Personal Identity and Gender Roles

Hinduism’s diversity and inclusivity are reflected in the variety of gender identities and roles in Hindu society. The hijras—persons who identify as neither male nor female, and who recently have attained through a major decision by India’s Supreme Court the designation of a third gender—exemplify this diversity.

With regard to the roles of men and women, Hindu tradition has tended to be patriarchal, both subordinating and marginalizing women, while affording men far easier access to positions of authority. Some evidence in the Vedic literature suggests that some women participated in early philosophical movements or dialogues. But for the most part, throughout the history of Hinduism the public roles of women have been secondary to those of men. In the domestic sphere, however, Hindu women have played a significant role.

The Laws ofManu, in the course of its extensive coverage of vamashrama dharma, includes some statements that confer upon women a relatively high place; for example: “Where women are honoured, there the gods are pleased; but where they are not honoured, no sacred rite yields rewards.”¹³ At the same time, numerous passages in the Laws ofManu and other classical texts subordinate and marginalize women, clearly asserting the predominance of father, husband, and even sons.

The bhakti movements enabled women to overturn social hierarchies. Women poets and saints such as Meera, who lived during the fifteenth century in Rajasthan, rejected marriage, devoted themselves to a spiritual life, and challenged the limits of gender, class, and caste. Today, Hindu women are increasingly assuming leadership roles in India and in the Indian diaspora. Women sometimes act as priests and are beginning to wield influence as spiritual teachers, monastics, and theologians. One of the most important contemporary female gurus is Mata Amritanandamayi Devi (b. 1953). Known to her followers as Ammachi (“Mother”) and popularly referred to as “the hugging saint,” she is believed by her devotees to be the embodiment of Devi, the divine mother.

In contemporary South Asian and Southeast Asian Hindu society, women are regarded as the custodians of traditional beliefs and ritual for the family. Generally, the social roles of men and women are expressed through clothing and other outward signs. While men wear contemporary slacks, dress shirts, and ties, women prefer traditional modes of dress. Although many men eschew sectarian forehead markings except on ritual occasions, most Hindu women, especially those who are married, adorn their foreheads with the bindi. In addition to performing puja at the home shrine, observing festivals, and encouraging regular temple visits for the family, women also perform pujas for the spiritual welfare of their husbands and children on certain holidays. They also commonly take vows—vratas—which we now consider.

Vrata

A vrata is a vow of temporary self-denial usually undertaken by a woman. This generally involves a short period of fasting, but a vrata can also be a vow of silence or a short-term renunciation of anything to which one is attached. A woman usually undertakes a vrata for a specific purpose, such as to ensure the health and well-being of her husband and family. There are many special vratas observed at specific times throughout the calendar year. One of the most popular, observed by married women throughout southern India, always falls on a Friday in early August. This vrata involves a period of purification and fasting, after which the woman invites the goddess Lakshmi into her home. The hope is that Lakshmi, goddess of wealth and good fortune, will bring these things to the home. All vratas are vows taken by women on special festival days.