For Further Reading

The following is intended as an introductory guide to direct interested readers to other published materials about the subjects discussed in this book. It is not a comprehensive or even substantive bibliography; with very few exceptions, it is limited to English-language publications.

1. Reference works and general studies

2. The pre-Kievan era

3. The Kievan period, circa 850-1350

4. The Lithuanian-Polish-Crimean period, circa 1350-1648

5. The Cossack state, 1648-1711

6. Ukrainian lands in the eighteenth century

7. Ukrainian lands in the Russian Empire, circa 1785-1914

8. Ukrainian lands in the Austrian Empire, circa 1772-1914

9. World War I, revolution, and civil war

10. The interwar years

11. World War II

12. The Soviet era, 1945-1991

13. Independent Ukraine

The following abbreviations are used:

AUAAS - Annals of the Ukrainian Academy of Arts and Sciences in the United States HUS - Harvard Ukrainian Studies

JUS -Journal of Ukrainian Studies

1. Reference works and general studies

English-language readers are fortunate to have two comprehensive multivolume encyclopedias on all aspects of Ukraine: a thematic encyclopedia, Ukraine: A Con- ciseEncyclopedia, 2 vols., ed. Volodymyr Kubijovyc (Toronto, Buffalo, and London 1963-71); and an alphabetic encyclopedia, Encyclopedia of Ukraine, 5 vols., ed. Volodymyr KubijovyC and Danylo Husar Struk (Toronto, Buffalo, and London 1984-93). In addition to thousands of entries on a whole host of personalia, organizations, and events, both encyclopedias include useful bibliographies following major sections and entries. Smaller in size but useful is the Historical Dictionary of Ukraine, ed.

Readers interested in finding English-language works on various aspects of Ukraine have at their disposal several bibliographies and research guides. Among the most comprehensive and up-to-date annotated bibliographies (covering the period from the 1950s to 1999) are two volumes compiled by Bohdan S. Wynar, Ukraine: A Bibliographic Guide, to English-Language Publications (Englewood, Colo. 1990) and Independent Ukraine: A Bibliographic Guide to English-Language Publica­tions, 1989-1999 (Englewood, Colo. 2000) Also of value, especially for older publications, are Eugene J. Pelenskyj, Ucrainica: Selected Bibliography on Ukraine in Western European Languages (Munich 1948); and Roman Weres, Ukraine: Selected References in the English Language, 2nd rev. ed. (Chicago 1974). Bibliographical guides are available for the Cossack era, in Andrew Gregorovich, Cossack Bibliog­raphy (Toronto 2008), and for specific regions, in particular western Ukrainian lands: Paul Robert Magocsi, Galicia: A Historical Survey and Bibliographic Guide (Toronto 1983); Paul Robert Magocsi, “A Historiographical Guide to Subcar­pathian Rus’,” Austrian History Yearbook, IX-X (Houston 1973-74), pp· 201-265 - revised with corrections and supplements in Paul Robert Magocsi, Of the Making of Nationalities There Is No End, Vol.

There is a wide variety of articles about Ukrainian subjects that have appeared during the past half century in scholarly journals, access to which can be obtained by consulting the annual American Bibliography of Slavic and East Euro­pean Studies (Bloomington, Ind. and Stanford, Calif. 1957- ). This work includes separate sections titled “Ukraine” in each of the chapters that deals with history, government, law, politics, language and linguistics, and literature. There are, moreover, three scholarly journals that deal specifically with Ukraine, in particu­lar in the fields of history and politics: Annals of the Ukrainian Academy of Arts and Sciences in the United States - AUAAS (New York 1951- ); The Journal of Ukrainian [Graduate] Studies-JUS (Toronto and Edmonton 1976- ); and Harvard Ukrainian Studies - HUS (Cambridge, Mass. 1977- ). The Ukrainian language Ukrains’kyi istoryk / Ukrainian Historian (Munich and New York 1963- ) also includes some articles in English. Three other journals focus on Ukrainian topics: the Ukrain­ian Quarterly (New York 1944- ) deals mainly with recent history and politics; Logos (Yorkton, Sask. 1950-83; Ottawa 1994- ) primarily on Ukrainian religious studies; and the irregular Studia Ucrainica (Ottawa 1978- ) with an emphasis on literature.

The development of Ukrainian historical writing from earliest times to 1956 is provided in a comprehensive survey by Dmytro Doroshenko (with a supplement covering the years 1917 to 1956 by Olexander Ohloblyn), A Survey of Ukrainian Historiography, in AUAAS, V-VI (1957).

For readers interested in general surveys of Ukrainian history other than this one, there are several to choose from in English. In a class by itself is Mykhailo Hrushevs’kyi’s monumental Istoriia Ukramy-Rusy (History of Ukraine-Rus’), 10 vols. (Kiev 1898-1936; reprinted New York 1954-58 and Kiev 1991- ). Based on a wide variety of primary sources, this study traces developments from pre­historic times to 1658. All ten volumes, entitled History of Ukraine-Rus’, are in the process of translation into English under the sponsorship of the Peter Jacyk Centre for Ukrainian Historical Research at the University of Alberta; those that have already appeared are noted in the appropriate sections below.

