd edn, Santo Domingo, 2012); J. del Rio Moreno, Ganaderia, plantaciones y comercio azucarero antillano: siglos XVI y XVII (Santo Domingo, 2012); Pike, Enter-prise and Adventure, p. 133. 22. Chaunu, Seville et lAmerique, pp. 90-91. 23. Excellent maps displaying the volume of trade in Chaunu, Seville et lAmerique, pp. 301-9. 24. Cited by A. de la Fuente, Havana and the Atlantic in the Sixteenth Century (Chapel Hill, 2008), pp. 67-8. 25. Chaunu, Seville et l’Amerique, p. 100. 26. Abulafia, Discovery of Mankind, pp. 209-302; H. Thomas, Rivers of Gold: the Rise of the Spanish Empire (London, 2003), p. 282; A. de la Fuente, ‘Sugar and Slavery', S. Schwartz, ed., in Tropical Babylons: Sugar and the Making of the Atlantic World, 1450-1680 (Chapel Hill, 2004), pp. 117-19. 27. Chaunu, Seville et l’Amerique, p. 99. 28. De la Fuente, Havana, pp. 1-5;J. S. Dean, Tropics Bound: Elizabeth’s Seadogs on the Spanish Main (Stroud, 2010). 29. Table 2:2, showing imports and exports, 1587-1610, in de la Fuente, Havana, p. 15; Canary wine: ibid., pp. 22, 90-92; Chinese goods: ibid., pp. 44-5; shipbuilding: ibid., pp. 127-34. 30. Ibid., pp. 94, 96, 98, 159, 186, 200, 223-4; Chaunu, Seville et l’Amerique, p. 102. 31. D. Wheat, Atlantic Africa and the Spanish Caribbean, 1570- 1640 (Chapel Hill and Williamsburg, Va., 2016), pp. 29, 64, 77, 84, 121-3, 209-15.

33. The Struggle for the Indian Ocean

i. P. Brummett, Ottoman Seapower and Levantine Diplomacy in the Age of Discovery (Albany, NY, 1994); S. Ozbaran, Ottoman Expansion toward the Indian Ocean in the 16th Century (Istanbul, 2009); G. Casale, The Ottoman Age of Exploration (New York, 2010). 2. Brummett, Ottoman Seapower, pp. 32-3, 41, 143-70; K. Fleet, European and Islamic Trade in the Early Ottoman State: the Merchants of Genoa and Turkey (Cambridge, 1999). 3. Brummett, Ottoman Seapower, p. 34; K. N. Chaudhuri, Trade and Civilisation in the Indian Ocean: an Economic History from the Rise of Islam to 1750 (Cambridge, 1985), p. 67. 4. Z. Biedermann, Soqotra: Geschichte einer christlichen Insel im Indischen Ozean bis zur frühen Neuzeit (Wiesbaden, 2006), pp. 68-76. 5. Chaudhuri, Trade and Civilisa­tion, p. 69. 6. Ozbaran, Ottoman Expansion, pp. 9, 40-41; W. Floor, The Persian Gulf: a Political and Economic History of Five Port Cities (Washington DC, 2006), pp. 7-24, 30-49, 89-106. 7. Cited in C. R. Boxer, The Portuguese Seaborne Empire 1415-1825 (London, 1991), p. 62; Floor, Persian Gulf, pp. 15-16. 8. Floor, Persian Gulf, pp. 91-3; Manuel I of Portugal, Gesta proxime per Portugalenses in India Ethiopia et alijs Orientali­bus Terris (1507; exemplar in John Carter Brown Library, Brown University). 9. Brummett, Ottoman Seapower, pp. 45, 167; see also Epistola Potentissimi Emanuelis Regis Portugalie et Algarbiorum etc. de Victorijs habitis in India et Malacha ad sancto in Christo Patrem et Dominum nostrum dominum Leonem decimum Pontificem maximum (1513; exemplar in John Carter Brown Library, Brown University). 10. Floor, Persian Gulf, pp. 101-6. 11. Ozbaran, Ottoman Expansion, pp. 53-4, 57. 12. Chaudhuri, Trade and Civilisation, pp. 69, 71. 13. Brummett, Ottoman Seapower, pp. 34-5, 42; R. Crowley, Conquerors: How Portugal Seized the Indian Ocean and Forged the First Global Empire (London, 2015), pp. 202-41. 14. Brummett, Ottoman Seapower, pp. 42-3. 15. Casale, Ottoman Age of Exploration, p. 33; Ozbaran, Ottoman Expansion, pp. 47, 51-2, 70. 16. ‘A letter from Dom Aleixo de Meneses to King Manuel I; the Portuguese expedition to Jiddah in the Red Sea in 1527', in Ozbaran, Ottoman Expansion, app. 1, pp. 325-9. 17. Ozbaran, Ottoman Expansion, pp. 49-50. 18. Ibid., p. 51. 19. Brummett, Ottoman Seapower, pp. 44-5; Crowley, Conquerors, pp. 324-38, citing quotation on p. 337. 20. Ozbaran, Ottoman Expansion, p. 61, engaging with F. Braudel, The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World in the Age of Philip II (2 vols., London, 1972-3), vol. 1, p. 389; S. Ozbaran, The Ottoman Response to European Expansion: Studies on Ottoman-Portuguese Relations in the Indian Ocean and Ottoman Administration in the Arab Lands during the Sixteenth Century (Istanbul, 1994), pp. 89-97. 21. Casale, Ottoman Age of Exploration, pp. 25-6, 31. 22. Ozbaran, Ottoman Expansion, p. 9. 23. Crowley, Conquerors,pp. 203-4,227-39; Casale, Ottoman Age of Exploration, pp. 26-7. 24. Letter cited by Casale, Ottoman Age of Exploration, p. 28. 25. Casale, Ottoman Age of Exploration, pp. 29, 31. 26. David Abulafia, The Great Sea: a Human History of the Mediterranean (London, 2011), pp. 418-23. 27. Casale, Ottoman Age of Exploration, pp. 40-41. 28. ‘The report of Selman Reis written in 1525: the Ottoman guns and ships at the port of Jiddah, the descrip­tion of the Red Sea and adjacent countries together with the Portuguese presence in the Indian Ocean', in Ozbaran, Ottoman Expansion, app. 2, pp. 334-5; cited in Casale, Ottoman Age of Exploration, p. 43; Ozbaran, Ottoman Response, pp. 99-109. 29. P. Risso, Merchants and Faith: Muslim Commerce and Culture in the Indian Ocean (Boulder, 1995), p. 58. 30. Casale, Ottoman Age of Exploration, pp. 41-7,49; Ozbaran, Ottoman Expansion, p. 8. 31.

S. Soucek, Studies in Ottoman Naval History and Maritime Geography (Istanbul, 2008), pp.

79- 82. 32. Casale, Ottoman Age of Exploration, p. 56. 33. Portuguese version of a letter to the Ottoman commander, cited in Casale, Ottoman Age of Exploration, pp. 57, 218 n. 17. 34. Ozbaran, Ottoman Expansion, pp. 83-4; Casale, Ottoman Age of Exploration, pp. 59-63. 35. Chaudhuri, Trade and Civilisation,pp. 7i-3;Ozbaran, Ottoman Expansion, pp.

80- 84; Casale, Ottoman Age of Exploration, p. 76. 36. Boxer, Portuguese Seaborne Empire, pp. 61-2. 37. Ibid., pp. 48-9. 38. M. Meilink-Roelofsz, Asian Trade and European Influ­ence in the Indonesian Archipelago between 1500 and about 1630 (The Hague, 1962), pp. 136-72; also L. F. Thomaz, De Ceuta a Timor (Alges, 1994), pp. 291-9, 513-65; also Armando Cortesäo, transl. and ed., The Suma Oriental of Tome Pires (London, 1944), vol. 2, pp. 229-89. 39. Casale, Ottoman Age of Exploration, pp. 133, 159. 40. ‘Report of Selman Reis', in Ozbaran, Ottoman Expansion, p. 333. 41. S. Soucek, Piri Reis: Turkish Mapmaking after Columbus (2nd edn, Istanbul, 2013); M. Ozen, PiriReis and His Charts (Istanbul, 2006). 42. Soucek, Piri Reis, pp. 47-63. 43. Ibid., pp. 102-11, 114-25, 128­31. 44. G. McIntosh, The Piri Reis Map of 1513 (Athens, Ga., 2000), pp. 5-7; Ozen, Piri Reis, pp. 3-10; Casale, Ottoman Age of Exploration, pp. 98-9; Soucek, Studies in Ottoman Naval History, pp. 57-65. 45. Ozen, PiriReis, pp. 20-22; Soucek, Piri Reis, p. 110. 46. Soucek, Studies in Ottoman Naval History, pp. 35-40, 45, 47. 47. Abulafia, Great Sea, pp. 486-7; Soucek, Piri Reis, p. 78. 48. Soucek, Piri Reis, pp. 30-41. 49. Soucek, Studies in Ottoman Naval History, p. 57; Soucek, Piri Reis, p. 79; McIntosh, Piri Reis Map, pp. 122­40. 50. Casale, Ottoman Age of Exploration, pp. 38-40, and fig. 2:1, p. 38 - not a map recording Magellan's route, as Casale supposes. 51. Cf. Soucek, Piri Reis, p. 65. 52. Plates in Ozen, Piri Reis, pp. 69-70; 1528 map: Soucek, Piri Reis, pp. 96-7, 132; McIntosh, Piri Reis Map, pp. 52-68, makes bizarre claims about information handed down from a higher civil­ization and should be ignored. 53. Soucek, Piri Reis, pp. 68-9. 54. McIntosh, Piri Reis Map, pp. 45-6. 55. Text ibid., pp. 70-71; also in Soucek, Piri Reis, p. 75. 56. Piri Reis, Kitab-i Bahriye [‘Book of Navigation'], cited by Soucek, Studies in Ottoman Naval History, p. 58.

34. The Great Galleons of Manila

i. M. Mitchell, Friar Andres de Urdaneta, O.S.A. (London, 1964), pp. 75, 77. 2. Cited in Mitchell, Friar Andres de Urdaneta, pp. 73-4. 3. M. Mitchell, Elcano: the First Circumnavi­gator (London, 1958), pp. 118, 124, 126-59; R. Silverberg, The Longest Voyage: Circumnaviga­tors in the Age of Discovery (Athens, Oh., 1972), pp. 230-33. 4. R. Canosa, Banchieri genovesi e sovrani spagnoli tra cinquecento e seicento (Rome, 1998), pp. 12-13; R. Carande, Carlos V y sus Banqueros, vol. 3: Los Caminos del Oro y de la Plata (2nd edn, Barcelona, 1987). 5. M. Camino, Exploring the Explorers: Spaniards in Oceania, 1519-1794 (Manchester, 2008), pp. 29-30; Mitchell, Friar Andres de Urdaneta, p. 78. 6. W. Schurz, The Manila Galleon (New York, 1939), p. 21. 7. A. Giraldez, The Age of Trade: the Manila Galleons and the Dawn of the Global Economy (Lanham, 2015), pp. 51-2; Schurz, Manila Galleon, p. 23; Mitchell, Friar Andres de Urdaneta, pp. 80-84; H. Kelsey, The First Circumnavigators: Unsung Heroes of the Age of Discovery (New Haven, 2016), pp. 59-100. 8. E. Hamilton, American Treasure and the Price Revolution in Spain, 1501-1650 (Cambridge, Mass., 1934), pp. 232-3. 9. Mitchell, Friar Andres de Urdaneta, pp. 99-105; Kelsey, First Circumnavigators, pp. 101-27. 10. S. Fish, The Manila-Acapulco Galleons: the Treasure Ships of the Pacific (MiltonKeynes,2011),pp.60-61. 11. Mitchell, Friar Andres de Urdaneta,pp. 117-18. 12. Giraldez, Age of Trade, p. 52; Mitchell, Friar Andres de Urdaneta, pp. 142-4. 13. Giraldez, Age of Trade, pp. 51-8; Schurz, Manila Galleon, p. 25; H. Thomas, World Without End; the Global Empire of Philip II (London, 2014), pp. 241-50. 14. B. Legarda Jr, ‘Two and a Half Centuries of the Galleon Trade', in D. Flynn, A. Giraldez and J. Sobredo, eds., The Pacific World: Lands, Peoples and History of the Pacific, vol. 4: European Entry into the Pacific (Aldershot, 2001), p. 37 (original edition: Philippine Studies, vol. 3 (1955), p. 345); Mitchell, Friar Andres de Urdaneta, p. 135. 15. ‘Annotated List of the Transpacific Galleons 1565-1815', in Fish, Manila-Acapulco Galleons, pp. 492-523; also the figures and tables in P. Chaunu, Les Philippines et le Pacifique des Iberiques, XVIe, XVIIe, XVIIIesiecles (2 vols., Paris, i960 and 1966), vols. i and 2. 16. See now Giraldez, Age of Trade ; also Schurz, Manila Galleon; Flynn, Giraldez and Sobredo, eds., European Entry; Chaunu, Philippines; P. Chaunu, ‘Le Galion de Manille: Grandeur et decadence d'une route de la soie', in Flynn, Giraldez and Sobredo, eds., European Entry, pp. 187- 202 (original edition: Annales: Economies, Societes, Civilisations, vol. 4 (1951), pp. 447-62); Fish, Manila-Acapulco Galleons. 17. Han-sheng Chuan, ‘The Chinese Silk Trade with Spanish-America from the Late Ming to to the mid- Ch'ing Period', in Flynn, Giraldez and Sobredo, eds., European Entry, pp. 241-59 (original edition: L. Thompson, ed., Studia Asiatica: Essays in Asian Studies in Felicitation of the Seventy-Fifth Anniversary of Professor Ch’en Shou-yi (San Francisco, 1975), pp. 99-117). 18. R. von Glahn, The Economic History of China from Antiquity to the Nineteenth Century (Cambridge, 2016), p. 308; T. Brook, The Confusions of Pleasure: Commerce and Culture in Ming China (Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1998), pp. 204-5. ^T9. Giraldez, Age of Trade, p. 57; Thomas, World Without End, p. 251. 20. B. Laufer, ‘The Relations of the Chinese to the Philippine Islands', in Flynn, Giraldez and Sobredo, eds., European Entry, pp. 65-6, 89-91 (original edition: Smithsonian Institution, Miscellaneous Collections, vol. 50, no. 13 (1907), pp. 258-9, 282-4). 21. David Abulafia, The Great Sea: a Human History of the Mediterranean (London, 2011), p. 74. 22. Schurz, Manila Galleon, pp. 23, 27-9, 34­42. 23. F. Carletti, My Voyage around the World, ed. and transl. H. Weinstock (London, 1965), pp. 4-5. 24. Ibid., pp. 69-70. 25. Ibid., pp. 71, 74-6, 78. 26. Ibid., pp. 79­80. 27. Ibid., pp. 82, 89. 28. Ibid., pp. 83-8. 29. Ibid., pp. 96-7. 30. Ibid., pp. 90-91, 100. 31. Map in R. Bertrand, Le Long Remords de la conquete: Manille-Mexico-Madrid, l’affaire Diego de Avila (1577-1580) (Paris, 2015), pp. 58-9; Giraldez, Age of Trade, p. 84; Fish, Manila-Acapulco Galleons, pp. 65-72. 32. Thomas, World Without End, p. 252. 33. Laufer, ‘Relations of the Chinese', pp. 55-65 (pp. 248-58). 34. Giraldez, Age of Trade, pp. 26-8; Fish, Manila-Acapulco Galleons, p. 111. 35. Laufer, ‘Relations of the Chinese', p. 85 (p. 278). 36. Ibid., p. 75 n. 1 (p. 268 n. 1); Schurz, Manila Galleon, p. 63 n. 1. 37. William Dampier's description, Canton, 1687, in Schurz, Manila Galleon, pp. 70-71; Giraldez, Age of Trade, p. 160; Schurz, Manila Galleon, pp. 74-8. 38. Schurz, Manila Galleon, pp. 71-2; Giraldez, Age of Trade, p. 161; Fish, Manila-Acapulco Galleons, pp. 109-10. 39. Cited in Schurz, Manila Galleon, pp. 73-4. 40. Diego de Bobadilla, cited in Schurz, Manila Galleon, p. 74. 41. C. Boxer, 'Plata es Sangre: Sidelights on the Drain of Spanish-American Silver in the Far East, 1550-1700', in Flynn, Giraldez and Sobredo, eds., European Entry, p. 172 (original edition: Philippine Studies, vol. 18 (1970), p. 464); D. Flynn and A. Giraldez, ‘Arbitrage, China, and World Trade in the Early Modern Period', in Flynn, Giraldez and Sobredo, eds., European Entry, pp. 261-80 (original edition: Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient, vol. 38 (1995), pp. 429-48). 42. Laufer, ‘Relations of the Chinese', p. 63 (p. 256). 43. Flynn and Giraldez, ‘Arbitrage, China, and World Trade', pp. 262-3 (pp. 431-2); von Glahn, Economic History of China, pp. 308-9. 44. Giraldez, Age of Trade, pp. 31-2. 45. Cited in von Glahn, Economic History of China, p. 308. 46. Fish, Manila-Acapulco Galleons, p. 115. 47. Schurz, Manila Galleon, pp. 79-81. 48. Schurz, Manila Galleon, pp. 83-4; Laufer, ‘Relations of the Chinese', pp. 68-9 (pp. 261-2); Fish, Manila-Acapulco Galleons, p. 126. 49. Cavite: Fish, Manila-Acapulco Galleons, pp. 128-42, 156-86. 50. Schurz, Manila Galleon, pp. 85-90. 51. Extracts of Antonio de Morga and Ming Annals in Laufer, ‘Relations of the Chinese', pp. 74-9 (pp. 267-72); Schurz, Manila Galleon, p. 91 and n. 6. 52. Schurz, Manila Galleon, pp. 68-9; Thomas, World Without End, pp. 260-82; Laufer, ‘Relations of the Chinese', p. 68 (p. 261). 53. Thomas, World Without End, p. 282. 54. J. L. Gasch-Tomas, The Atlantic World and the Manila

