Hindu Environmentalism
In an earlier section of this chapter (“The Divine in Nature”), we noted that, although Hinduism has a long histoiy of reverence for natural entities, this has not always translated into ecological awareness and activism.
Recently, a new emphasis on Hindu environmentalism has emerged. True to the wide variety of ways of being Hindu, such activism takes various forms. Here we consider two, both aligned with prominent religious approaches: the ascetic approach of renunciation, and the path of devotion, or bhakti marga.As we have seen, renunciation, which characterizes the fourth stage of life, that of the sannyasi, is understood to be the most effective life situation for achieving moksha. In a manner similar to that of the Jain ascetics and their focus on ahimsa, or nonviolence (see Chapter 61, the ways of the sannyasi also are extremely environmentally friendly. Hindu renouncers practice environmentalism through denying themselves the various enjoyments in life that threaten in one way or another the ecological well-being of the world. For example, far beyond merely restricting themselves to a vegetarian diet, Hindu ascetics eat hardly anything at all and, it might be said, “tread lightly” through life, thus avoiding inflicting harm on the natural world. To borrow from modern parlance, the carbon footprint of the Hindu renouncer is virtually zero.
Bhakti marga, the Hindu path of devotion, to which the Bhagavad Gita gives a certain pride of place, has also contributed to the modern upsurge of interest in Hindu environmentalism. In fact, teachings set forth in the Bhagavad Gita contain foundational tenets on which this environmentalism is based.14 In the Gita, Krishna reveals himself as being Brahman, the supreme, unitary reality and ground of all existence. The natural world is both completely dependent upon and permeated by Brahman—reverence for which naturally involves reverence for the natural world.
As we have observed, Hindus revere specific natural entities— rivers, mountains, the earth, the sun, and certain trees and animals—as manifestations of Brahman. Means of revering these entities amount to acts of love and adoration—in other words, again in modern parlance, environmental activism.Self-Assessment 4.3
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Hinduism in the Twenty-First Century
There are nearly 1.2 billion Hindus in the world today, which makes Hinduism the world’s third largest religion, behind only Christianity and Islam.— More than 1 billion Hindus live in India, where Hindus comprise about 80 percent of the population. There are nearly 29 million Hindus in Nepal, where with about 81 percent of the population, Hinduism is also by far the majority religion. Other countries with large Hindu populations include (all figures are approximate) Bangladesh (13 million), Indonesia (4.2 million), Pakistan (4 million), and Sri Lanka (3 million). There are about 2.5 million Hindus in the United States, making it the country with the seventh largest Hindu population.—
At the current juncture, the future of Hinduism seems more than ever inextricably tied to politics and, in particular, to the fortunes of the BJP. Encouraged by the BJP and other nationalist groups and political parties, some of today’s Hindus see Hinduism as monolithic, homogeneous, and impermeable, closed off from what they perceive as the corrupting influences of the West and foreign religions. At the same time, an emerging global movement is seeking to transcend traditional boundaries to better serve the needs of an increasingly diverse Hindu community. Hinduism has always displayed a unique ability in the face of changing conditions to sustain ancient traditions within new and ever-changing contexts. How this ability will manifest itself in the future remains to be seen, but it seems certain that the efforts of both Hindu traditionalists and progressives will ensure the continuing vibrancy of one of the world’s oldest religions.
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Throughout this chapter, we have explored the rich diversity of the Hindu tradition. The extent of this diversity has prompted some observers to remark that “there are as many Hinduisms as there are Hindus.” But we also have noted aspects of Hinduism that tend to unite Hindus. For example, all seek moksha, the ultimate liberation from samsara, and the realization of the true nature of the self and its relationship to the whole of reality. Hindus traverse three main paths to liberation: karma marga, jnana marga, and bhakti marga. In these various paths, we see diversity and unity together, with three different sets of teachings and practices all leading to the same goal. We see a similar blending of diversity and unity when we consider the detailed system of varnashrama dharma, which assigns to each individual Hindu a specific place and stage in life, while asserting the overall duty to conform to that which upholds the cosmic and social order.
For the most part, Hinduism developed in a rural setting, in small villages, and even in forests. In recent decades, however, there has been a pronounced shift in population from rural to urban settings. Furthermore, India, the world’s second largest country in population and its largest democracy, has become a leader in high-tech industries, with cities like Bangalore and Mumbai now epicenters of international corporations. Hinduism, in the face of significant challenges brought on by modernization and the accompanying phenomenon of globalization, is constantly being reshaped. But as this chapter has shown, the diversity of the Hindu tradition is integral to its identity, in the present just as in the ancient past. Whatever shape Hinduism takes in the future, it is likely to thrive, drawing on its age-old ability to adapt and to reform with even greater diversity and vitality.
SEEKING ANSWERS
What Is Ultimate Reality?
Monistic Hindus believe that Brahman is the supreme, unitary reality, the ground of all being. Understood as undifferentiated and without attributes, Brahman manifests itself as the world, in all its particular forms.
