Cultural history: education, church, theater, press
Several studies have been devoted to the Ukrainian educational system. Pylyp Svystun has traced the history of elementary schools throughout the period, Ambrosii Androkhovych secondary schools, and Kyrylo Studyns’kyi the L’viv Theological Seminary during the years when the Rusyn Triad was active.[321] Special attention has been devoted to the Barbareum (1774-1784) and imperial boarding school (konvikt, 1803-1893) attached to the St Barbara Church in Vienna, which served as a meeting place not only for young seminarians from Galicia but also for influential leaders from throughout Austria’s Slavic lands.[322] Similarly, the Studium Ruthenum, the first, if short-lived, experiment in Ukrainian education at the modern university level, is analyzed by Ivan Krevets’kyi and in a major monograph by Ambrosii Androkhovych.[323]
The history of the church has also been the focus of attention.
The several series of documents from Vatican archives each contain material on Galicia during this period, especially pertaining to the efforts of Maria Theresa and Joseph II to raise the status of Greek Catholicism and to the negotiations over the restoration of the Galician metropolitanate.[324] The correspondence of Metropolitan Mykhailo Levyts’kyi (1774-1858, consecrated 1816), Bishop of Przemysi Ivan Snihurs’kyi (1784-1848, consecrated 1817), and Bishop of Przemysl Hryhorii lakhymovych (1792-1863, consecrated 1849) has been published,[325] as well as smaller collections of documents on the rural priesthood in the Przemysl diocese and on the episcopal effort to control “revolutionary” activity in the L’viv Theological Seminary.[326] The history of the Greek Catholic church throughout the years 1772 to 1848 is covered in one survey,[327] while certain specific problems, such as the sociocultural status of the L’viv diocesan clergy in the late eighteenth century, the development of monasteries before 1848, the establishment of Basilian churches, and the career of Bishop Ivan Snihurs’kyi, are treated in separate studies.[328] None is as comprehensive, however, as the two-volume analysis by Wladyslaw Chot- kowski of church politics during the last years (1772-1780) of Maria Theresa’s reign. Chotkowski discusses in great detail the Basilian monasteries, the question of a metropolitanate for Galicia, and the role of Bishop of L’viv Lev Sheptyts’kyi (1717-1779, consecrated 1749).[329]A few other topics in the cultural history of Ukrainian Galicia after 1772 have received attention. These include the beginnings of Ukrainian amateur theatrical performances sponsored mainly by the rural clergy;[330] a history of the press in eastern Galicia, which begins with the Gazette deLeopol (1776-although neither this nor subsequent organs were intended for Ukrainians;[331] the role of the Kurz- beck printshop (1770-1792) in Vienna in diffusing Cyrillic books;[332] the rivalry between the printshops of the Stauropegial Institute and Pochaiv Monastery;[333] the impact of the history of Galicia-Volhynia (1792—1793) on the Galician-Ukrainian intelligentsia by the Austrian scholar Johann Christian Engel (1770-1814);[334] and the abortive attempts (1842 and 1848) of the Austrian government to provide Ukrainians with their own literary journal.[335]
Cultural history: literature (Rusyn Triad)
Of all the aspects of cultural history during the period 1772 to 1848, it is the history of literature that has received the most attention. Not surprisingly, most concern has been devoted to the activity of the Rusyn Triad during the 1830s and 1840s. This is evident in early essays by losyf Levyts’kyi, a contemporary who may be considered the first literary historian of the era,[336] in the writings of Ostap Terlets’kyi who has produced the most comprehensive cultural history of this period,[337] and in later Soviet scholarship on the subject as well.[338]
The most famous literary work of the period was the Rusyn Triad’s Rusalka dnistrovaia (1837), in a sense a revolutionary cultural phenomenon because it was the first book for Galician Ukrainians written in the vernacular and in the modern, civil alphabet (hrazhdanka).
Banned by the local censor, Rusalka dnistrovaia had to be published in Buda[pest]. The history of this work’s encounters with official censors, its eventual appearance, and its very limited distribution (though nonetheless enormous influence) have been the subject of several critical studies.[339]Most of the studies devoted to individual writers from this period focus on members of the Rusyn Triad: lakiv Holovats’kyi (1814-1888), Ivan Vahylevych (1811-1866), and most especially Markiian Shashkevych (1811-1843). The Soviet scholars Mykhailo Humeniuk and Ivan Kravchenko have prepared a comprehensive bibliography of the writings of the Triad,[340] while the group as a whole is given much attention in several of the general histories and general literary histories mentioned above,[341] as well as in popular accounts by the interwar Galician Russophile Vasilii Vavrik and the Soviet writer Osyp Petrash.[342]
Of the three, it is Markiian Shashkevych who has received the most attention. This is probably because he died young and did not have to go through the complicated and consequently controversial intellectual development after 1848 that his colleagues Vahylevych and Holovats’kyi experienced. As a result, Shashkevych remained “pure” and has become a prime subject for glorification in the local national pantheon, whether he is being described by a traditionalist Old Ruthenian, Ukrainophile, Russophile, or Soviet Marxist author. The cult of Shashkevych itself has become an object of study.56 The most reliable edition of Shashkevych’s writings is by Mykhailo Vozniak.57 Vozniak and, later, the Ukrainian emigre Stepan Shakh and the Soviet author Mykhailo Shalata have written the best analyses of the life and work of the poet.58 Several other shorter biographies of Shashkevych have been written, including more popular essays by Omelian Ohonovs’kyi, Ivan Franko, and Bohdan Lepkyi.59