Galleons: Circulation, Market, and Consumption of Asian Goods in the Spanish Empire, 1565-1650 (Leiden, 2018). 55. A. Coates, A Macao Narrative (2nd edn, Hong Kong, 2009), pp. 17-30; R. Neild, The China Coast: Trade and the First Treaty Ports (Hong Kong, 2010), pp. 25-31, 94-5. 56. Schurz, Manila Galleon, pp. 66-7. 57. Chuan, ‘Chinese Silk Trade', p. 250 (p. 108). 58. Schurz, Manila Galleon, pp. 100-102. 59. R. Kowner, From White to Yellow: the Japanese in European Racial Thought, 1300- 1735 (Montreal, 2014), pp. 152, 154; Schurz, Manila Galleon, pp. 116-18; Giraldez, Age of Trade, p. 106. 60. Kowner, From White to Yellow, p. 177; Schurz, Manila Galleon, pp. 111-13. 61. Schurz, Manila Galleon, pp. 108-12. 62. W. de Lange, Pars Japonica: the First Dutch Expedition to Reach the Shores of Japan (Warren, Conn., 2006); G. Milton, Samurai William: the Ad-venturer Who Unlocked Japan (London, 2002), pp. 65-87. 63. Giraldez, Age of Trade, pp. 107-8; Milton, Samurai William, pp. 109, 122-4. 64. S. Endo, The Samurai, transl. Van C. Gessel (New York, 1980). 65. Van C. Gessel, ‘Postscript: Fact and Truth in The Samurai\ in Endo, Samurai, pp. 268-70. 66. Schurz, Manila Galleon, pp. 125-8; Giraldez, Age of Trade, pp. 107-9. 67. T. Toyoda, History of pre-Meiji Commerce in Japan (Tokyo, 1969), pp. 37-46, 59. 68. Milton, Samurai William,pp.174-205. 69. Schurz, Manila Galleon, p. 120. 70. Schurz, Manila Galleon, p. 115; Giraldez, Age of Trade, pp. 106, 189-90.

35. The Black Ships of Macau

i. D. Massarella, A World Elsewhere: Europe’s Encounter with Japan in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries (New Haven, 1990), p. 19. 2. C. R. Boxer, Fidalgos in the Far East 1550-1770 (2nd edn, Hong Kong, 1968), p. 7. 3. J. Wills, ‘Maritime Europe and the Ming', in J. Wills, ed., China and Maritime Europe, 1500-1800: Trade, Settlement, Diplomacy, and Missions (Cambridge, 2011), pp. 26-7, 29-31; A. Coates, A Macao Narrative (2nd edn, Hong Kong, 2009), pp. 11-12. 4. Armando Cortesao, transl. and ed., The Suma Oriental of Tome Pires (London, 1944), vol. 1, pp. 128-131: Lequios and Jampon; Massarella, World Elsewhere, pp. 22-3; G. Kerr, Okinawa: the History of an Island People (2nd edn, Boston and Tokyo, 2000), pp. 84, 88, 90-94; C. R. Boxer, The Christian Century in Japan 1549­1650 (2nd edn, Lisbon and Manchester, 1993), p. 14. 5. Cited by Boxer, Christian Century, pp. 16-17; see also Wills, ‘Maritime Europe and the Ming', pp. 26-8. 6. Boxer, Christian Century, p. 27. 7. Coates, Macao Narrative, pp. 12-13. 8. Diogo de Couto (1597) in Boxer, Christian Century, pp. 24-5; also Massarella, World Elsewhere, p. 24; Kowner, From White to Yellow, p. 65. 9. Boxer, Christian Century, pp. 28, 30. 10. Japanese chronicle Yaita-ki, quoted in Boxer, Christian Century, p. 29. 11. Wills, ‘Maritime Europe and the Ming', pp. 32-4. 12. Coates, Macao Narrative, p. 50. 13. Wills, ‘Maritime Europe and the Ming', p. 37. 14. Boxer, Christian Century, p. 255. 15. Coates, Macao Narrative, pp. 25-30; Boxer, Fidalgos, p. 3; Wills, ‘Maritime Europe and the Ming', pp. 38, 41,47-8; L. P. Barreto, Macau: Poder e Saber, seculos XVI e XVII (Queluz de Baixo, 2006), pp. 215-16; cf. F. Welsh, A History of Hong Kong (2nd edn, London, 1997), pp. 120-31. 16. Boxer, Fidalgos, p. 4; Wills, ‘Maritime Europe and the Ming', p. 35. 17. Wills, ‘Maritime Europe and the Ming', p. 37. 18. F. Carletti, My Voyage around the World, ed. and transl. H. Wein­stock (London, 1965), p. 139. 19. Barreto, Macau, p. 116. 20. Wills, ‘Maritime Europe and the Ming', p. 47. 21. Ibid., p. 42. 22. Carletti, My Voyage, p. 140; Barreto, Macau, pp. 138-41. 23. Barreto, Macau, p. 117. 24. Cited in Boxer, Fidalgos, p. 6; also in Boxer, Christian Century, pp. 105-6. 25. C. R. Boxer, The Great Ship from Amacon: Annals of Macao and the Old Japan Trade, 1555- 1640 (Lisbon, 1959), p. 17. 26. Boxer, Christian Century, plate 14; N. Coolidge Rousmaniere, Vessels of Influence: China and the Birth of Porcelain in Medieval and Early Modern Japan (Bristol and London, 2012), p. 109. 27. Boxer, Great Ship from Amacon, pp. 13-14 and p. 13 n. 34. 28. For example, A. Jackson, ‘Visual Responses: Depicting Europeans in East Asia', in A. Jackson and A. Jaffer, Encoun­ters: the Meeting of Asia and Europe 1 500-1 800 (London, 2004), pp. 202-3, plate 16.1; Boxer, Great Ship from Amacon, plate opposite p. 20; Boxer, Christian Century, plates 13,

15. 29. For example, Boxer, Great Ship from Amacon, p. 35; also Boxer, Christian Century, p. 121. 30. Barreto, Macau, pp. 145, 160-61, 193, 220. 31. Boxer, Great Ship from Amacon, p. 47. 32. Ibid., pp. 34-5; Boxer, Christian Century, p. 100; Barreto, Macau, p. 143. 33. Barreto, Macau, p. 141. 34. M. Meilink-Roelofsz, Asian Trade and European Influence in the Indonesian Archipelago between 1500 and about 1630 (The Hague, 1962), pp. 104-5, 134. 35. R. von Glahn, The Economic History of China from Antiquity to the Nineteenth Century (Cambridge, 2016), pp. 308-11. 36. Prodotti e tecniche d’Oltremare nelle economie europee, secc. XIII-XVIII (Florence, 1998); Barreto, Macau, p. 273. 37. Meilink-Roelofsz, Asian Trade and European Influence, pp. 123-4. 38. Boxer, Great Ship from Amacon, pp. 33-4, 317-18 (doc. E.ii, 1567-8). 39. Ibid., p. 115. 40. J. Moran, The Japanese and the Jesuits: Alessandro Valignano in Sixteenth-Century Japan (London, 1993), p. 67. 41. On Ricci: R. Po-chia Hsia, A Jesuit in the Forbidden City: Matteo Ricci 1552­1610 (New York and Oxford, 2010); R. Po-chia Hsia, Matteo Ricci and the Catholic Mission to China, 1583-1610: a Short History with Documents (Indianapolis, 2016); M. Laven, Mission to China: Matteo Ricci and the Jesuit Encounter with the East (London, 2011); also C. R. Boxer, The Church Militant and Iberian Expansion 1440- 1770 (Baltimore, 1978), pp. 53-6. 42. Barreto, Macau, p. 141. 43. Boxer, Christian Century, p. 97. 44. Ibid., p. 120; Barreto, Macau, p. 141. 45. Cited in Boxer, Christian Century, p. 93. 46. Kowner, From White to Yellow, pp. 84, 128- 35, 166- 70; Barreto, Macau, p. 139: Luis de Almeida. 47. Boxer, Christian Century, pp. 139-49, 152-3; also Carletti, My Voyage, pp. 116-25. 48. Moran, Japanese and Jesuits, pp. 58-9, 62-3, 70, 89-90. 49. Carletti, My Voyage, p. 116. 50. Ibid., pp. 104-5. 51. Ibid., pp. 105-8, 121-4, 127-35. 52. Ibid., pp. 108-13; Barreto, Macau, p. 165. 53. Carletti, My Voyage, p. 132. 54. Coolidge Rousmaniere, Vessels of Influence, pp. 78, 81, 87-92, 101-3. 55. Ibid., pp. 64, 130-35, 161; T. Nagatake, Classic Japanese Porcelain: Imari and Kaikemon (Tokyo, 2003), pp. 49-50, 60-63. 56. Carletti, My Voyage, pp. 114-16. 57. S. Hawley, The Imjin War: Japan’s Sixteenth-Century Invasion of Korea and Attempt to Conquer China (Seoul and Berkeley, 2005), pp. 301-48. 58. Cited in Hawley, Imjin War, p. 465. 59. Hawley, Imjin War, pp. 475-6. 60. Ibid., pp. 193, 195-9, and plate section, pp. vi-vii. 61. Ibid., pp. 482-90. 62. Ibid., p. 515. 63. Ibid., pp. 490, 554-5. 64. T. Toyoda, History of pre-Meiji Commerce in Japan (Tokyo, 1969), pp. 40-41, 49, 53-4. 65. Ibid., p. 43. 66. Letter cited in Hawley, Imjin War, p. 402; Boxer, Christian Century, p. 161; Moran, Japanese and Jesuits, p. 91. 67. Moran, Japanese and Jesuits, pp. 83-4. 68. Ibid., pp. 84-5, 89. 69. Barreto, Macau, p. 173. 70. Moran, Japanese and Jesuits, p. 86. 71. J. Clements, Christ’s Samurai: the True Story of the Shima- bara Rebellion (London, 2016). 72. Boxer, Great Ship from Amacon, pp. 158-61.

