Women as Leaders

Even though most women, married and celibate alike, were subject to male authority, here and there early Christian writings show glimpses of groups that allowed women to have a public role in the Christian community as teachers and, later, as officeholders.

One indication of the fact that not all women kept silent in Christian gatherings is the prohibition against women teaching already found in the pastoral letters (1 Tim 2:12). Why would there be a need for such a prohi­bition had there been no women who taught and who did not submit them­selves to male authority? In the third century church order, the Didascalia Apostolorum, there is a lengthy discussion concerning the proper conduct of widows (ch. 15). Their main task is to pray for the church’s welfare, but they should restrain themselves from talking about the Christian faith, “for when they speak without the knowledge of doctrine, they will bring blas­phemy upon the word”^[1109] (Didascalia 15.3.5). If outsiders ask them about their faith, they - like all laypersons - should lead the questioners to the clerical officials. Women should not teach since Christ only commissioned his twelve male disciples to teach, even though he also had women disci­ples, such as Mary Magdalene and Mary the daughter of James and the other Mary (Didascalia 15.3.6). Likewise, women ought not to perform baptism, for Jesus himself was baptized by John and not by his mother - surely the latter would have been the case if baptism was to be performed by women (Didascalia 15.3.9).^[1110] The author reminds widows that they must at all times be obedient to the bishops and the deacons and to “rever­ence and respect and fear the bishop as God.” Obviously, not all did, since he accuses them of wishing “to be wiser and to know better, not only than the men, but even than the presbyters and the bishops” (Didascalia 15.3.8).

The clearest reference to women occupying leadership roles comes from Epiphanius’s report about a Montanist group that he calls Quintillianists.^[1111] He writes:

They use the Old and the New Testaments, and likewise affirm the resurrection of the dead. Their founder is Quintilla, along with Priscilla who was also a Phrygian prophetess. They cite many texts which have no relevance, and give thanks to Eve because she was the first to eat from the tree of wisdom. And as scriptural support for their ordination of women as clergy, they say that Moses’ sister was a prophetess. What is more, they say, Philip had four daughters who prophesied They have women bishops, presbyters and

the rest; they say that none of this makes any difference because “In Christ Jesus there is neither male nor female.”^[1112] (Panarion 49.2.1-2, 5)

According to Epiphanius’s report, this group of Christians finds support in the scriptures for allowing women to act in leadership roles. Not only do they give preference to Eve as the first to have acquired wisdom (cf. Gen 3:6)^[1113] and refer to female prophets mentioned in both the Old and the New Testament, such as Miriam, Moses’s sister (Exod 15:20-21)^[1114] and the four daughters of Philip (Acts 21:8-9), but most importantly, they read Paul as approving female clerics since “there is no male and female.” Interesting­ly, Epiphanius does not question their doctrine as such; they are good Christians according to his standards since they acknowledge the authority of both the Old and the New Testament and confess the resurrection of the dead. However, it is their practice that is, in his view, against nature, and ultimately, this practice is a sign that they have deserted the right faith, as well (Panarion 49.3.1.)

What roles did women have in this group? Epiphanius remains some­what vague, listing bishops (επίσκοποι), presbyters (πρεσβυτεροι) and “the rest” (καί τα άλλα). The “rest” has often been taken to mean either prophets or deacons.

It is not easy to assess the reliability of Epiphanius’s account. On the whole, scholars discount the accuracy of his report, especially concerning the origins of the different groups he discusses, since much of his infor­mation seems to be based on hearsay and historical conjecture.^[1116] There is a significant temporal distance between Epiphanius, who wrote in the fourth century, and the prophets Priscilla and Quintilla, who were active in the second century.^[1117] However, Epiphanius claims to write about the followers of these prophets who might be more or less contemporary with him. The very fact that he talks about church offices indicates a later period than the second century and probably reflects a situation when the original prophet-

ic movement and its charismatic leaders have been clericalized.^[1118] On the other hand, Epiphanius’s information seems to be incoherent from the start; he admits that he is not certain whether it was Quintilla or Priscilla who experienced the group’s founding vision of Christ in female form and whether it is this group or the Phrygians or both that has female prophets (Panarion 42.1.2-5).

All in all, scholars tend to trust Epiphanius’s testimony of the prominent position of women in the Montanist movement.^[1119] Ambrosiaster, the anon­ymous fourth-century commentator on Paul’s epistles, also asserts that there were Montanist women who acted as bishops, presbyters, and in oth­er leading roles (Commentary on 1 Timothy 3:2).

H.