56 O.
Kul’chyts’kyi, “Kult Markiiana Shashkevycha, iak psykhosotsiial’na problema,” Naukovi zapysky Ukrains’koho Vil’noho Universytetu, VII (Munich 1963), pp. 208-222. Examples of the cult of Shashkevych in the Americans are the memorial book, Propamiatna knyha amerykans’ kykh ukra'intsiv vydana u stolitniu richnytsiu smerty o. Markiiana Shashkevycha pershoho probudytelia Halyts’koi Ukratny (Philadelphia, Pa.: O.O. Vasyliian 1943); and the annual journal Shashkevychiiana (Winnipeg 1963-present).57 Mykhailo Vozniak, ed., Pysannia Markiiana Shashkevycha, Zbirnyk Fil'ol’ogichnoi sektsii NTSh, vol. XIV (L’viv 1912).
See also the biographical data, unpublished works, and other documents in Mykhailo Tershakovets’, “Prychynky do zhytiepysu Markiiana Shashkevycha ta deshcho iz ioho pys’mens’koi spadshchyny,” Zapysky NTSh, LVIII (L’viv 1904), 48 pp.; idem, “Do zhytiepysy Markiiana Shashkevycha,’’ Zapysky NTSh, CIV (L’viv 1911), pp. 92-115; CVI (1911), pp. 77-134.
58 Mykhailo Vozniak, U stolittia ‘Zori’ Markiiana Shashkevycha (1834-1934): novi rozshuky pro diial’nisf ioho hurtka, Pratsi Ukrains’koho Bohoslovs’koho Naukovoho Tovarystvo, vols IX-X (L’viv 1936), pp. 147-324; Mykhailo S. Vozniak, “Istorychne znachennia diial’nosti Markiiana Shashkevycha,” Naukovi zapysky Instytutu suspil’nykh nauk AN URSR (L’vivs’kyi filial), I (L’viv 1953), reprinted in Materialy do vyvchennia istorii ukrains'koi' literatury, vol. II (Kiev: Radians’ka shkola 1961), pp. 347-359; Stepan Shakh, O. Markiian Shashkevych ta halyts’ke vidrodzhenia, Vydannia Ukrains’koho khrystyians’koho rukhu, no. 2 (Paris and Munich 1961); Mykhailo I. Shalata, Markiian Shashkevych: zhyttia, tvorchist’ i hromads'ko- kul’turna diial’nist’ (Kiev: Naukova durnka 1969).
See also the extensive sections on Shashkevych in Omelian Ohonovskii, Ystoriia lyteratury ruskoy, vol. II (L’viv 1889), pp. 354-393, and in Osyp Petrash, Rus’ka triitsia (Kiev: Dnipro 1972), pp. 18-81.