36. The Fourth Ocean

i. R. Vaughan, The Arctic: a History (Stroud, 1994), p. 36, plate 3. 2. Ibid., p. 37. 3. Cited in G. Connell-Smith, Forerunners of Drake: a Study of English Trade with Spain in the Early Tudor Period (London, 1954), p. 121 (dating from 1540); R. B. Wernham, Before the Armada: the Growth of English Foreign Policy 1485- 1588 (London, 1966). 4. T. S. Willan, Studies in Elizabethan Foreign Trade (Manchester, 1959), pp. 92-312. 5. H. Dalton, Merchants and Explorers: Roger Barlow, Sebastian Cabot, and Networks of Atlantic Exchange 1500- 1560 (Oxford, 2016), pp. 29-33,49-62; ‘Robert Thorne's Declaration', in Richard Hakluyt, Voyages and Documents, ed. J. Hampden (Oxford, 1958), pp. 17-19; G. Williams, Arctic Labyrinth: The Quest for the Northwest Passage (London, 2009), pp. 7-8; H. Wallis, ‘England's Search for the Northern Passages in the Sixteenth and Early Seventeenth Centuries', Arctic, vol. 37 (1984), pp. 453-5; N. Crane, Mercator: the Man Who Map-ped the Planet (London, 2002), colour plates, section 2, no. 4. 6. A. de Robilant, Venetian Navigators: the Mystery of the Voyages of the Zen Brothers to the Far North (London, 2011). 7. Wallis, ‘England's Search', p. 457. 8. Hakluyt, Voyages and Documents, pp. 40, 44-5; Williams, Arctic Labyrinth, p. 8; J. Evans, Merchant Adventurers: the Voyage of Discovery That Transformed Tudor England (London, 2013). 9. Williams, Arctic Labyrinth, p. 9; K. Mayers, The First English Explorer: the Life of Anthony Jenkinson (1529-1611) and His Adventures en Route to the Orient (Northam, Devon, 2015), p. 49. 10. Williams, Arctic Labyrinth, pp. 9- 10; Vaughan, Arctic, p. 58; K. Mayers, North-East Passage to Muscovy: Stephen Borough and the First Tudor Explorations (Stroud, 2005); S. Alford, London’s Triumph: Merchant Adventurers and the Tudor City (London, 2017),pp. 80-91,130-41. ii. Mayers, First English Explorer, pp. 237­49; Alford, London’s Triumph, pp. 132-41. 12. Mayers, First English Explorer, p. 244. 13. Vaughan, Arctic, p. 59. 14. A Plancius map is on display in the Real Colegio Seminario de Corpus Christi (Museo del Patriarca), Valencia; J. Tracy, True Ocean Found: Paludanus’s Let­ters on Dutch Voyages to the Kara Sea, 1595- 1596 (Minneapolis, 1980), pp. 20-23. 15. J. de Hond and T. Mostert, Novaya Zemlya (Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam, n.d.); inventory of contents quoted in Vaughan, Arctic, pp. 62-3. 16. L. Hacquebord, De Noordse Compagnie (1614­1642): Opkomst, bloei en ondergang (Zutphen, 2014); I. Sanderson, A History of Whaling (New York, 1993), pp. 161, 164. 17. Vaughan, Arctic, p. 64. 18. Wallis, ‘England's Search', pp. 457-60. 19. Williams, Arctic Labyrinth, pp. 13-15; P. Whitfield, New Found Lands: Maps in the History of Exploration (London, 1998), pp. 78-9 (with illustration of Humphrey Gilbert's world map). 20. J. McDermott, Martin Frobisher: Elizabethan Privateer (New Haven, 2001); Alford, London’s Triumph, pp. 158-76. 21. Williams, Arctic Labyrinth, p. 16; G. Williams, ed., The Quest for the Northwest Passage (London, 2007), p. 7. 22. G. Best, A True Discourse of the Late Voyage of Discovery for Finding a Passage to Cathaya (London, 1578), in Williams, ed., Quest for the Northwest Passage, p. 8. 23. Christopher Hall, ‘The First Voyage of Martin Frobisher', in Hakluyt, Voyages and Documents, p. 153. 24. D. Abulafia, The Discovery of Mankind: Atlantic Encounters in the Age of Columbus (New Haven, 2008), p. 245. 25. C. F. Hall reporting in 1865, cited by Vaughan, Arctic, p. 69; Williams, ed., Quest for the Northwest Passage, pp. 19,30, 529-30. 26. Hall, ‘First Voyage of Martin Frobisher', in Hak­luyt, Voyages and Documents, pp. 153-4; ‘The Second Voyage of Martin Frobisher', from Best's True Discourse, in Hakluyt, Voyages and Documents, pp. 175, 178; Best, True Discourse, in Williams, ed., Quest for the Northwest Passage, pp. 17, 18; Williams, Arctic Labyrinth, pp. 20, 22. 27. Wallis, ‘England's Search', p. 461; Vaughan, Arctic, p. 67. 28. Williams, ed., Quest for the Northwest Passage, p. 20. 29. Williams, Arctic Labyrinth, p. 23. 30. Best, True Discourse, in Williams, ed., Quest for the Northwest Passage, pp. 23-31; J. McDermott, ed., The Third Voyage of Martin Frobisher to Baffin Island 1578 (London, 2001); J. Butman and S. Targett, New World, Inc.: How England’s Merchants Founded America and Launched the British Empire (London, 2018), pp. 127- 35. 31. Williams, Arctic Labyrinth, pp. 25-9. 32. Documents and narratives in Hakluyt, Voyages and Documents, pp. 303-34; Williams, Arctic Labyrinth, pp. 32-8. 33. Vaughan, Arctic, pp. 65-7; Williams, Arctic Labyrinth, pp. 41-3; Whitfield, New Found Lands, p. 83 (Baffin's map of Hudson Bay). 34. Hakluyt, Voyages and Documents, pp. 192-224. 35. Ibid., p. 205. 36. Wallis, ‘England's Search', p. 467. 37. ‘Drake's Circumnavigation', in Hakluyt, Voyages and Documents, p. 210; D. Wilson, The World Encompassed: Drake’s Great Voyage 1577- 1580 (London, 1977), p. 165. 38. Wallis, ‘England's Search', p. 467. 39. ‘The Expedition to Russia', in Hakluyt, Voyages and Docu­ments, pp. 46-7. 40. Jens Munk in Williams, ed., Quest for the Northwest Passage, p. 75; T. Hansen, North West to Hudson Bay: the Life and Times of Jens Munk (London, 1970, abridged from Danish edition of 1965). 41. Vaughan, Arctic, pp. 72-4; Williams, ed., Quest for the Northwest Passage, pp. 65-7; Williams, Arctic Labyrinth, pp. 55-9.

37. The Rise of the Dutch

i. J. van Houtte, An Economic History of the Low Countries 800-1800 (London, 1977), p. 175; P. Spufford, From Antwerp to London: the Decline of Financial Centres in Europe (Wassenaar, 2005), p. 15; H. van der Wee, The Growth of the Antwerp Market (3 vols., The Hague, 1963); J. Wegg, Antwerp, 1477-1559 (London, 1916), pp. 48-56, 59. 2. W. Blokmans, Metropolen aan de Noordzee: de geschiedenis van Nederland 1100-1560 (Amsterdam, 2010), pp. 580-81; Wegg, Antwerp, pp. 66-8. 3. Blokmans, Metropolen aan de Noordzee, pp. 575, 652. 4. Ibid., pp. 571, 575; Wegg, Antwerp, pp. 60-64. 5· O. Gelderblom, Cities of Commerce: the Institutional Foundations of International Trade in the Low Countries, 1250-1650 (Princeton, 2013), pp. 29-30; Spufford, From Antwerp to London, pp. 13-14. 6. J. Guy, Gresham’s Law (London, 2019). pp. 11-13. 7. J. N. Ball, Merchants and Merchandise: the Expansion of Trade in Europe 1500- 1630 (London, 1977), pp. 86-7. 8. Van Houtte, Economic History of the Low Countries, p. 176. 9. Spufford, From Antwerp to London, p. 16. 10. Cited in Spufford, From Antwerp to London, p. 17. 11. Ball, Merchants and Merchandise, pp. 87-8; Gelderblom, Cities of Commerce, pp. 55-6; Van Houtte, Economic History of the Low Countries, pp. 176, 187. 12. Spufford, From Antwerp to London, p. 18; Blokmans, Metropolen aan de Noordzee, pp. 616-17. 13. Gelderblom, Cities of Commerce, pp. 32-3; Van Houtte, Economic History of the Low Countries, pp. 188-9. 14. J. Israel, The Dutch Re-public: Its Rise, Greatness, and Fall 1477-1806 (Oxford, 1995), p. 307; also S. Schama, The Embarrassment of Riches: an Inter­pretation of Dutch Culture in the Golden Age (London, 1987). 15. J. Israel, Dutch Primacy in World Trade (Oxford, 1989), p. 13. 16. Ibid., pp. 22-4; Van Houtte, Economic History of the Low Countries, p. 106. 17. Israel, Dutch Republic, p. 316. 18. Ibid., pp. 18­21. 19. Van Houtte, Economic History of the Low Countries, pp. 66-7, 70, 147-8. 20. David Abulafia, The Great Sea: a Human History of the Mediterranean (London, 2011), pp. 460, 466, 468, 477. 21. Israel, Dutch Primacy,pp.26-35. 22. Ibid^pp.38-42. 23. Ball, Merchants and Merchandise, pp. 98-102. 24. J. Evans, Merchant Adventurers: the Voyage of Discovery That Transformed Tudor England (London, 2013), pp. 315-27. 25. Israel, Dutch Primacy, pp. 43-8.

38. Whose Seas?

1. P. Borschberg, ed., Jacques de Coutre’s Singapore and Johore 1594-^1625 (Singapore, 2015), pp. 64, 66; P. Borschberg, Hugo Grotius, the Portuguese and Free Trade in the East Indies (Singapore, 2011); P. de Sousa Pinto, The Portuguese and the Straits of Melaka 1575­1619: Power, Trade and Diplomacy (Singapore and Kuala Lumpur, 2012), pp. 31-3, 107. 2. B. Hayton, The South China Sea: the Struggle for Power in Asia (New Haven and London, 2014). 3. Hugo Grotius, Mare Liberum (Leiden, 1609); quotations are from Richard Hak­luyt’s translation, which is reprinted in D. Armitage, ed., The Free Sea (Indianapolis, 2004), pp. 3-62. 4. Armitage, ed., Free Sea, p. 10. 5. Armitage in Free Sea, p. xi; W. Welwod, ‘Of the Community and Propriety of the Seas’, in Armitage, ed., Free Sea, pp. 65-74. 6. Armitage, ed., Free Sea, p. 12. 7. Ibid., p. 13. 8. Ibid., p. 26. 9. Ibid., p. 80, from Grotius’s reply to Welwod. 10. Ibid., p. 32. 11. Armitage in Free Sea, p. xvi. 12. J. Israel, Dutch Primacy in World Trade (Oxford, 1989), pp. 53-6, and tables 3.3 and 3.4, p. 57. 13. Ibid., p. 61. 14. G. Seibert, ‘Sao Tome & Principe: the First Plantation Economy in the Tropics’, in R. Law, S. Schwarz and S. Strickrodt, eds., Commercial Agriculture, the Slave Trade and Slavery in Atlantic Africa (Woodbridge, 2013), pp. 62, 68, 75. 15. Israel, Dutch Primacy, pp. 63-4; A. de la Fuente, Havana and the Atlantic in the Sixteenth Century (Chapel Hill, 2008), pp. 21, 49. 16. J. Boyajian, Portuguese Trade in Asia under the Habsburgs, 1580- 1640 (Baltimore, 1993), p. 93. 17. Israel, Dutch Primacy, pp. 67-73; C. R. Boxer, The Dutch Seaborne Empire 1600-1800 (London, 1965), pp. 49-54, 105, 109; G. Winius and M. Vink, The Merchant­Warrior Pacified: the VOC (Dutch East India Co.) and Its Changing Political Economy in India (New Delhi and Oxford, 1991), pp. 9-12. 18. Israel, Dutch Primacy, p. 129, table 5.1, and pp. 140, 143, 146-9, with table 5.9 on p. 147. 19. Ibid., pp. 131-8. 20. Ibid., p. 143. 21. Israel, Dutch Primacy, pp. 160-64, and table 5.12, p. 163; C. R. Boxer, The Portuguese Sea­borne Empire 1415-1825 (London, 1991), pp. 113-14. 22. ‘Lancaster’s Voyage to the East Indies’, in Richard Hakluyt, Voyages and Documents, ed. J. Hampden (Oxford, 1958), pp. 399-420; D. Wilson, The World Encompassed: Drake’s Great Voyage 1577-1580 (London, 1977), p. 100; Gastaldi’s map (1546) and Sir Humphrey Gilbert’s map (1576), in P. Whitfield, New Found Lands: Maps in the History of Exploration (London, 1998), pp. 76, 79. 23. ‘Lancaster’s Voyage to the East Indies’, in Hakluyt, Voyages and Documents, p. 411;

G. Milton, Nathaniel’s Nutmeg: How One Man’s Courage Changed the Course of History (London, 1999), p. 50; J. Keay, The Honourable Company: a History of the English East India Company (London, 1991), pp. 10-23. 24. Milton, Nathaniel’s Nutmeg, pp. 52, 65. 25. Keay, Honourable Company, pp. 14-15. 26. Cited in Keay, Honourable Company, p. 16. 27. Cited in Milton, Nathaniel’s Nutmeg, pp. 86-7; Keay, Honourable Company, p. 17. 28. Milton, Nathaniel’s Nutmeg, pp. 90, 92, 94. 29. Cited in Keay, Honourable Com-pany, p. 40. 30. Keay, Honourable Company,pp. 45-6,114; Milton, Nathaniel’s Nutmeg, p. 302. 31. Quoted by Keay, Honourable Company, p. 43; also Milton, Nathaniel’s Nutmeg, p. 273. 32. Milton, Nathaniel’s Nutmeg,pp. 305-6. 33. Keay, Honourable Com-pany, p. 31. 34. Ibid., pp. 48-50; Milton, Nathaniel’s Nutmeg, pp. 321-42. 35. Keay, Honourable Com-pany, pp. 21, 36, 38, 53, 58-9, 125-6. 36. P. Stern, The Company-State: Corporate Sovereignty and the Early Modern Foundations of the British Empire in India (New York and Oxford, 2011), p. 7. 37. P. Lawson, The East India Company: a History (Harlow, i993),pp. 19-24. 38. G. Goodman, Japan and the Dutch 1600-1853 (Richmond, Surrey, 2000), p. 9. 39. D. Mitchell, The Thousand Autumns of Jacob de Zoet (London, 2010). 40. Goodman, Japan and the Dutch, p. 8. 41. A. Clulow, The Company She Keeps: the Dutch Encounter with Tokugawa Japan (New York, 2014), pp. 39-40. 42. G. Milton, Samurai William: the Adventurer Who Unlocked Japan (London, 2002); W. de Lange, Pars Japonica: the First Dutch Expedition to Reach the Shores of Japan (Warren, Conn., 2006); also D. Massarella, A World Elsewhere: Europe’s Encounter with Japan in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries (New Haven, 1990) (for England); Clulow, The Company She Keeps,pp. 10-11. 43. Clulow, The Company She Keeps, pp. 25, 33-9, 47-58. 44. Cited in Goodman, Japan and the Dutch, p. 13. 45. Boyajian, Por­tuguese Trade in Asia, pp. 78-80; Goodman, Japan and the Dutch, pp. 10-13. 46. Jonathan Swift, Gulliver’s Travels, ch. 25; Clulow, The Com-pany She Keeps, p. 17. 47. Goodman, Japan and the Dutch, pp. 14-15. 48. Cited in Goodman, Japan and the Dutch, p. 16. 49. Goodman, Japan and the Dutch, p. 19; Toyoda Takeshi, A History of pre- Meiji Commerce (Tokyo, 1969), p. 46. 50. Takeshi, History of pre-Meiji Commerce, p. 50. 51. Goodman, Japan and the Dutch, pp. 240-41; Takeshi, History of pre-Meiji Commerce, pp.63-4. 52. Goodman, Japan and the Dutch, pp. 28-9; Clulow, The Com-pany She Keeps, pp. 18, 95, 106-20. 53. Goodman, Japan and the Dutch, pp. 69-70. 54. Takeshi, History of pre-Meiji Commerce, p. 46.