The earliest one-volume historical survey to appear in English, covering events from earliest times to World War I (originally published in Russian, 1911; updated 1921) is Michael Hrushevsky, A History of Ukraine (New Haven, Conn. 1941; reprinted 1970). More scholarly in nature is Dmytro Doroshenko, A Survey of Ukrainian History (Winnipeg 1975), originally covering the period from earliest times to 1914 with a supplement covering the years 1914-1975 by Oleh W. Gerus. Now dated is W.E.D. Allen, The Ukraine. (Cambridge 1941), which concentrates on the modern period. Chronologically more comprehensive but often unreliable are Isidore Nahayevsky, History of Ukraine (Philadephia 1962); and Nicholas L.

The aforementioned surveys are concerned primarily with the history of the Ukrainian people and not with a territory called Ukraine inhabited largely but not exclusively by the Ukrainians. Although the territorial approach was adopted by Soviet Ukrainian historians, they too largely ignored Ukraine’s other peoples. This is the case even in the large-scale Istoriia Ukrains’ko'iRSR, 8 vols., ed. Iurii Kondufor (Kiev 1977-79), produced during the last years of Communist rule. Although this work has never been - and is unlikely to be - translated into Eng­lish, there is a concise one-volume version: Yuri Kondufor, ed., A Short History of the Ukraine. (Kiev 1986). This and other Soviet Marxist accounts are useful for the emphasis they generally place on socioeconomic factors and for their attempt to cover developments in all regions within the boundaries of the post-1945 Ukrain­ian S.S.R. They suffer, however, from inadequate coverage or the elimination of persons and events that are not considered as belonging to the “progressive forces,” and from the need to fit Ukrainian historical developments into a Soviet Marxist conceptual framework.

There are general historical surveys of Ukraine’s traditional Eastern Chris­tian churches: Ivan Wlasowsky, Outline History of the Ukrainian Orthodox Church, 2 vols. [earliest times to 1686] (New York and South Bound Brook, N.J. 1974-79); George Fedoriw, History of the Church in Ukraine (Toronto 1983); and, for the region of Transcarpathia and the immediately neighboring East Slavic-inhabited lands, Athanasius B. Pekar, The History of the Church in Carpathian Rus’ (New York 1992). All three provide valuable factual data even if they are clearly apologetic in spirit and defensive of either the Orthodox (Wlasowsky) or the Greek Catholic (Fedoriw, Pekar) viewpoint. More balanced are the chronology of events com­piled by Osyp Zinkewych and Andrew Sorokowski, A Thousand Years of Christianity in Ukraine: An Encyclopedic Chronology (New York, Baltimore, and Toronto 1988); and the projected four-volume work by Sophia Senyk, A History of the Church in Ukraine, the first volume of which (covering the period to the end of the thir­teenth century) has appeared in the series, Orientalia Christiana Analecta, Vol. CCXLIII (Rome 1993).

Readers interested in Ukrainian history may need to consult basic surveys and reference works dealing with neighboring countries whose own develop­ment has often been intimately related to that of Ukraine. There are numerous English-language histories of Russia.The best of these, which incorporates the most recent findings of scholarship, is the three-volume work, The Cambridge His­tory of Russia, Vol. I: From Early Rus’ to 1689, ed. Maureen Derrie; Vol. II: Imperial Russia, 1689-1917, ed. Dominic Lieven; and Vol. III: The Twentieth Century, ed. Ronald Grigur Suny (Cambidge 2006-07). Earlier surveys of scholarly signifi­cance which present the Russian understanding of the history of eastern Europe include: Vasily O. Kluchevsky, A History of Russia, 5 vols. [to the 1850s] (New York i960); George Vernadsky, A History of Russia, 5 vols. [to 1682] (New Haven and London 1943-69); Michael T. Florinsky, Russia: A History and Interpretation, 2 vols. [to 1917] (New York 1947); Nicholas V. Riasanovsky, A History of Russia, 6th rev. ed. (New York and Oxford 2000); and, for the twentieth century, Donald W. Treadgold, Twentieth Century Russia, 8th rev. ed. (Boulder, Colo. 1995). There are also surveys of the economy and culture of the former Russian Empire and Soviet Union which effectively deal with the lands of the East Slavs: Peter I. Lyash- chenko, History of the National Economy of Russia to the 1917 Revolution (New York

1949) ; Jerome Blum, Lord and Peasant in Russia (New York 1964); and James H. Billington, The Icon and the Axe (New York 1967). Factual data on a wide range of historical events, organizations, and individuals (including many connected with Ukraine) are found in The Modem Encyclopedia of Russian and Soviet History (with Supplements and Index), 60 vols., edited by Joseph L. Wieczynski (Gulf Breeze, Fla. 1976-2000), and George N. Rhyne and Bruce F. Adams, eds. The Supplement to the Modern Encyclopedia of Russian Soviet and Eurasian History, Vols. 1-9 [A-E] (Gulf Breeze, Fla., 1995-2008).

