Theory of the Universe

According to tradition, Mahavira taught extensively and in detail about the nature of the universe, its makeup, and its functioning. He did so not merely as an intellectual exercise, but because, as he saw it, understanding the universe had sweeping implications for the spiritual quest.

Cosmic Cycles of Generation and Degeneration

In keeping with the general Indian notion of samsara, Jainism conceives of time as cyclical and envisions the cycles as upward and downward turnings of a wheel. During the upward turning of the wheel (which proceeds through six spokes, or ages), the world is in a state of ascendancy, with all aspects of existence, notably including the moral propensity of human beings, in the process of improvement. The three upper spokes are considered to be a golden age of goodness and prosperity. Once passing the top of the wheel and entering into its downward turning, however, things begin gradually to decline, until the end of the age of the sixth spoke, at which point the universe reaches utter moral deprivation. Then the wheel once again begins its turn upward. And so it continues, eternally.

The traditional length of each of the six ages is 21,000 years. The world currently is in the age of the fifth spoke of the downward turning, called Kali Yuga, to be followed by the sixth, final period of degeneration. In this sixth age, the theory goes, people are more prone to immorality, and they become physically smaller. The consequences for the spiritual quest are pronounced, for human beings can no longer hope to attain kevala in this world until the wheel has once again begun its upward turning.

Notably, Rishabha, the first tirthankara of this downward turning of the world cycle, is believed to have appeared during the third spoke. Before that, the world was so healthy morally and spiritually that human beings did not need a jina to show them the way to liberation. Rishabha and the other early tirthankaras are understood to have been of greater physical stature than their successors.

The concept of Kali Yuga and the continuing downward turning of the wheel gives rise to a fundamental and serious question. If indeed kevala is no longer a possibility, what purpose is there in continuing to pursue the religious life? Thinking again of the dana ritual, why should laypeople like the Chandras go to the effort of giving so conscientiously to monks? And why would anyone opt to undergo the physical hardships of the ascetic life? Part of the answer depends on the nature of karma, which we will address next. Another part of the answer is provided through consideration of the composition of the universe, which Jains call the loka and regard as containing within it three distinct lands inhabited by human beings.

The Loka

The loka is understood to be vast almost beyond description. Over the centuries, Jains have speculated as to just how vast the loka is, deriving a unit of measure known as the “rope,” which is strikingly similar to the “light-year” of modem astrophysics. According to one account, the loka is fourteen ropes from top to bottom. This means, according to traditional Jain calculations, that it would take a god, flying at the speed of 10 million miles per second, seven years to traverse its full span. These attempts at specifying the size of the universe are probably to be taken figuratively rather than literally.

The loka, then, is a vast and yet a finite space, within which all beings dwell. Beyond the loka there is nothing but strong winds. The loka, together with everything in it, has always existed and will continue to exist eternally. Jainism thus does not believe in a creator god.

Jains sometimes depict the loka as a diagram in the shape of a giant man, the purusha. Across the midsection runs a relatively small band known as the Middle Realm, which contains a series of oceans and continents, three of which together form the region inhabited by human beings. This region is further divided into various lands, one of which is India and another of which, Mahavideha, is not affected by the cormption of this world cycle and therefore continues to be the home of tirthankaras and of human beings who still can attain kevala. This notion is crucial when considering the quest for spiritual liberation that takes place in this corrupt world. As we shall discuss in more detail shortly, living a good life that is tme to Jain ideals leads to a good rebirth, perhaps even in a land like Mahavideha, where tirthankaras currently reside and where kevala is a possibility.

Below the Middle Realm is a series of progressively darker hells, whose denizens suffer agonizing torments. At the very bottom of the loka, below the lowest hell, there are only clouds. Above the Middle Realm is a series of progressively brighter heavens, inhabited by deities who enjoy pleasures not unlike those of earthly mlers. For both the denizens of hell and the deities, their stays in those realms are only temporary, as they will eventually be reborn in another realm. In other words, just as in Hinduism and Buddhism, the realm of samsara extends well beyond the human domain.

At the top of the loka, in the crown of the head of purusha, is a roof that is described as having the shape of an umbrella. Called the “slightly curved place,” this is the eternal home of the souls that have been liberated from the realm of samsara.

Categories of Existence: Jiva and Ajiva

Jain scriptures spell out the categories of existing things in meticulous detail (in keeping with the belief in the omniscience of Mahavira and others who have attained kevald). The categories of existence can be said to begin with a simple distinction: that between the living, which is termed jiva, and the nonliving, ajiva. The nonliving is further divided into four: motion, rest, atoms, and space. These four basic entities plus the jiva are the five building blocks of all that exists in the universe. The entities interact but forever maintain their individual existence. This view contrasts with the main form of Hindu cosmology, which envisions an ultimate union of all being. Furthermore, Jainism holds that the universe has an infinite number of atoms, forever distinct from one another, along with an infinite number of jivas, or souls.

Each jiva (“soul”) is eternal, completely without form, and yet capable of interacting with the atoms of the body it inhabits in such a way that it can control the body’s mechanisms. While avoiding the notion that the jiva is in any way dependent upon the body, Jainism does posit a complex integration of soul with body. Thus, while bodies do act, it is the soul that wills actions and therefore is held responsible for their moral quality.

All jivas are essentially equal, regardless of the bodies they inhabit. For example, the jiva of an insect is considered to be of identical quality to that of a large animal or a human being.

The great variety of bodies inhabited by the jivas produces many different life forms. Jainism’s detailed classification of these life forms is among its most fascinating features, and one that shows remarkable similarities to the modern field of zoology. A simple twofold approach distinguishes life forms that are stationary, such as plants, from those that are moving. Another approach categorizes life forms based on the number of senses they have. In the words of one text:

Up to the vegetable-bodied ones, selves have one sense [i.e., touch].

Worms, ants, bumblebees, and men each have one more than the one preceding.³

Human beings are thus categorized with life forms having five senses: deities, denizens of hell, and most animals aside from insects. Flying insects (bumblebees and the like) are thought to lack the sense of hearing, while most that crawl on legs also lack sight. Along with such insects as worms, shellfish are thought to have only the senses of touch and taste. Plants and “microbes” (a large category of the most basic life forms) are devoid of all sensations but touch.

More elaborate systems of classification abound in Jain scriptures. This fascination with the intricacies of life forms supports the religion’s general concern for their welfare and for maintaining the attitude and practices that secure this welfare as best possible. To some extent, the attitude and practices of the religious life are expected of nonhuman life forms as well. Lions, for example, are said to be able to learn to fast. Even plants and the simplest microbes are believed to have some basic religious capacity that they can apply toward spiritual advancement. Ultimately, however, all jivas must be reborn as human beings before they have any chance of attaining kevala and release from the realm of samsara.