Thus, all things are inherently divine. Humans are unable to apprehend this ultimate reality because of attachment, delusion, and identification with the limited ego-self. For dualistic or devotional Hindus, ultimate reality is typically understood to be fully embodied in a deity, such as Vishnu or Shiva.How Should We Live in This World?
Powerfully attracted to the samsaric realm of particulars—our egoistic selves, our relationships, our possessions, and the seemingly countless objects of our desires—we are caught up in the continual cycle of death and rebirth. Hinduism prescribes living in a manner that moves the self toward liberation from samsara. Three paths (margas or yogas) lead to moksha: karma (action), jnana (knowledge), and bhakti (devotion). All the while, Hindus are required to live in conformity with dharma, upholding the cosmic and social order.
What Is Our Ultimate Purpose?
Moksha is liberation from samsara—the continuous cycle of death and rebirth, and the this-worldly realm in which this cycle recurs. Impossible fully to describe from the perspective of this world, the experience of moksha is said to be one of infinite awareness and eternal bliss. For monistic Hindus, moksha involves the full realization of the identity of the self with Brahman rather than with the world. For dualistic or devotional Hindus, moksha is the complete realization of the soul’s perpetual and deep loving relationship with God.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
For Review
1. What were the essential features of Vedic religion? How was it different from Hinduism as it is practiced by most Hindus today?
2. In what ways do Hindus seek an experience of the divine?
3. What is the relationship between the ideas of karma, samsara, and dharma?
4. Describe the three margas, or paths, to liberation.
5. Describe the Vedas, Upanishads, epics, and Puranas. What are the most important features of each?
For Further Reflection
1. What are the various ways in which Hindus understand divine reality? How do these compare with those of other religions?
2.
What is an avatar? How does the concept of avatar compare with the ways in which other religions speak of God on earth?3. How does the traditional system of varnashrama dharma compare to systems of social organization with which you are familiar?
4. How were Hindus and Hinduism affected by British colonialism?
5. What are the most important turning points or milestones in the history of Hinduism?
Chapter 4 Self-Quiz
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Chapter 4 Flashcards
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SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER READING
Eck, Diana. Darsan: Seeing the Divine Image in India. New York: Columbia University Press, 1998. An excellent discussion on the significance of darshan and traditions of Hindu temple worship.
Flood, Gavin. An Introduction to Hinduism. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1996. A concise and in-depth study of Hinduism.
Flood, Gavin, ed. The Blackwell Companion to Hinduism. Oxford, UK: Blackwell, 2003. A presentation on select special topics that are key to understanding Hindu belief and practice.
Hawley, John Stratton, and Mark Juergensmeyer. Songs of the Saints of India. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2006. A survey of the lives of medieval bhakti saints, with excellent translation of some of their poetry.
Hawley, John Stratton, and Vasudha Narayanan, eds. The Life of Hinduism. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2006. Special topical articles that explore personal voices and perspectives on Hindu life experience.
Klostermaier, Klaus K. Hindu Writings: A Short Introduction to the Major Sources. Oxford, UK: One World Publications, 2000. A keen survey of excerpts from many of the important textual sources that inform Hindu belief.
Knipe, David M. Hinduism: Experiments in the Sacred. New York: HarperCollins, 1991. A dependable and clear study organized based on the history of the tradition; includes a helpful timeline and glossaries.
Click here for more suggested readings, weblinks, and other media for this chapter.
ONLINE RESOURCES
Internet Sacred Text Archive (Hinduism)
sacred-texts.com/hin
The Internet Sacred Text Archive provides an excellent array of the many genres of Hindu sacred texts with multiple public domain translations of key works.
The University of Wyoming Hinduism Website
www.uwyo.edu/reliqionet/er/hinduism
The University of Wyoming Hinduism website offers concise but in-depth discussions on numerous aspects of Hindu tradition, literature, and belief.
Understanding Hinduism
hinduism.co.za
An informal collection of articles and information on key topics offering some range of viewpoints.
Internet Sacred Text Archive (Yoga)
sacred-texts.com/hin/yoga
The Internet Sacred Text Archive offers an extensive array of works on Yoga, including both original sacred texts in translation and modern explorations of the subject.
The Sri Vaishnava Home Page
ramanuja.org
The Sri Vaishnava homepage is designed primarily for adherents to this important sect of Hinduism, yet it is accessible and informative for outsiders.
The Shaivam.org Site
shaivam.org
The Shaivam.org site, self-described as the “Abode of God Shiva on the Internet,” is designed primarily for devotees but is also useful for academic study.
Click here for web links to sacred texts.
LIST OF KEY TERMS
arati atman avatar
Bhakti marqa
Brahman brahmin dalit darshan dharma hindutva
Jati
Jnana marga karma
Karma marqa kshatriya mantras maya moksha
OM
Ruja
Pu ranas samsara sannyasi
Shaivas
Shaktas shruti shudra smriti Tantra Upanishads Vaishnavas vaishya varna Vedanta Vedas Yoga