39. Nations Afloat

i. D. Studnicki-Gizbert, ‘La Nacion among the Nations: Portuguese and Other Maritime Trading Diasporas in the Atlantic, Sixteenth to Eighteenth Centuries’, in R. Kagan and P. Morgan, eds., Atlantic Diasporas: Jews, Conversos, and Crypto-Jews in the Age of Mer­cantilism, 1500-1800 (Baltimore, 2009), pp. 75-98. 2. D. Eltis and D. Richardson, Atlas of the Transatlantic Slave Trade (New Haven, 2010). 3. R. Smith, The Spanish Guild Merchant: a History of the Consulado, 1250-1700 (Durham, NC, 1940), pp. 103-4. 4. Inquisition records in L. Wolf, ed., The Jews in the Canary Islands (new edn, Toronto, 2001). 5. Studnicki-Gizbert, ‘La Nacion among the Nations’, pp. 89-90. 6. D. Studnicki-Gizbert, A Nation upon the Ocean Sea: Portugal’s Atlantic Diaspora and the Crisis of the Spanish Empire, 1492-1640 (New York and Oxford, 2007), p. 11. 7. Cited by Studnicki-Gizbert, A Nation upon the Ocean Sea, p. 36. 8. Studnicki-Gizbert, A Nation upon the Ocean Sea, pp. 91-2. 9. R. Rowland, ‘New Christian, Marrano, Jew’, in P. Bernardini and N. Fiering, eds., The Jews and the Expansion of Europe to the West 1450-1800 (New York, 2001), p. 135. 10. Studnicki-Gizbert, A Nation upon the Ocean Sea, p. 72. 11. H. Kellenbenz, Sephardim an der unteren Elbe: ihre wirtschaftliche und politische Bedeutung vom Ende des 16. bis zum Beginn des 18. Jahrhunderts (Wiesbaden, 1958), p. 489. 12. Y. Yovel, The Other Within: the Marranos, Split Identity and Emerging Modernity (Princeton, 2009). 13. Studnicki-Gizbert, A Nation upon the Ocean Sea, pp. 96-101; diagram of his connections, p. 99, fig. 4:1. 14. Hamburg: Kellenbenz, Sephardim an der unteren Elbe; Bayonne: G. Nahon, ‘The Portuguese Jewish Nation of Saint- Esprit-les- Bayonne: the American Dimen­sion’, in Bernardini and Fiering, eds., Jews and the Expansion of Europe, pp. 256-67. 15.

Studnicki-Gizbert, A Nation upon the Ocean Sea, p. 103, fig. 4:2; Kellenbenz, Sephardim an der unteren Elbe, end map no. 3; Morocco: pp. 146-9; Baltic: pp. 149-55. 16. P. Mark and

J. da Silva Horta, ‘Catholics, Jews, and Muslims in Early Seventeenth-Century Guine’, in Kagan and Morgan, eds., Atlantic Diasporas, pp. 170-94; P. Mark and J. da Silva Horta, The Forgot­ten Diaspora: Jewish Communities in West Africa and the Making of the Atlantic World (Cambridge, 2011). 17. T. Green, The Rise of the Trans- Atlantic Slave Trade in Western Africa, 1300-1589 (Cambridge, 2012). 18. J. Boyajian, Portuguese Trade in Asia under the Habs­burgs, 1580-1640 (Baltimore, 1993). 19. Ibid., pp. 30-31,42,45-51, 239-40. 20. J. Boyajian, Portuguese Bankers at the Court of Spain 1626-1650 (New Brunswick, 1983), p. 3. 21. C. Dauverd, Imperial Ambition in the Early Modern Mediterranean: Genoese Merchants and the Spanish Crown (Cambridge, 2014). 22. T. Kirk, Genoa and the Sea: Policy and Power in an Early Modern Maritime Republic 1559- 1684 (Baltimore, 2005),pp. 127-33. 23. Boyajian, Portuguese Bankers,pp. 21-2,33, 106-7. 24. Ibid.,pp.108-16. 25. Ibid.,pp.154-80. 26. S. Aslanian, From the Indian Ocean to the Mediterranean: the Global Trade Networks of Armenian Merchants from New Julfa (Berkeley, 2011), p. xvii. 27. Ibid., pp. 24- 36. 28. Ibid., pp. xvii, 226-7; I. Baghdiantz McCabe, ‘Small Town Merchants, Global Ventures: the Maritime Trade of the New Julfan Armenians in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries’, in M. Fusaro and A. Polonia, eds., Maritime History as Global History (St John’s, Nfdl., 2010), pp. 125­57. 29. Aslanian, From the Indian Ocean to the Mediterranean, pp. 52-4. 30. Armando Cortesäo, transl. and ed., The Suma Oriental of Tome Pires (London, 1944), vol. 2, p. 269. 31. F. Trivellato, ‘Sephardic Merchants in the Early Modern Atlantic and Beyond’, in an and Morgan, eds., Atlantic Diasporas, p. 111. 32. Aslanian, From the Indian Ocean to the Mediterranean, pp. 48-51, 55-65, 78, 80. 33. Trivellato, ‘Sephardic Merchants’, p. 110.

40. The Nordic Indies

i. S. Diller, Die Dänen in Indien, Südostasien und China (1620-1845) (Wiesbaden, 1999), p. 133; O. FeldWk, ‘The Danish Asia Trade 1620-1807’, Scandinavian Economic History Review, vol. 39 (1991), pp. 3-27. 2. H. Hodacs, Silk and Tea in the North: Scandinavian Trade and the Market for Asian Goods in Eighteenth-Century Europe (Basingstoke, 2016), pp. 1-20, 48-81. 3. Ibid., pp. 183, 187. 4. Diller, Dänen in Indien, pp. 11, 114, 267­99. 5. Ibid., p. 39. 6. K. Glamann, ‘The Danish Asiatic Company, 1732-1772’, Scandi­navian Economic History Review, vol. 8 (1960), pp. 109-49; K. Glamann, ‘The Danish East India Company’, in M. Mollat, ed., Societes et Compagnies de Commerce en Orient et dans POcean indien (Paris, 1970), pp. 471-9; O. Feldb^k, ‘The Danish Trading Companies of the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries’, Scandinavian Economic History Review, vol. 34 (1986), pp. 211-13; O. FeldWk, India Trade under the Danish Flag 1772- 1808: Euro­pean Enterprise and Anglo-Indian Remittance and Trade (Odense, 1969). 7. E. Gobel, ‘Danish Trade to the West Indies and Guinea, 1671-1754’, Scandinavian Economic History Review, vol. 31 (1983), pp. 21-49; G. Norregard, Danish Settlements in West Africa (Boston, 1966); W. Westergaard, The Danish West Indies under Company Rule (1671-1754) (New York, 1917). 8. E. Gobel, ‘The Danish Asiatic Company’s Voyages to China, 1732-1833’, Scandinavian Economic History Review, vol. 27 (1979), p. 43. 9. A. Friis, ‘La Valeur docu- mentaire des Comptes du Peage du Sund: la periode 1571-1618’, in M. Mollat, ed., Les Sources de l’histoire maritime en Europe, du Moyen Age au XVIIIe siecle (Paris, 1962), pp. 365-82. 10. FeldWk, ‘Danish Trading Companies’, p. 204; S. Subrahmanyam, ‘The Coromandel Trade of the Danish East India Company, 1618- 1649’, Scandinavian Economic History Review, vol. 37 (1989), p. 41; H. Furber, Rival Empires of Trade in the Orient 1600-1800 (Minneapolis, 1976), reprinted in S. Subrahmanyam, ed., Maritime India (New Delhi, 2004), pp. 211, 216; Diller, Dänen in Indien, p. 23. 11. Subrahmanyam, ‘Coroman­del Trade’, pp. 43-4. 12. Facsimile of treaty in Diller, Dänen in Indien, pp. 155-8, doc. 16a-d; Subrahmanyam, ‘Coromandel Trade’, p. 45. 13. Subrahmanyam, ‘Coromandel Trade’, p. 47. 14. FeldWk, ‘Danish Trading Companies’, p. 207; Diller, Dänen in Indien, p. in. 15. Diller, Dänen in Indien, pp. 21, 25 (facsimiles), 34-5, 39, 61-2, 89, 92-3. 16. Feldb^k, ‘Danish Asia Trade', p. 3. 17. Feldb^k, ‘Danish Trading Companies', p. 206; Subrahmanyam, ‘Coromandel Trade', p. 51. 18. Subrahmanyam, ‘Coromandel Trade', pp. 52-3. 19. Diller, Dänen in Indien, pp. 81, 85, 87; T. Veschow, ‘Voyages of the Danish Asi­atic Company to India and China 1772-1792', Scandinavian Economic History Review, vol. 20 (1972), pp. 133-52. 20. D. McCall, ‘Introduction', in Norregard, Danish Settle­ments, pp. xi, xxii; Norregard, Danish Settlements, pp. 142, 228. 21. Norregard, Danish Settlements, p. 84. 22. Ibid., pp. 87-9. 23. H. Stromberg, En guide till Goteborgs historia - An Historical Guide to Gothenburg (Gothenburg, 2013), pp. 6, 9; Norregard, Danish Settlements, pp. 9-10; C. Koninckx, The First and Second Charters of the Swedish East India Company (1731-1766): a Contribution to the Maritime, Economic and Social History of North-Western Europe in Its Relationships with the Far East (Kortrijk, 1980), pp. 33-4. 24. Koninckx, First and Second Charters, pp. 31-3; H. Lindqvist, Vara kolonier: de vi hade och de som aldrig blev av (Stockholm, 2015), pp. 11-13; Norregard, Danish Settle­ments, pp. 7-8. 25. Lindqvist, Vara kolonier, pp. 90-99, 114, 117. 26. Norregard, Danish Settlements, pp. 11-16. 27. Ibid., pp. 22-24, 29-34. 28. Ibid., pp. 33, 52-3, 57. 29. McCall, ibid., p. xix; H. Mattiesen, ‘Jakob Kettler', Neue deutsche Biographie, vol. 10 (Berlin, 1974), p. 314. 30. Westergaard, Danish West Indies, pp. 256-62. 31. Ibid., pp. 31-8. 32. Ibid., pp. 41-2. 33. Gobel, ‘Danish Trade to the West Indies', pp. 24, 28-30. 34. Ibid., pp. 33-7. 35. Norregard, Danish Settlements, pp. 143, 176. 36. Hodacs, Silk and Tea in the North, pp. 29-32; Furber, Rival Empires of Trade, pp. 217-21. 37. G. M. Young, ed., Macaulay: Prose and Poetry (London, 1952), pp. 213, 217. 38. G. Insh, The Company of Scotland Trading to Africa and the Indies (London and New York, 1932); Furber, Rival Empires of Trade, p. 217. 39. K. Soderpalm, ‘SOIC - ett skotskt foretag?', in K. Soderpalm et al., Ostindiska Compagniet: Affärer och foremal (Gothenburg, 2000), pp. 36-61, and English summary, pp. 281-2; R. Hermansson, The Great East India Adven­ture: The Story of the Swedish East India Company (Gothenburg, 2004), pp. 31-2. 40. Hodacs, Silk and Tea in the North, pp. 29, 31. 41. P. Forsberg, Ostindiska Kompaniet: Nagra studier (Gothenburg, 2015), pp. 90-94; Hermansson, Great East India Adventure, pp. 40-45. 42. Hermansson, Great East India Adventure, pp. 49-57. 43. Forsberg, Ostindiska Kompaniet, pp. 87-90. 44. Hodacs, Silk and Tea in the North, pp. 58-61, 64-6, 79-80. 45.

K. Soderpalm, ‘Beställningsporslin fran Kina', in Soderpalm et al., Ostindiska Compagniet, pp. 168-83, 291-2. 46. Hermansson, Great East India Adventure, pp. 42-3. 47. Hodacs, Silk and Tea in the North, pp. 10-14. 48. Ibid., p. 153. 49. K. Soderpalm, ‘Svenska Ostin- diska Kompaniet 1731-1813: en oversikt', in Soderpalm et al., Ostindiska Compagniet, pp. 9, 277; Hermansson, Great East India Adventure, pp. 11, 63, 67-71.

41. Austrialia or Australia?

i. M. Edmond, Zone of the Marvellous: in Search of the Antipodes (Auckland, 2009), p. 85; A. Stallard, Antipodes: in Search of the Southern Continent (Clayton, Vic., 2016). 2. M. Estensen, Terra Australis Incognita: the Spanish Quest for the Mysterious Great South Land (Crows Nest, NSW, 2006), pp. 8-12, 14 (whence the two quotations); N. Crane, Mer­cator: the Man Who Mapped the Planet (London, 2002), p. 97, fig. 12; M. Camino, Explor­ing the Explorers: Spaniards in Oceania, 1519-1794 (Manchester, 2008), p. 83, fig. 2:3; Edmond, Zone of the Marvellous, pp. 32-4; H. Kelsey, The First Circumnavigators: Unsung Heroes of the Age of Discovery (New Haven, 2016), pp. 134-5; Stallard, Antipodes, pp. 86-111. 3. Camino, Exploring the Explorers, p. 36. 4. Ibid., p. 38; Stallard, Antipodes, pp. 120-24. 5. Mendana's report, cited by Estensen, Terra Australis Incognita, p. 27; Camino, Exploring the Explorers, pp. 48-9. 6. D. Abulafia, The Discovery of Mankind: Atlantic Encounters in the Age of Columbus (New Haven, 2008), pp. 267-8. 7. Edmond, Zone of the Marvellous, p. 86. 8. Estensen, Terra Australis Incognita, pp. 19-56; Camino, Exploring the Explorers, pp. 39-61; Kelsey, First Circumnavigators, pp. 70-74. 9. Estensen, Terra Australis Incognita, pp. 57-8. 10. Camino, Exploring the Explorers, p. 19. 11. Ibid., pp. 75-8, 80, 101; M. Estensen, Discovery: The Quest for the Great South Land (London, 1999), p. 101. 12. Estensen, Terra Australis Incognita, pp. 129-33. ^T3. Ibid., pp. 159-60; Camino, Exploring the Explorers, pp. 84, 95; Stallard, Antipodes, p. 130. 14. Estensen, Terra Australis Incognita, pp. 182-3. ^T5. Ibid., pp. 197-204. 16. G. Seal, The Savage Shore: Extraordinary Stories of Survival and Tragedy from the Early Voyages of Discovery (New Haven, 2016), p. ix. 17. Australian Electoral Commission, History of the Indigenous Vote (Canberra, 2006). 18. P. Whitfield, Charting of the Oceans: Ten Centuries of Maritime Maps (London, 1996), pp. 55, 57-8. 19. K. McIntyre, The Secret Discovery of Australia: Portuguese Ventures 200 Years before Captain Cook (Medindie and London, 1977); A. Sharp, The Discovery of Australia (Oxford, 1963), pp. 2, 4-15, and plate 3. 20. Estensen, Discovery, pp. 53-8; Seal, Savage Shore, p. 15. 21. Estensen, Discovery, pp. 56-8; Seal, Savage Shore, pp. 16-18. 22. Seal, Savage Shore, p. 27. 23. Ibid., pp. 22-5, 265 n. 8; Estensen, Discovery, pp. 119-22. 24. Seal, Savage Shore, p. 28; Estensen, Discovery, pp. 128-9; Sharp, Discovery of Australia, p. 32. 25. Francois Pelsaert, supercargo of the Batavia, cited by Estensen, Discovery, p. 158. 26. Seal, Savage Shore, pp. 30-34; Estensen, Discovery, pp. 140-41; Sharp, Discovery of Australia, pp. 42-5. 27. M. Dash, Batavia’s Graveyard (London, 2002), pp. 53-7, 62-5. 28. ‘The Journals of Francisco Pelsaert', transl.