59 Omelian Ohonovskii, Markiian Shashkevych: pro ioho zhytie i pys’ma, Biblioteka TP, no.
95 (L’viv 1886); Ivan Franko, “M. Shashkevych i halyts’ko-rus’ka literature,” Zhytie i slovo, II (L’viv 1894), pp. 147-53, reprinted in his Tvory, vol. XVII (Kiev: Derzhavne vyd-vo khudozhnoi literatury 1955), pp. 226-233; Bohdan Lepkyi, Markiian Shashkevych, Zahal’na biblioteka, no. 106-107 (Kolomyia: lakiv Orenshtain 1911).More controversial and less well studied is Ivan Vahylevych. Estranged from the Greek Catholic church and eventually a convert to Protestantism, in 1848 Vahylevych considered cooperation with the Poles as the best way to guarantee the future of Ukrainians in Galicia. Though he never advocated national assimilation, he nonetheless is often unjustly viewed as a polonizer by some Ukrainophile and Russophile writers. The best introductory biography on Vahylevych is by the Canadian historian Peter Brock.[343] [344] Ivan Franko has published much of Vahyle- vych’s correspondence and large parts of his autobiography;[345] lakiv Holovats’kyi and Vasilii Vavrik have written biographies.[346] Even more controversial is lakiv Holovats’kyi, the prolific ethnographer, historian, linguist, poet, and beginning in 1848 holder of the first chair in Ruthenian language and literature at the University of L’viv. Subsequently disillusioned with Austria’s policy toward Galicia’s Ukrainians, Holovats’kyi emigrated to the Russian Empire (Vilnius) in 1867. Partly because of this, he is praised during the earlier part of his career for participating in the Rusyn Triad, but criticized, at least by Soviet and non-Soviet Ukrainian authors, for his “reactionary” Russophile tendencies in later life. The best sources on Holovats’kyi’s complex career are his memoirs covering the period before 1848 and the two volumes of his correspondence (1835-1862), which have been meticulously compiled by Kyrylo Studyns’kyi.63 The Ukrainian view of Holovats’kyi’s career is expressed in works by Omelian Ohonovs’kyi, Ostap Terlets’kyi, and Osyp Petrash; the Russophile view is found in works by Fedor Aristov and Vasilii Vavrik, both of whom are favorably disposed toward Holovats’kyi’s “Russophile” inclinations.64 Besides the works and activity of the Rusyn Triad, a critical edition of the philological works of Ivan Mohyl’nyts’kyi (1777-1831) and the autobiographical notes of the linguist and ethnographer losyf Lozyns’kyi (1807-1889) have appeared.65 Finally, biographies of a few other early nineteenth century Galician- Ukrainian national and cultural leaders exist: the influential member of the Stauro- pegial Brotherhood Ivan Horbachevs’kyi (1743-1806);66the writer and educator Stefan Petrushevych (1772-1859) ;67 the churchman and educator Ivan Lavrivs’- 63 la.F. 64 Omelian Ohonovskii, Ystoriia lyteratury ruskoy, vol. IV (L’viv: NTSh 1894), pp. 60-119; Ivan Zanevych [Ostap Terlets’kyi], “Literaturni stremlinnia halyts’kykh Rusyniv vid 1772 do 1872,” Zhytie i slovo, II, 6 (L’viv 1894), pp. 428-451; Osyp Petrash, Rus'ka triitsia (Kiev: Dnipro 1972), pp. 106-141; F.F. Aristov, Karpato-russkiepisateli, vol. I (Moscow 1916), 2nd rev. ed. (Bridgeport, Conn.: Carpatho-Russian Literary Association 1977), pp. 76-128; Vasilii P. Vavrik, Iakov Fedorovich Golovatskii: iego dieiatel’nost’ i znacheniie v galitsko-russkoi slovesnosti (L’viv 1925). On Holovats’kyi’s activity after 1848, see also chapter 6, n. 133; on his travels throughout eastern Galicia and northeastern Hungary, see Olena Rudlovchak, “Na podorozhakh z la. Holovats’kym,” Duklia, XII, 4 (PreJov 1964), pp. 79-83, as well as his own description of those travels, n. 8 above; on his scholarly activity and contacts with other Slavic peoples, see chapter 1, n. 27, and I.P. Vishnevskii, “Nekotorye problemy slavianskogo edinstva v trudakh galitskikh prosvetitelei XIX v.in Ocherki po istorii slavianskikh literaturnykh sviazei (L’viv: Vishcha shkola 1978), pp. 9-47; on his linguistic work, see the study of Mykhailo Vozniak, n. 73 below. 65 Mykhailo Vozniak, ed., FH'ol’ogichniprats'!Ivana Mohyl’nyts’koho, in Ukra'ins’ko-rus’kyi arkhyv, vol. V (L’viv 1910); losyf Lozynskii, “Avtobiohrafycheskii zapysky,” Lyteraturnyi sbornyk... Halytsko-russkoi Matytsy, 1-4 (L’viv 1885), pp. 114-126. On the grammatical work of Mohyl’nyts’kyi and Lozyns’kyi, see n. 73 below. 66 Ambrozii Androkhovych, “O. Ivan Horbachevs’kyi, prymirnyi parokh Stavropyhiis’koho Bratstva,” in Zbirnyk L'vivs'koi Stavropyhii: mynule i suchasne, ed. Kyrylo Studyns’kyi (L’viv 1921), pp. 54-98. 67 F.I. Svistun, “O. Stefan Petrushevich” [1772-1859], Viestnik 'Narodnago Doma', XXVI (IV), 8-11 (L’viv 1908), pp. 166-170, 176-181, 191-198. kyi (1773-1846) ;[347] the historian Denys Zubryts’kyi (1777-1862);[348] the ethnographer Hryhorii Il’kevych (1803-1841);[349] and the national benefactor Mykhailo Kachkovs’kyi (1802-1872), whose name was later used for one of the more influential Galician popular cultural societies.[350]