E. Drok, in H. Drake-Brockman, Voyage to Disaster: the Life of Francisco Pelsaert (London, 1964), p. 122. 29. Pelsaert's log, in Sharp, Discovery of Australia, p. 61; ‘Journals of Fran­cisco Pelsaert', p. 130. 30. Text in Seal, Savage Shore, p. 65; also ‘Journals of Francisco Pelsaert', p. 128. 31. Seal, Savage Shore, p. 70; Dash, Batavia’s Graveyard, pp. 30-35, 277-81; ‘Journals of Francisco Pelsaert', pp. 158-77. 32. Seal, Savage Shore, pp. 67-73; ‘Journals of Francisco Pelsaert', pp. 142-4; Dash, Batavia’s Graveyard, pp. 205-11. 33. Seal, Savage Shore, pp. 78-80; Estensen, Discovery, pp. 160-61. 34. Dash, Batavia’s Graveyard, pp. 264-75, suggesting on p. 273 a slightly different scenario; Seal, Savage Shore, pp. 82-4. 35. Seal, Savage Shore, p. 85; Estensen, Discovery, pp. 154-5; Sharp, Discovery of Australia, pp. 55-6. 36. Estensen, Discovery, pp. 9, 87, 131, 148, 230; Sharp, Discovery of Australia, p. 39. 37. Seal, Savage Shore, p. 97. 38. Sharp, Discovery of Australia, pp. 70-79. 39. A. Salmond, ‘Two Worlds', in K. R. Howe, ed., Vaka Moana - Voyages of the Ancestors: the Discovery and Settlement of the Pacific (Auckland, 2006), pp. 251-2. 40. Estensen, Discovery, pp. 179-81. 41. Sharp, Discovery of Australia, pp. 87-8; Seal, Savage Shore, p. 96. 42. P. Edwards, ‘The First Voyage 1768-1771: Introduction', in James Cook, The Journals (2nd edn, London, 2003), p. 11.

42. Knots in the Network

i. C. Ebert, Between Empires: Brazilian Sugar in the Early Atlantic Economy 1550-1630 (Leiden, 2008), pp. 140-41; G. Scammell, ‘The English in the Atlantic Islands c.1450-1650', Mariner’s Mirror, vol. 72 (1986), pp. 295-317. 2. T. B. Duncan, Atlantic Islands: Madeira, the Azores and the Cape Verdes in Seventeenth-Century Commerce and Navigation (Chicago, 1972), p. 5. 3. Ebert, Between Empires, pp. 104-5; F. Mauro, Le Portugal, le Bresil et lAtlantique au XVIIe siecle (1570- 1670) (Paris and Lisbon, 1983; revised edition of Le Por­tugal et lAtlantique au XVIIe siecle: Etude Economtque (Paris, 1960)), pp. 209-12. 4. A. Simon, ed., The Bolton Letters: the Letters of an English Merchant in Madeira 1695- 1714, vol. 1: 1695-1700 (London, 1928), pp. 17-19, and p. 56, letter 16; Duncan, Atlantic Islands, pp. 38-9. 5. Simon, ed., Bolton Letters, p. 20; Duncan, Atlantic Islands, p. 42; Mauro, Le Portugal, le Bresil, pp. 411-21. 6. Duncan, Atlantic Islands, pp. 38-9, 46, 52, 54-60. 7. Simon, ed., Bolton Letters, p. 14. 8. Biographies ibid., pp. 6-7, footnote. 9. East Indies: Simon, ed., Bolton Letters, p. 132, letter 62. 10. Ibid., p. 8; Azorean wheat: ibid., p. 29, letter 4, p. 76, letter 27, p. 87, letter 34, p. 119, letter 55; Dutch wheat: ibid., p. 49, letter 12; Scottish beef, butter and herrings: ibid., p. 65, letter 21; sugar unloaded in Madeira: ibid., p. 82, letter 31; Mauro, Le Portugal, le Bresil, p. 352; A. Vieira, O comercio inter-insular nos seculos XV e XVI: Madeira, Azores e Canarias (Funchal, 1987). 11. Simon, ed., Bolton Letters, pp. 24-5, letter 2. 12. Ibid., pp. 41-4, letter 10. 13. Ibid., p. 172, letter 88, p. 174, letter 90. 14. Ibid., p. 124, letter 58. 15. Duncan, Atlantic Islands, pp. 88-9, 108-10, tables 16-18. 16. Ibid., pp. 111, 124, 140, 147, 151-3, 156. 17. Ibid., pp. 125-7. 18. Ibid., pp. 135-6; Angra, a Terceira e os Azores nas Rotas da India e das Americas (Angra do Heroismo, 1999). 19. Duncan, Atlantic Islands, pp. 168-71. 2°. A. Crosby, Ecological Imperialism: the Biological Expansion of Europe, 900-1900 (Cambridge, 1986). 21. Duncan, Atlantic Islands, pp. 167, 176, 188. 22. A. J. d’Oliveira Bou^as, Apelo em pro das ruinas da antiga cidade da Ribeira Grande em Santiago - C. Verde 1533-1933 (Praia, 1933; new edn as Cidade velha: Ribeira Grande de Santiago, Praia, 2013). 23. T. Green, The Rise of the Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade in Western Africa, 1300-1589 (Cambridge, 2012); A. Carreira, Cabo Verde: Formagao e Extingdo de uma Sociedade escravocrata (1460-1878) (3rd edn, Praia de Santiago, 2000). 24. Mauro, Le Portugal, le Bresil, pp. 188-9; Duncan, Atlantic Islands, pp. 199-200; M. L. Stig Sorensen, C. Evans and K. Richter, ‘A Place of History: Archaeology and Heritage at Cidade Velha, Cape Verde’, in P. Lane and K. McDonald, eds., Slavery in Africa: Archaeology and Memory (Proceedings of the British Academy, vol. 168, 2011), pp. 421-42. 25. Duncan, Atlantic Islands, pp. 230-31; baptism: Carreira, Cabo Verde, pp. 259-80. 26. P. Mark and

J. da Silva Horta, The Forgotten Diaspora Jewish Communities in West Africa and the Making of the Atlantic World (Cambridge, 2011); Green, Rise of the Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade ; Car­reira, Cabo Verde, pp. 55-78, 146. 27. Duncan, Atlantic Islands, p. 215. 28. Ibid., pp. 219-24. 29. Ibid., pp. 207, 210. 3°. S. Royle, The Company's Island: St Helena, Company Colonies and the Colonial Endeavour (London, 2007), pp. 9, 11 (whence the seventeenth­century quotation). 31. A. R. Azzam, The Other Exile: the Remarkable Story of Fernao Lopes, the Island of Saint Helena, and a Paradise Lost (London, 2017); Royle, Company's Island, p. 12; chapel: ibid., p. 19, fig. 2:7. 32. Royle, Company's Island, p. 14, fig. 2:3. 33. ‘Prosperous voyage of the worshipful Thomas Candish’, in J. Beeching, ed., Hakluyt: Voyages and Discoveries (Harmondsworth, 1972) pp. 276-97. 34. Royle, Company's Island, pp. 11-19; P. Stern, The Company- State: Corporate Sovereignty and the Early Modern Founda­tions of the British Empire in India (New York and Oxford, 2011), p. 21; J. McAleer, Britain’s Maritime Empire: Southern Africa, the South Atlantic and the Indian Ocean, 1763-1820 (Cambridge, 2017), p. 74. 35. McAleer, Britain's Maritime Empire, pp. 73-7. 36. Ibid., pp. 34-5; Royle, Company’s Island, pp. 85-7. 37. Royle, Company's Island, pp. 23-4, 27-8,46, 51 (fig. 3:1), 175-7 (tables 3:2, 3:3, 3:4 - adjusting Royle’s figures to accommodate ‘free blacks’ as non-slaves). 38. Ibid., pp. 39-41. 39. Ibid., pp. 101-2. 4°. McAleer, Britain’s Maritime Empire, pp. 78-9; Royle, The Company’s Island, pp. 53-4. 41. McAleer, Britain’s Maritime Empire, pp. 78-80. 42. Ibid., pp. 2, 9-10, 17, 24-7. 43. W. Hamond, Madagascar, the Richest and most Fruitfull Island in the world (London, 1643; t itle-page reproduced in

K. McDonald, Pirates, Merchants, Settlers, and Slaves: Colonial America and the Indo- Atlantic World (Oakland, 2015), p. 73, fig. 8); W. Hamond, A Paradox Prooving that the Inhabitants of the Isle called Madagascar or St Laurence (in Temporall things) are the happiest People in the World (London, 1640). 44. S. Randrianja and S. Ellis, Madagascar: a Short History (London, 2009), pp. 54-66. 45. Ibid., pp. 110-11. 46. Ibid., pp. 4, 102, 226. 47. R. Allen, European Slave Trading in the Indian Ocean, 1500- 1850 (Athens, Oh., 2014), p. 59; D. Eltis and D. Richardson, Atlas of the Transatlantic Slave Trade (New Haven, 2010), pp. 4-5, map 1; pp. 18-19, map 11; pp. 154-5, maps 107-9. 48. Allen, European Slave Trading, pp. 37, 49. 49. McDonald, Pirates, Merchants, pp. 82-3. 5°. Ibid., pp. 84-92; Allen, European Slave Trading, pp. 72-8. 51. Allen, European Slave Trading, pp. 36, 48; also p. 58, table 8.. 52. McDonald, Pirates, Merchants, pp. 116-21; Randrianja and Ellis, Madagascar, p. 106. 53. Allen, European Slave Trading, pp. 47-56, and p. 54, table 7. 54. Ibid., pp. 50, 75-6; and p. 75, table 10, calculating average cargoes out of Madagascar, 1718-1809.

43. The Wickedest Place on Earth

1. N. Zahedieh, ‘“A Frugal, Prudential and Hopeful Trade”: Privateering in Jamaica, 1655­89’, Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History, vol. 18 (1990), p. 149. 2. S. Talty, Empire of Blue Water: Henry Morgan and the Pirates Who Ruled the Caribbean Waves (London, 2007), pp. 39-40; David Abulafia, The Great Sea: a Human History of the Mediterranean (London, 2011), pp. 415-20; cattle in Hispaniola: J. del Rio Moreno, Ganad- eria, plantaciones y comercio azucarero antillano, siglos XVI y XVII (Santo Domingo, 2012). 3. Talty, Empire of Blue Water, pp. 131-2. 4. P. Neher, ‘The Pure Theory of the Muggery', American Economic Review, vol. 68 (1978), pp. 437-45; I owe my knowledge of this work and my awareness of its use in discussing piracy to Peter Earle. See also Zahedieh, ‘“Frugal, Prudential and Hopeful Trade”', p. 145. 5. J. Rogozihski, A Brief History of the Caribbean from the Arawak and the Carib to the Present Day (New York, 1992), pp. 101-2. 6. K. O. Kuperman, Roanoke, the Abandoned Colony (2nd edn, Lanham, 2007). 7. K. O. Kupperman, The Jamestown Project (Cambridge, Mass., 2007); J. Evans, Emigrants: Why the English Sailed to the New World (London, 2017), p. 4; J. Butman and S. Targett, New World, Inc.: How England’ Merchants Founded America and Launched the British Empire (London, 2018), pp. 260-74. 8. M. Jarvis, In the Eye of All Trade: Bermuda, Ber­mudians, and the Maritime Atlantic World, 1680-1783 (Chapel Hill and Williamsburg, Va., 2010), pp. 11-18, 26-32, 37-50, 105, 111, 113, and table 3, p. 114. 9. Evans, Emigrants, pp. 5-6. 10. R. Fraser, The Mayflower Generation: the Winslow Family and the Fight for the New World (London, 2017). 11. Evans, Emigrants, pp. 84-91. 12. S. White, A Cold Welcome: the Little Ice Age and Europe’s Encounter with North America (Cambridge, Mass., 2017); G. Parker, Global Crisis: War, Climate Change and Catastrophe in the Seventeenth Century (New Haven, 2013); Evans, Emigrants, pp. 246-58, 268. 13. H. Beckles, A History of Barbados from Amerindian Settlement to Caribbean Single Market (Cambridge, 2006), pp. 8-9; P. Drewett, ed., Prehistoric Barbados (Bridgetown and London, 1991). 14. Rogozihski, Brief History of the Caribbean, p. 67. 15. Cited by T. Hunt, Ten Cities That Made an Empire (London, 2014), p. 72. 16. Beckles, History of Barbados, pp. 18-20, 31, 36-8, 50-51, 53-8. 17. B. Higman, A. Concise History of the Caribbean (Cambridge, 2011), pp. 87-8, 169-70. 18. Rogozihski, Brief History of the Caribbean, p. 69; Higman, Concise History of the Caribbean, pp. 98-109; P. Jones, Satan’s Kingdom: Bristol and the Transatlantic Slave Trade (Bristol, 2007),pp. 12-13. 19. C. G. Pestana, The English Conquest of Jamaica: Oliver Cromwell’s Bid for Empire (Cambridge, Mass., 2017); L. H. Roper, Advancing Empire: English Interests and Overseas Expansion, 1613-1688 (Cambridge, 2017), pp. 154-6. 20.

F. Morales Padron, Spanish Jamaica (Kingston, Jamaica, 2003), p. 183; E. Kritzler, Jewish Pirates of the Caribbean (New York, 2008), pp. 183- 5; cf. L. Wolf, Jews in the Canary Islands, being a Calendar of Jewish Cases Extracted from the Records of the Canariote Inquisition in the Collection of the Marquess of Bute (London, 1926; new edn, Toronto, 2001), pp. xxxviii- xl. 21. B. Vega, La derrota de los Ingleses en Santo Domingo, 1655 (Aranjuez, 2013), pp. 24, 27-9,94-6;Pestana, English Conquest of Jamaica, pp. 66-92; passage about English position cited from Kritzler, Jewish Pirates, p. 191; see also M. Hanna, Pirate Nests and the Rise of the British Empire, 1570-1740 (Chapel Hill, 2015), pp. 98-101. 22. Vega, Derrota de los Ingleses, pp. 37-102; Morales Padron, Spanish Jamaica, p. 184. 23. Roper, Advancing Empire, pp. 156-7. 24. Pestana, English Conquest of Jamaica, pp. 98-105. 25. Cited by Kritzler, Jewish Pirates, p. 189. 26. Morales Padron, Spanish Jamaica, pp. 51-121, 172; P. Hoffman, The Spanish Crown and the Defense of the Caribbean, 1535-1585: Precedent, Patrimonialism, and Royal Parsimony (Baton Rouge, 1980), p. 121. 27. N. Zahedieh, ‘Trade, Plunder and Economic Development in Early English Jamaica, 1655-89', Economic History Review, ser. 2, vol. 39 (1986), pp. 205-22. 28. Pestana, English Conquest of Jamaica, p. 119. 29. Ibid., pp. 119-21. 30. Vega, Derrota de los Ingleses, p. 107; Pestana, English Conquest of Jamaica, p. 138; Kritzler, Jewish Pirates, p. 192. 31. Roper, Advancing Empire, p. 159. 32. W. Westergaard, The Danish West Indies under Company Rule (1671-1754) (New York, 1917), pp. 3 1-42; Higman, Concise History of the Caribbean, pp. 91-4; Rogozihski, Brief History of the Caribbean, pp. 57-82. 33. Kritzler, Jewish Pirates, p. 194; S. Fortune, Merchants and Jews: the Struggle for British West Indian Commerce, 1650- 1750 (Gainesville, 1984). 34. Kritzler, Jewish Pirates, pp. 216-19, 233-4, 257-63; N. Zahedieh, ‘The Merchants of Port Royal, Jamaica, and the Spanish Contraband Trade, 1655-1692', William and Mary Quarterly, vol. 43 (1986), pp. 579-80; treasure chest: R. Marx, Pirate Port: the Story of the

Sunken City of Port Royal (London, 1968), pp. 177-80; Hanna, Pirate Nests, pp. 109-10. 35. Zahedieh, ‘Merchants of Port Royal', pp. 574-5; Zahedieh, ‘“Frugal, Prudential and Hopeful Trade”', p. 146. 36. Pestana, English Conquest of Jamaica, p. 255; C. Pestana, ‘Early English Jamaica without Pirates', William and Mary Quarterly, vol. 71 (2014), pp. 321-60. 37. D. Pope, Harry Morgan’s Way: the Biography of Sir Henry Morgan 1635-1684 (London, 1977), pp. 76-81. 38. Talty, Empire of Blue Water, pp. 41-5; Pope, Harry Morgan’s Way, pp. 90­99. 39. J. Beeching, ‘Introduction', in A. Exquemeling, The Buccaneers of America, transl. A. Brown (Harmondsworth, 1969), pp. 14-15; cf. Hanna, Pirate Nests, p. 104. 40. Pope, Harry Morgan’s Way, pp. 67, 73. 41. Talty, Empire of Blue Water, pp. 101-21; Zahedieh, ‘Trade, Plunder and Economic Development', p. 216: about £60 per head, three times the annual plantation wage. 42. P. Earle, The Sack of Panama (London, 1981); Pope, Harry Morgan’s Way, pp. 212-47. 43. G. Thomas, The Buccaneer King: the Story of Captain Henry Morgan (London, 2014), pp. ix, 7; Hanna, Pirate Nests, pp. 103-4. 44. Zahedieh, ‘“Frugal, Prudential and Hopeful Trade”', p. 152. 45. Pope, Harry Morgan’s Way, pp. 333-5; Hanna, Pirate Nests, pp. 138-40. 46. Hanna, Pirate Nests, pp. 106-7. 47. Zahedieh, ‘“Frugal, Prudential and Hopeful Trade”', pp. 155-6. 48. Zahedieh, ‘Merchants of Port Royal', pp. 570-71; Zahedieh, ‘“Frugal, Prudential and Hopeful Trade”', pp. 158, 161. 49. Zahedieh, ‘“Frugal, Prudential and Hopeful Trade”', p. 148. 50. M. Pawson and D. Buisseret, Port Royal Jamaica (2nd edn, Kingston, Jamaica, 2000), p. 94. 51. Marx, Pirate Port, p. 175. 52. Pawson and Buisseret, Port Royal Jamaica, p. 87. 53. Ibid., p. 89. 54. Zahedieh, ‘Merchants of Port Royal', pp. 583-4, 589-92; Pawson and Buisseret, Port Royal Jamaica, p. 92. 55. Zahedieh, ‘Trade, Plunder and Economic Development', p. 220; Marx, Pirate Port, pp. 158­9. 56. Marx, Pirate Port, pp. 122, 134, 153, etc. 57. Pawson and Buisseret, Port Royal Jamaica, pp. 158-61; cf. Talty, Empire of Blue Water, pp. 130, 132-5. 58. Pawson and Buis- seret, Port Royal Jamaica, pp. 135-6. 59. Ibid., pp. 109-11, 120-21. 60. Ibid., pp. 165-8.

44. A Long Way to China

i. K. McDonald, Pirates, Merchants, Settlers, and Slaves: Colonial America and the Indo­Atlantic World (Oakland, 2015); R. Allen, European Slave Trading in the Indian Ocean, 1500-1850 (Athens, Oh., 2014). 2. J. Goldstein, Philadelphians and the China Trade 1682-1846: Commercial, Cultural, and Attitudinal Effects (University Park, Pa., 1978), p. 17; M. Christman, Adventurous Pursuits: Americans and the China Trade 1784- 1844 (Washington DC, 1984). 3. C. Matson, Merchants and Empire: Trading in Colonial New York (Baltimore, 1998), pp. 142-3, 146-8; source of quotation: p. 183; C. Frank, Objectify­ing China: Chinese Commodities in Early America (Chicago, 2011), p. 56, table 1:2; Gold­stein, Philadelphians and the China Trade, pp. 17-20. 4. Frank, Objectifying China, pp.

5, 1, 12. 5. Ibid., pp. 13-22, 92; examples from the 1790s of E PLURIBUS UNUM in Rhode Island School of Design Museum, Providence, RI. 6. Christman, Adventurous Pursuits, p. 22. 7. J. Fichter, So Great a Proffit: How the East Indies Trade Transformed Anglo-American Capitalism (Cambridge, Mass., 2010), pp. 93-4, 209. 8. Frank, Objectify­ing China, pp. 31, 34-7. 9. Ibid., pp. 31, 34-7; Goldstein, Philadelphians and the China Trade, pp. 18, 20. 10. He Sibing, Macao in the Making of Sino-American Relations, 1784-1844 (Macau, 2015), p. 42. 11. E. Dolin, When America First Met China: an Exotic History of Tea, Drugs, and Money in the Age of Sail (New York, 2012), pp. 65-71. 12. Cited by Frank, Objectifying China, p. 203. 13. Dolin, When America First Met China, pp. 4-6. 14. James Cook, The Journals (2nd edn, London, 2003), p. 559. 15. Dolin, When America First Met China, pp.9-11;J. Kirker, Ad-ventures to China: Americans in the South­ern Oceans 1792-1812 (New York, 1970), pp. 8, 13-19. 16. Dolin, When America First Met China, pp. 12-13; He, Macao in the Making of Early Sino-American Relations, p. 43. 17. Dolin, When America First Met China, pp. 20-21. 18. Text in Goldstein, Phila­delphians and the China Trade, p. 32. 19. Cited by Dolin, When America First Met China, p. 22. 20. Cited by Dolin, When America First Met China, p. 74; on Shaw: He, Macao in the Making of Sino-American Relations, p. 44. 21. Dolin, When America First Met China, pp. 80-84. 22. Ibid., p. 78; text of sea letter in He, Macao in the Making of Sino-American Relations, p. 43; ‘New People': p. 45. 23. Cited by He, Macao in the Making of Sino-American Relations, p. 45. 24. J. Downs, The Golden Ghetto: the American Commercial Community at Canton and the Shaping of American China Policy, 1784-1844 (Bethlehem, Pa., and Cranbury, NJ, 1997), pp. 26-9. 25. R. Nield, The China Coast: Trade and the First Treaty Ports (Hong Kong, 2010), pp. 48-55, 124-6; Downs, Golden Ghetto, pp. 29, 37, 45, 48, 65-6. 26. W. E. Cheong, The Hong Merchants of Canton: Chinese Merchants in Sino- Western Trade (Richmond, Surrey, 1997), pp. 193-213; Downs, Golden Ghetto, pp. 73-4. 27. P. Van Dyke, The Canton Trade: Life and Enter-prise on the China Coast, 1700-1845 (Hong Kong and Macau, 2005), pp. 19-33; Christman, Adventurous Pursuits, p. 23; P. Van Dyke, Merchants of Canton and Macao, vol. 1: Politics and Strategies in Eighteenth- Century Chinese Trade (Hong Kong, 2011), pp. 49-66, and vol. 2: Success and Failure in Chinese Trade (Hong Kong, 2016); Downs, Golden Ghetto, p. 77. 28. Downs, Golden Ghetto, pp. 81-5, 151-4; Nield, China Coast, pp. 48-50; Dolin, When America First Met China, pp. 173-6; Christman, Adventurous Pursuits, pp. 85-91. 29. He, Macao in the Making of Sino-American Relations, pp. 46-7. 30. Fichter, So Great a Proffit, pp. 31-5. 31. Kirker, Adventures to China, pp. 13-23, 35-47; J. Harrison, Forgotten Footprints: Lost Stories in the Discovery of Antactica (Cardigan, 2012). 32. R. Dana Jr, Two Years before the Mast: a Personal Narrative of Life at Sea (New York, 1840, and later editions), ch. 5. 33. Fichter, So Great a Proffit, pp. 49-5; Christman, Adventurous Pursuits, p. 35; S. Ridley, Morning of Fire: John Kendrick’s Daring American Odyssey in the Pacific (New York, 2010), p. 23. 34. Ridley, Morning of Fire, pp. 30-34. 35. Ibid., p. 33. 36. Ibid., pp. 61-3. 37. Ibid., pp. 67-8. 38. Fichter, So Great a Proffit, pp. 51-2. 39. D. Pethick, The Nootka Connection: Europe and the Northwest Coast 1790-1795 (Vancouver, 1980), p. 5. 40. Christman, Adventurous Pursuits, pp. 34-5. 41. Pethick, Nootka Connection, pp. 56-61. 42. Kirker, Adventures to China, pp. 35-6. 43. Ibid., pp. 19-21, 50-64. 44. Fichter, So Great a Proffit, pp. 272-7.

45. Fur and Fire

i. R. Makarova, Russians on the Pacific 1743-1799 (Kingston, Ont., 1975), ed. and transl. R. Pierce and A. Donnelly from the original edition (Moscow, 1968), pp. 78-84 - an inter­esting example of Soviet-era historical interpretation. 2. See Muller's account of Dezhnev's voyage in F. Golder, Russian Expansion on the Pacific 1641-1850 (2nd edn, New York, 1971), pp. 268-81, followed by Dezhnev's own report, pp. 282-8. 3. Makarova, Russians on the Pacific, pp. 31-2. 4. Ibid., p. 107; J. Gibson, Feeding the Russian Fur Trade: Provi- sionment of the Okhotsk Seaboard and the Kamchatka Peninsula 1639-1856 (Madison, 1969), p. 131. 5. Golder, Russian Expansion on the Pacific, pp. 71-95, 98-9; Makarova, Russians on the Pacific, p. 32. 6. Golder, Russian Expansion on the Pacific, p. 33. 7. Ibid., pp. 40-55. 8. B. Dmytryshyn, E. Crownhart-Vaughan and T. Vaughan, eds., To Siberia and Russian America: Three Centuries of Russian Eastward Expansion, vol. 2: Russian Penetration of the North Pacific Ocean 1700- 1797: a Documentary Record (Portland, Ore., 1988), doc. 12, pp. 59-63, standardizing spelling in the quotation. 9. G. Barratt, Russia in Pacific Waters, 1715-1825: a Survey of the Origins of Russia’s Naval Presence in the North and South Pacific (Vancouver, 1981), pp. 7-9. 10. Instructions of 23 December 1724, signed on 26 January 1725, in Golder, Russian Expansion on the Pacific, p. 134; Dmytryshyn et al., eds., Russian Penetration of the North Pacific Ocean, doc. 15, pp. 66-7; also Barratt, Russia in Pacific Waters, pp. 13-14. 11. M. North, The Baltic: a History (Cambridge, Mass., 2015), pp. 146, 180. 12. Barratt, Russia in Pacific Waters, pp. 18-19. 13. Dmytryshyn et al., eds., Russian Penetration of the North Pacific Ocean, p. xxxvii, and doc. 22, pp. 96- 100. 14. Ibid., doc. 22, p. 99. 15. Golder, Russian Expansion on the Pacific, pp. 220-26. 16. Makarova, Russians on the Pacific, p. 69: Egor Peloponisov. 17. Makarova, Russians on the Pacific, pp. 45-6. 18. Ibid., pp. 66, 96-7. 19. Ibid., pp. 67-9. 20. Ibid., pp. 71-2. 21. Dmytryshyn et al., eds., Russian Penetration of the North Pacific Ocean, doc. 50, p. 321. 22. Ibid., doc. 86, pp. 510-15. 23. Shelikov cited by Barratt, Russia in Pacific Waters, pp. 100-101; Makarova, Russians on the Pacific, p. 4. 24. J. Gibson, Otter Skins, Boston Ships, and China Goods: the Maritime Fur Trade of the Northwest Coast, 1785-1841 (Seattle and Montreal, 1992), p. 16; Barratt, Russia in Pacific Waters, p. 110. 25. Barratt, Russia in Pacific Waters, pp. 102, 110. 26. Cited ibid., p. 109. 27. Barratt, Russia in Pacific Waters, pp. 114-15. 28. Ibid., pp. 119-20. 29. Ibid., pp. 123-9; Gibson, Otter Skins, pp. 14-16. 30. Barratt, Russia in Pacific Waters, pp. 131-8. 31. J. Gascoigne, Encountering the Pacific in the Age of Enlightenment (Cambridge, 2014), pp. 133, 408. 32. T. Lummis, Pacific Paradises: the Discovery of Tahiti and Hawaii (Stroud, 2005). 33. Gascoigne, Encountering the Pacific, p. 195; N. Thomas, Islanders: the Pacific in the Age of Empire (New Haven, 2010). 34. Cited in Lummis, Pacific Paradises, p. 5; M. K. Matsuda, Pacific Worlds: a History of Seas, Peoples, and Cultures (Cambridge, 2012), pp. 133-4; A. Couper, Sailors and Traders: a Maritime History of the Pacific Peoples (Honolulu, 2009), pp. 64-5; Gascoigne, Encountering the Pacific, pp. 134-7. 35. Gascoigne, Encountering the Pacific, pp. 134-7. 36. Lummis, Pacific Paradises, pp. 7-10. 37. A. Salmond, Aphrodite's Island: the European Discovery of Tahiti (Berkeley and Los Angeles, 2009), pp. 20-21. 38. Lummis, Pacific Paradises, pp. 13-14; Matsuda, Pacific Worlds, pp. 134-6; Gascoigne, Encountering the Pacific, pp. 146-8, 203-4; D. Igler, The Great Ocean: Pacific Worlds from Captain Cook to the Gold Rush (Oxford and New York, 2013), pp. 49-51. 39. Gascoigne, Encountering the Pacific, p. 233. 40. Ibid., pp. 141, 265. 41. Ibid., pp. 110, 137. 42. D. Sobel, Longitude: the True Story of a Lone Genius Who Solved the Greatest Scientific Problem of His Time (London, 1995), pp. 138-51. 43. Matsuda, Pacific Worlds,pp. 136-7; Gascoigne, Encounter­ing the Pacific, pp. 138-9; Salmond, Aphrodite’s Island, pp. 36-8, 174-7, 203-35; Thomas, Islanders, pp. 17-19 (Tupaia's map: fig. 4, p. 18); Couper, Sailors and Traders, pp. 1-2, 67-8. 44. Couper, Sailors and Traders, pp. 1-2. 45. Ibid., pp. 36-7. 46. Lummis, Pacific Paradises, pp. 77-8. 47. Ibid., pp. 64-5. 48. Cited in Lummis, Pacific Paradises, p. 70; fea­ther cloaks: ibid., p. 78. 49. Ibid.,pp.71-6. 50. Couper, Sailors and Traders,pp. 83-4. 51. Ibid., pp.83-5,88. 52. S. Reynolds, The Voyage of the New Hazard to the Northwest Coast, Hawaii and China, 1810- 1813, ed. F. Howay (2nd edn, Fairfield, Wash., 1970); Couper, Sailors and Traders, pp. 86-8. 53. Lummis, Pacific Paradises, pp. 80-86, 95-7. 54. Ibid., pp. 87-91. 55. Cited by Couper, Sailors and Traders, p. 88. 56. Matsuda, Pacific Worlds, p. 189. 57. Couper, Sailors and Traders, p. 83. 58. Lummis, Pacific Paradises, pp. 94-101.

46. From the Lion’s Gate to the Fragrant Harbour

i. M. R. Frost and Yu-Mei Balasingamchow, Singapore: a Biography (Singapore and Hong Kong, 2009), pp. 34-5; J. C. Perry, Singapore: Unlikely Power (New York, 2017), pp. 29, 34. 2. Perry, Singapore, p. 5. 3. K. C. Guan, D. Heng and T. T. Yong, Singapore: a 700­Year History (Singapore, 2009), pp. 53-82; Frost and Balasingamchow, Singapore, pp. 34-7; Perry, Singapore, p. 27. 4. Cf., however, the darker view of N. Wright, William Farquhar and Singapore: Stepping Out from Raffles’ Shadow (Penang, 2017). 5. Cited by V. Glendin­ning, Raffles and the Golden Opportunity (London, 2012), p. 111. 6. Glendinning, Raffles, pp. 176-9; Perry, Singapore, p. 34; Sir Stamford Raffles, The History of Java (2 vols., 2nd edn, London, 1830); cf. Wright, William Farquhar, pp. 7-13. 7. Cited by Guan et al., Singa­pore, p. 85, and in Frost and Balasingamchow, Singapore, p. 47. 8. Frost and Balasingam­chow, Singapore, pp. 54-5. 9. Perry, Singapore, p. 39; also K. C. Guan, ‘Singapura as a Central Place in Malay History and Identity’, and C. Skott, ‘Imagined Centrality: Sir Stam­ford Raffles and the Birth of Modern Singapore’, both in K. Hack, J.-L. Margolin and K. Delaye, eds., Singapore from Temasek to the 21st Century: Rein-venting the Global City (Singapore, 2010), pp. 133-54, 155-84. 10. Frost and Balasingamchow, Singapore, pp. 41-6, 73-5; Perry, Singapore, pp. 37, 41. ii. Perry, Singapore, p. 40. i2. Frost and Balasingam- chow, Singapore, pp. 63, 65-9. 13. Guan et al., Singapore, p. 111; Wright, William

Farquhar, p. 119. 14. Guan et al., Singapore, p. 113; C. Paix, ‘Singapore as a Central Place between the West, Asia and China: From the 19th to the 21st Centuries’, in Hack et al., Singapore from Temasek to the 21st Century, p. 212. 15. Peranakans are also known as ‘Straits Chinese’ - see the exhibits in the Peranakan Museum, Singapore; Frost and Balas- ingamchow, Singapore, pp. 93-8. 16. Perry, Singapore, pp. 13-14, 35 17. Guan et al., Singapore, pp. 108-9; Wright, William Farquhar, p. 108. 18. Guan et al., Singapore, pp. 116-20. 19. F. Welsh, A History of Hong Kong (2nd edn, London, 1997), pp. 52-5; R. Nield, The China Coast: Trade and the First Treaty Ports (Hong Kong, 2oio),pp. 127-8; T. Hunt, Ten Cities That Made an Empire (London, 2014), pp. 233-4. 20. Hunt, Ten The Cities, pp. 232, 234 21. Welsh, History of Hong Kong, pp. 43, 79; R. Nield, China Coast, p. 129. 22. Lin Zexu’s letter to Queen Victoria cited by Hunt, Ten Cities, p. 235; J. Lovell, The Opium War: Drugs, Dreams and the Making of China (London, 2011). 23. Quoted by Hunt, Ten Cities, p. 238. 24. Welsh, History of Hong Kong, pp. 106-12 (Palmerston on p. 108); Hunt, Ten Cities, p. 240. 25. Nield, China Coast, pp. 175-8, 181; Hunt, Ten Cities, pp. 239, 242, 245, 255-6. 26. Nield, China Coast, pp. 179-80, 184.

47. Muscateers and Mogadorians

i. M. Pearson, Port Cities and Intruders: the Swahili Coast, India, and Portugal in the Early Modern Era (Baltimore, 1998), p. 159; N. Bennett, A History of the Arab State of Zanzibar (London, 1978), pp. 11-12. 2. Pearson, Port Cities and Intruders, p. 162. 3. Cited by P. Risso, Oman and Muscat: an Early Modern History (London, 1986), p. 192; M. R. Bhacker, Trade and Empire in Muscat and Zanzibar: Roots of British Domination (London, 1992), pp. 12, 67-74. 4. Risso, Oman and Muscat, pp. 78-85; Bennett, History of the Arab State, pp. 14-15. 5. Risso, Oman and Muscat, pp. 101, 106, 170-72; Bhacker, Trade and Empire, p. 26. 6. T. Hunt, Ten Cities That Made an Empire (London, 2014), p. 202. 7. Risso, Oman and Muscat, pp. 198-9. 8. Cited by Bennett, History of the Arab State, p. 14. 9. Bennett, History of the Arab State, pp. 19-21. 10. Cited from a nineteenth-century French source by W. Phillips, Oman: a Short History (London, 1967), p. 127. 11. A. al-Maamiry, Omani Sultans in Zanzibar (1832-1964) (New Delhi, 1988), pp. 3-4. 12. J. Jones and N. Ridout, A History of Modern Oman (Cambridge, 2015), pp. 53-4; Bennett, History of the Arab State, pp. 57-8; Bhacker, Trade and Empire, pp. 71, 92-3; UNESCO, World’s Heritage (4th edn, Paris and Glasgow, 2015), p. 612. 13. A. Sheriff, Slaves, Spices and Ivory in Zanzibar: Integration of an East African Commercial Empire into the World Economy, 1770-1873 (London, Nairobi andDar-es-Salaam, i987),pp. 49, 62-5; al-Maamiry, Omani Sultans in Zanzibar, p. 6. 14. Jones and Ridout, History of Modern Oman, pp. 61-2; Sheriff, Slaves, Spices and Ivory, pp. 77, 9i-9; al-Maamiry, Omani Sultans in Zanzibar, p. 5; Bennett, History of the Arab State, p. 43; Bhacker, Trade and Empire, pp. 77-8 (graph and table show­ing revenues from Muscat and Zanzibar), also pp. 108-10, 121. 15. D. Cesarani and

G. Romain, eds., Jews and Port Cities 1590-1990: Commerce, Community and Cosmopoli­tanism (London, 2006). 16. D. Schroeter, Merchants of Essaouira: Urban Society and Imperialism in Southwestern Morocco, 1844-1886 (Cambridge, 1988), pp. 1, 219-21. 17. Ibid., pp. 7-12, and map 3, pp. 16-17. 18. D. Schroeter, The Sultan’s Jew: Morocco and the Sephardi World (Stanford, 2002), pp. 44-5. 19. P. Fenton and D. Littman, Exile in the Maghreb: Jews under Islam, Sources and Documents, 997-1912 (Madison, 2016). 20. Schroeter, Merchants of Essaouira, pp. 34-42. 21. Quoted from Schroeter, Sultan’s Jew, p. 86; see also J. A. O. C. Brown, Crossing the Strait: Morocco, Gibraltar and Great Britain in the 18th and 19th Centuries (Leiden, 2012), p. 45. 22. M. Abitbol, Les Commergants du roi - Tuffar al-Sultàn: une elite economique judeo-marocaine au XIXe siècle (Paris, 1998), letters 5-6, pp. 30-31, and letter 11, p. 37; M. Abitbol, Temoins et acteurs: les Corcos et l’histoire du Maroc contemporain - Mishpahat Qorqos: ve-ha-Historiya shel Maroqo bizemanenu (Jerusalem, 1977); Schroeter, Merchants of Essaouira, pp. 21, 23. 23. D. Cor- cos, ‘Les Juifs du Maroc et leurs mellahs', in D. Corcos, Studies in the History of the Jews of

Morocco (Jerusalem, 1976), pp. 64-130; cf. S. Deshen, The Mellah Society: Jewish Community Life in Sherifian Morocco (Chicago, 1989). 24. Schroeter, Sultan’s Jew, p. 110, fig. 14. 25. For example, Schroeter, Merchants of Essaouira, p. 49. 26. Ibid., pp. 40-41; Schroeter, Sultan’s Jew, p. 19. 27. Schroeter, Merchants of Essaouira, pp. 19, 79, 95-120. 28. Brown, Crossing the Strait, pp. 125-7. 29. Schroeter, Merchants of Essaoiura, pp. 125-8. 30. Ibid., p. 50. 31. Brown, Crossing the Strait, p. 129. 32. Ibid., pp. 94-120, 127, 129-30. 33. Schroeter, Sultan’s Jew, pp. 46, 78; Brown, Crossing the Strait, pp. 17, 49-51. 34. Schroeter, Sultan’s Jew, pp. 44-5. 35. F. Sequeira Dias, ‘Os empresarios micaelenses no seclo XIX: o exemplo de sucesso de Elias Bensaude (1807-1868)’, Analise Social, vol. 31 (1996), pp. 437-64, drawing on her doctoral thesis, Uma estrategia de sucesso numa economia perifèrica: a Casa Bensaude e os Azores, 1800-1873 (Ponta Delgada, 1993). 36. Figures from T. B. Duncan, Atlantic Islands: Madeira, the Azores and the Cape Verdes in Seventeenth-Century Commerce and Navigation (Chicago, 1972), pp. 1-4, 22, 162-3; A. Prata, ‘Porto Grande of S. Vicente: the Coal Business on an Atlantic Island’, in M. Suarez Bosa, ed., Atlantic Ports and the First Globalisation c. 1850-1930 (Basingstoke, 2014),pp. 49-69. 37. M. Serels, The Jews of Cape Verde: a Brief History (Brooklyn, 1997), pp. 21-4, 38. 38. A. Jaffer, Lascars and Indian Ocean Seafaring, 1780- 1860: Shipboard Life, Unrest and Mutiny (Martlesham, 2015).

PART FIVE

THE OCEANS CONTAINED

48. Continents Divided, Oceans Conjoined

i. G. Williams, ed., The Quest for the Northwest Passage (London, 2007), pp. 433-58. 2. I. Sanderson, A History of Whaling (New York, 1993), pp. 213-17; A. Dudden, ‘The Sea of Japan/Korea’s East Sea’, in D. Armitage, A. Bashford and S. Sivasundaram, eds., Oceanic Histories (Cambridge, 2018), pp. 197-8. 3. H. Melville, Moby-Dick; or, The Whale (New York, 1851), ch. 111. 4. T. Toyoda, History of pre-Meiji Commerce in Japan (Tokyo, 1969), pp. 92-4. 5. W. Beasley, The Japanese Experience: a Short History of Japan (London, 1999), pp. 191-3; B. Walker, A Concise History of Japan (Cambridge, 2015), pp. 145-6; W. J. Macpherson, The Economic Development of Japan 1868- 1941 (2nd edn, Cambridge, 1995), p. 70, and also pp. 23-4; Toyoda, History of pre-Meiji Commerce, pp. 95-100. 6. D. McCullough, The Path between the Seas: the Creation of the Panama Canal 1870- 1914 (New York, 1977), p. 112. 7. What follows is based on my Great Sea, pp. 545-55, where the creation of the Suez Canal is discussed at greater length. 8. M. Parker, Hell’s Gorge: the Battle to Build the Panama Canal (2nd edn of Panama Fever (London, 2007), London, 2008), p. 15. 9. Z. Karabell, Parting the Desert: the Creation of the Suez Canal (London, 2003), pp. 28-37; J. Marlowe, The Making of the Suez Canal (London, 1964), pp. 44-5. 10. Karabell, Parting the Desert, pp. 131-2; Lord Kinross, Between Two Seas: the Creation of the Suez Canal (London, 1968), pp. 98-9. 11. Karabell, Parting the Desert, p. 260; Kinross, Between Two Seas, p. 287. 12. Marlowe, Making of the Suez Canal, pp. 255-75; Karabell, Parting the Desert, pp. 262-5; R. Blake, Disraeli (London, 1966), pp. 581-70. 13. F. Hyde, Blue Funnel: a History of Alfred Holt and Company of Liverpool from 1865 to 1914 (Liv­erpool, 1956), pp. 20, 24. 14. G. Lo Giudice, L’Austria, Trieste ed il Canale di Suez (Cata­nia, 1981),pp. 180-81;Marlowe, Making of the Suez Canal, p. 260. 15. McCullough, Path between the Seas, p. 34. 16. Index to the Re-ports of the Chief of Engineers, U.S. Army (including the Reports of the Isthmian Canal Commission, 1899- 1914), 1866- 1912, vol. 2: Fortifications, Bridges, Panama Canal, etc., February 16 1914 (63rd Congress, 2nd Session, House of Representatives, Document no. 740, Washington DC, 1916), p. 2551; Parker, Hell’s Gorge, pp. 11-12. 17. McCullough, Path between the Seas, pp. 28-30. 18. Parker, Hell’s Gorge, pp. 18-19. 19. McCullough, Path between the Seas, p. 33; Parker, Hell’s Gorge, pp. 20-24. 20. Quotation from Parker, Hell’s Gorge, p. 32, and more generally see pp. 27-33.

21. Parker, Hell’s Gorge, pp. 38-9. 22. McCullough, Path between the Seas, pp. 61-7; Parker, Hell’s Gorge, p. 46. 23. Parker, Hell’s Gorge, pp. 55-6. 24. Ibid., pp. 107, 109-10. 25. McCullough, Path between the Seas, pp. 160-61; Parker, Hell’s Gorge, pp. 119-23. 26. J. Greene, The Canal Builders: Making America’s Empire at the Panama Canal (New York, 2009), p. 42. 27. McCullough, Path between the Seas, pp. 205-12; Parker, Hell’s Gorge, pp. 160-62. 28. Parker, Hell’s Gorge, p. 159. 29. McCullough, Path between the Seas, pp. 240­41. 30. Ibid., p. 254. 31. Ibid., p. 255, whence also the quotation from Roosevelt. 32. J. Davis, The Gulf: the Making of an American Sea (New York, 2017). 33. A. T. Mahan, The Influence of Sea-Power upon History, 1660-1783 (Boston, 1890), p. 33. 34. McCullough, Path between the Seas, pp. 253, 254-5, 259, 262-3, 268-9; Parker, Hell’s Gorge, p. 173. 35. Greene, Canal Builders, pp. 10, 19-20. 36. Greene, Canal Builders, pp. 46-7, 111-16. 37. McCullough, Path between the Seas, pp. 4 09-2 1; Parker, Hell’s Gorge, pp. 2 38­48. 38. McCullough, Path between the Seas, pp. 492-50, 428-9 (illustrations); Parker, Hell’s Gorge, pp. 211, 306-9; Greene, Canal Builders, pp. 15-18. 39. McCullough, Path between the Seas, p. 610. 40. Greene, CanalBuilders,pp. 51,95-107, 123-58. 41. McCullough, Path between the Seas, pp. 611-12. 42. Parker, Hell’s Gorge, pp. 368-70.

49. Steaming to Asia, Paddling to America

i. N. Jones, The Plimsoll Sensation: the Great Campaign to Save Lives at Sea (London, 2006), p. 10. 2. Jones, Plimsoll Sensation, pp. 1-3. 3. I take this to be the meaning of the comment by L. Paine, The Sea and Civilization: a Maritime History of the World (London, 2014), pp. 531-2. 4. Jones, Plimsoll Sensation, ‘Appendix: Songs and Poems', p. 314. 5. Quoted in Jones, Plimsoll Sensation, ‘Appendix: Songs and Poems', p. 315, from 1875. 6. Jones, Plimsoll Sensation, pp. 201-10. 7. Cited in Jones, Plimsoll Sensation, p. 236. 8. Jones, Plimsoll Sensation, pp. 283-5. 9. F. Hyde, Blue Funnel: A History of Alfred Holt and Com­pany of Liverpool From 1865 to 1914 (Liverpool, 1956), pp. 13-16; F. Hyde, Liver-pool and the Mersey: an Economic History of a Port 1700- 1970 (Newton Abbot, 1971), pp. 54-5 - much of the literature on Liverpool shipping was written by this one scholar. i0. Hyde, Blue Funnel, p. 19; M. Falkus, The Blue Funnel Legend: A History of the Ocean Steamship Company (Basingstoke, 1990), pp. 92-8. 11. G. Milne, ‘North of England Shipowners and Their Business Connections', in L. Fischer and E. Lange, eds., International Merchant Ship­ping in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries: the Comparative Dimension (St John's, Nfdl., 2008), pp. 154-7. 12. T. Hunt, Ten Cities That Made an Empire (London, 2014), pp. 387-94; Hyde, Liverpool and the Mersey, pp. 31-4; F. Hyde, Cunard and the North Atlantic 1840- 1973: a History of Shipping and Financial Management (London, 1975), pp. 129-30. 13. Milne, ‘North of England Shipowners', pp. 153, 159-64. 14. Falkus, Blue Funnel Legend, p. 102, fig. 10, steamship Nestor I; A. Prata, ‘Porto Grande of S. Vicente: the Coal Business on an Atlantic Island', in M. Suarez Bosa, ed., Atlantic Ports and the First Gobalisation c. 1850-1930 (Basingstoke, 2014)', pp. 49-53. 15. D. Howarth and S. How­arth, The Story of P&O: the Peninsular and Oriental Steam Navigation Company (2nd edn, London, 1994), pp. 33-4. 16. Hyde, Liverpool and the Mersey, pp. 51-2; Howarth and Howarth, Story of P&O, pp. 15, 94. 17. Falkus, Blue Funnel Legend, pp. 37-9. 18. F. Hyde, Far Eastern Trade 1860-1914 (London, 1973), p. 22; Hyde, Blue Funnel, pp. 37-9; also Howarth and Howarth, Story of P&O, pp. 94-5. 19. Falkus, Blue Funnel Legend, p. 4. 20. Hyde, Blue Funnel, pp. 24-5, 32-3, 182 (table of ships in fleet); Hyde, Liverpool and the Mersey, pp. 57, 59-61; Hyde, Far Eastern Trade, pp. 25-7; Falkus, Blue Funnel Legend, pp. 60-66. 21. Falkus, Blue Funnel Legend, pp. 105-7, 111; Hyde, Blue Funnel,pp. 56-70; Hyde, Far Eastern Trade, pp. 23, 28-32. 22. Howarth and Howarth, Story of P&O, pp. 30-35, 101. 23. Ibid., pp. 60-62. 24. Ibid., p. 80; F. Welsh, A History of Hong Kong (2nd edn, London, 1997), p. 162. 25. Ibid., pp. 54-5. 26. Hyde, Far Eastern Trade, pp. 17­19. 27. Hyde, Cunard and the North Atlantic, pp. 75, 84-6. 28. Ibid., pp. 15-16, 28-9, 77, 94-101. 29. R. Gillespie, Early Belfast: the Origins and Growth of an Ulster Town to 1750 (Belfast, 2007); S. Royle, Portrait of an Industrial City: Changing Belfast 1750-1914 (Belfast, 2011); J. P. Lynch, An Unlikely Success Story: the Belfast Shipping Industry 1880­1935 (Belfast, 2001), pp. 2-9, 67. 30. M. Moss and J. Hume, Shipbuilders to the World: 125 Years of Harland and Wolff, Belfast, 1861- 1986 (Belfast, 1986), pp. 12-14, 144, 146; Lynch, Unlikely Success Story, p. 61. 31. S. Tenold, ‘Norwegian Shipping in the Twentieth Century', in Fischer and Lange, eds., International Merchant Shipping, p. 57. 32. Hyde, Cunard and the North Atlantic, pp. 61-2. 33. C. Brautaset and S. Tenold, ‘Lost in Calcu­lation? Norwegian Merchant Shipping in Asia, 1870-1914', in M. Fusaro and A. Polonia, eds., Maritime History as Global History (St John's, Nfdl., 2010), pp. 206, 217, 219-20. 34. Tenold, ‘Norwegian Shipping', pp. 59-60. 35. Brautaset and Tenold, ‘Lost in Calculation?', p. 207. 36. A. Hardy, Typhoon Wallem: a Personalised Chronicle of the Wallem Group Limited (Cambridge, 2003), pp. 1-2, 21-3, 25, 37-8. 37. Ibid., p. 45. 38. G. Harlaftis, A History of Greek-Owned Shipping: the Making of an International Tramp Fleet, 1830 to the Present Day (London, 1996), p. xx; G. Harlaftis, ‘The Greek Shipping Sector, c.1850- 2000', in Fischer and Lange, eds., International Merchant Shipping, p. 79. 39. Harlaftis, History of Greek- Owned Shipping, pp. 52-4, 108-9, table 4; Harlaftis, ‘The Greek Shipping Sector', p. 80, and table 2, p. 81. 40. Harlaftis, ‘The Greek Shipping Sector', pp. 82-4. 41. Aland Maritime Museum, The Last Windjammers: Grain Races round Cape Horn (Marie- hamn, 1998), pp. 10-11, 15; E. Newby, The Last Grain Race (3rd edn, London, 2014), p. xx. 42. Aland Maritime Museum, Last Windjammers, p. 14; Newby, Last Grain Race, pp. xx-xxi; H. Thesleff, Farewell Windjammer: an Account of the Last Circumnavigation of the Globe by a Sailing Ship and the Last Grain Race from Australia to England (London, 1951), pp. 2-3. 43. Thesleff, Farewell Windjammer, pp. 3, 134; Newby, Last Grain Race, pp. 201-3; Aland Maritime Museum, Last Windjammers, pp. 22-6, 30. 44. Newby, Last Grain Race; Thesleff, Farewell Windjammer, pp. 4-5. 45. Thesleff, Farewell Windjammer, p. 9; Aland Maritime Museum, Last Windjammers, pp. 22, 41-2.

50. War and Peace, and More War

i. K. O'Rourke, ‘The Economist and Global History', in J. Belich, J. Darwin, M. Frenz and C. Wickham, The Prospect of Global History (Oxford, 2016), p. 47, especially n. 11. 2. Cited by S. Conrad, What is Global History? (Princeton, 2016), pp. 93-4. 3. O'Rourke, ‘Economist and Global History', pp. 48-9, 55 (and n. 30); also K. O'Rourke and J. Williamson, Global­ization and History: the Evolution of a Nineteenth-Century Atlantic Economy (Cambridge, Mass., 1999). 4. M. Miller, Europe and the Maritime World: a Twentieth-Century History (Cambridge, 2012), pp. 25-9, 35-49, and map 2, p. 42. 5. Ibid., pp. 56-9. 6. Ibid., pp. 39-40, 107 fig. 2 (Chilehaus). 7. Ibid., p. 45. 8. Ibid., pp. 49-55, 75-9. 9. Cited in J. Steinberg, Yesterday’s Deterrent: Tirpitz and the Birth of the German Battle Fleet (London, 1965), p. 208. 10. Miller, Europe and the Maritime World, pp. 213, 217-18; M. Falkus, The Blue Funnel Legend: A History of the Ocean Steamship Company (Basingstoke, 1990), pp. 157-61; F. Hyde, Cunard and the North Atlantic 1840-1973: A History of Shipping and Financial Management (London, 1975), p. 169; D. Howarth and S. Howarth, The Story of P&O: The Peninsular and Oriental Steam Navigation Company (2nd edn, London, 1994), p. 117. 11. Miller, Europe and the Maritime World, pp. 217, 231; Falkus, Blue Funnel Legend, p. 173; Howarth, Story of P&O, p. 124; F. Hyde, Liver-pool and the Mersey: an Economic History of a Port 1700-1970 (Newton Abbott, 1971), p. 147. 12. Miller, Europe and the Maritime World, pp. 235-7. 13. O'Rourke, ‘Economist and Global History', p. 55; Falkus, Blue Funnel Legend, p. 203. 14. Howarth and Howarth, Story of P&O, p. 125; W. J. Macpherson, The Economic Development of Japan 1868-1941 (2nd edn, Cambridge, 1995), p. 31. 15. Miller, Europe and the Maritime World, pp. 247, 269. 16. Cited in Howarth, Story of P&O, p. 129; Falkus, Blue Funnel Legend, p. 229; Hyde, Liverpool and the Mersey, p. 149. 17. Falkus, Blue Funnel Legend, pp. 175, 190-92; Hyde, Cunard and the North Atlantic, p. 181. 18. Hyde, Cunard and the North Atlantic, pp. 171-3, 180; Miller, Europe and the Maritime World, pp. 254-5. 19. Hyde, Cunard and the North Atlantic, pp. 173-6, 180, 227-34. 20. Ibid., pp. 191-218; loan figures: pp. 214-15; Miller, Europe and the Maritime World,pp. 253-4. 21. Miller, Europe and the Maritime World, p. 248. 22. Quoted by Hyde, Cunard and the North Atlantic, p. 255; also pp. 264-7, 280. 23. Hyde, Liver-pool and the Mersey, pp. 160-77. 24. Falkus, Blue Funnel Legend, pp. 240, 245. 25. Miller, Europe and the Maritime World, pp. 277-8; Falkus, Blue Funnel Legend, p. 236. 26. Miller, Europe and the Maritime World, pp. 282-3. 27. S. Roskill, A Merchant Fleet in War: Alfred Holt & Co., 1939-1945 (London, 1962), pp. 19, 23-8. 28. Ibid., p. 47. 29. Hyde, Cunard and the North Atlantic, pp. 260­67. 30. Howarth, Story of P&O, pp. 138-40, 145-6. 31. A. Hardy, Typhoon Wallem a Personalised Chronicle of the Wallem Group Limited (Cambridge, 2003), pp. 64-6; F. Welsh, A History of Hong Kong (2nd den, London, 1977), pp. 412-23. 32. Roskill, Merchant Fleet in War, map of ships sunk in the war, on front endpaper; 87 ships: p. 11; Pyrrhus: pp. 29-33; Falkus, Blue Funnel Legend, p. 237 gives 77. 33. Falkus, Blue Funnel Legend, pp. 237-40, 245. 34. Hyde, Liverpool and the Mersey, pp. 178-80; Miller, Europe and the Maritime World, pp. 281, 284, 304-6; Falkus, Blue Funnel Legend, pp. 247-8 (Churchill).

51. The Oceans in a Box

i. D. Howarth and S. Howarth, The Story of P&O: the Peninsular and Oriental Steam Navi­gation Company (2nd edn, London, 1994), p. 151. 2. M. Miller, Europe and the Maritime World: a Twentieth-Century History (Cambridge, 20i2),pp. 290-93. 3. F. Welsh, A History of Hong Kong (2nd edn, London, 1997), pp. 442, 444, 451-2. 4. Miller, Europe and the Maritime World, pp. 299-300. 5. J. C. Perry, Singapore: Unlikely Power (New York, 2017), pp. 165-8, 171. 6. M. R. Frost and Yu-Mei Balasingamchow, Singapore: a Biography (Singapore and Hong Kong, 2009), pp. 322-35; Perry, Singapore, pp. 148-9, 163; Miller, Europe and the Maritime World, pp. 67-8. 7. F. Hyde, Liverpool and the Mersey: an Economic History of a Port 1700- 1970 (Newton Abbot, 1971), p. 191; Howarth and How­arth, Story of P&O, p. 173; on shipyard workers: A. Reid, The Tide of Democracy: Shipyard Workers and Social Relations in Britain, 1870- 1950 (Manchester, 2010). 8. Howarth and Howarth, Story of P&O, pp. 165-6, 174. 9. Hyde, Liverpool and the Mersey, p. 187. 10. Howarth and Howarth, Story of P&O, pp. 151, 156-7. ii. Miller, Europe and the Mari­time World, p. 306; Hyde, Liverpool and the Mersey, pp. 192-3, 197. 12. Miller, Europe and the Maritime World, pp. 311-13; p. 312: map of Rotterdam port. 13. K. Hudson and J. Pettifer, Diamonds in the Sky: a Social History of Air Travel (London, 1979), pp. 58, 61. 14. Ibid., p. 67. 15. Ibid., pp. 69, 79, 81, 84-7. 16. Howarth and Howarth, Story of P&O, p. 163. 17. F. Hyde, Cunard and the North Atlantic 1840-1973: a History of Shipping and Financial Management (London, 1975), pp. 296-302. 18. Ibid., pp. 309, 313. 19. Howarth and Howarth, Story of P&O, pp. 160-61. 20. B. Dickinson and A. Vladimir, Selling the Sea: an Inside Look at the Cruise Industry (2nd edn, Hoboken, 2008), pp. 21-2. 21. M. Levinson, The Box: How the Shipping Container Made the World Smaller and the World Economy Bigger (2nd edn, Princeton, 2008), pp. 29-30, 34. 22. Ibid., pp. xi, 36-49, 53; B. Cudahy, Box Boats: How Container Ships Changed the World (New York, 2006), pp. 20-25. ²3. Levinson, The Box, pp. xi, 53; quotation cited by Cudahy, Box Boats, p. 35. 24. Ibid., pp. 50-53, 57; Cudahy, Box Boats, pp. 26-32. 25. Levinson, The Box, p. xiii. 26. Ibid., pp. 55-7; Cudahy, Box Boats, pp. 35-6, 40­41. 27. Levinson, The Box, pp. 58, 101-26. 28. Cudahy, Box Boats, pp. 69, 75, 84-9 (the observant will note that the ship loaded whisky, not whiskey as Cudahy opines), 100- 106. 29. Levinson, The Box, pp. 171-88, 196, 201, 204-5; Cudahy, Box Boats, pp. 106-8, 153.

Conclusion

i. A. Antonello, ‘The Southern Ocean', in D. Armitage, A. Bashford and S. Sivasundaram, eds., Oceanic Histories (Cambridge, 2018), pp. 301-8.