For Poland, there is the older Cambridge History of Poland, 2 vols. (Cambridge

1950) ; as well as Norman Davies, God’s Playground: A History of Poland, 2 vols. (New York 1982), and an encyclopedia of historical events and personages: George J. Lerski and Piotr Wrobel, Hist.orieal Dictionary of Poland, 2 vols: 966-1945 and 1945-1996 (Westport, Conn. and London 1996-98). A Polish perspective on the country’s former eastern borderlands, with particular emphasis on eastern Galicia, is provided in a historical survey from earliest times to World War II by Adam Zoltowski, Border of Europe: A Study of the Polish Eastern Provinces (London 1950). Little known but extremely useful, and filled with extensive statistical data on Right Bank Ukraine and Galicia, is the Polish Encyclopedia, 3 vols. (Geneva 1922-26). On the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, in particular during the period when it ruled much of Ukraine, see Zigmantas Kiapa, Ju rate Kiaupiene, and Albinas Kuncevicius, The History of Lithuania before 1975 (Vilnius 2000). The best introduction to the Ottoman Empire, in particular its early phases as an expand­ing state, is Paul Wittek, The Rise of the Ottoman Empire (London 1963). For the country’s subsequent history, see Caroline Finkel, Osman’s Dream: The Story of the Ottoman Empire (London 2005).

2. The pre-Kievan era

There is an extensive literature on the archaeology of lands north of the Black Sea and on the various nomadic and sedentary peoples who lived there before the beginning of the common era (âñå). Most of the works deal primarily, if not exclusively, with developments on Ukrainian territory. An introductory survey covering several millennia âñå as well as the first eight centuries of the Common Era to the eve of Kievan Rus’ is provided in two works of George Vernadsky, A History of Russia, Vol. I: Ancient Russia (New Haven and London 1943) and The Origins of Russia (Oxford 1959); and in a shorter survey by Tadeusz Sulimirski, Prehistoric Russia: An Outline (London 1970). The results of recent archaeological research on these same millennia are found in Pavel M. Dolukhanov, The Early Slavs: Eastern Europe from the Initial Settlements to the Kievan Rus (London and New York 1996).

Particular attention has been given to the Trypillian culture, which flourished during the fourth and third millennia âñå. A short introductory survey of the topic is presented by Yaroslav Pasternak, “The Trypillian Culture in Ukraine,” Ukrainian Quarterly, VI, 2 (New York 1950), pp. 112-133. More substantive discussions are available in Krzystof Ciuk, ed., Mysteries of Ancient Ukraine: The Remarkable Trypilian Culture, 5400-2700 BC (Toronto 2008); Linda Ellis, The Cucuteni-Tripolye Cultaue: A Study in Technology and the Origins of a Complex Society, B.A.R Series, Vol. 217 (Oxford 1984); Igor Manzura, “Steps to the Steppe: Or, How the North Pontic Region was Colonized,” Oxford Journal of Archaeology, XXIV, 4 (Oxford 2005), pp. 313-338; Vladimir G. Zbenovich, “The Tripolye Culture: Centenary of Research,” Journal of World Prehistory, X, 2 (1996), pp. 199-241; and in several works by Marija Gimbutas, the most prolific populariser of Trypillia as a highly advanced culture and matriarchal society: The Civilization of the Goddess (San Francisco 1991), with its numerous illustrations and ingenious reconstruc­tions, and The Slavs (London 1971).

The classic studies on the interaction between the Greek settlements along the Black Sea coasts and the steppe hinterland is discussed in E. Minns, Scythians and Greeks: A Survey of Ancient History and Archaeology on the North Coast of the Euxine from the Danube to the Caucasus (Cambridge 1913); and Michael Rostovtzeff, Iranians and Greeks in South Russia (Oxford 1922), who surveys the interaction of the Cimmerians, Scythians, and Sarmatians with the Greek cities along the coast, including the Bosporan Kingdom during the period of Roman influence until the third century ce. The literature on the coastal and steppe hinterland relations has grown substantially, especially in the last few decades. Many of these works also include magnificent color reproductions of art works from the period: Marianna Koromila, The Greeks in the Black Sea from the Bronze Age to the Early Twentieth Century (Athens 1991), esp. chapters 3 and 4; Glenn R. Mack and Joseph Coleman Carter, eds., Crimean Chersonesos: City, Chora, Museum, and Envi­rons (Austin, Tex. 2003); David Braund, ed., Scythians and Greeks: Cultural Interac­tions in Scythia, Athens and the Early Roman Empire, 6th Century BC - 1st Century AD (Exeter, UK 2005); and Anna A. Trofimova, ed., Greeks on the Black Sea: Ancient Art from the Hermitage (Los Angeles 2007). There are also monographs on indi­vidual nomadic tribal entities that dominated Ukrainian and surrounding lands: Tadeusz Sulimirski, The Sarmatians (New York 1970).

It is the Scythians, however, and in particular their art works, which have attracted the most attention: whose society and art are the subject of many works, including Tamara Rice, The Scythians (London 1957); Mikhail I. Artamanov, The Splendor of Scythian Art: Treasures from Scythian Tombs (New York 1969); Renata Rolle, The World of the Scythians (London 1989); Ellen D. Reeder, ed., Scythian Gold: Treasures from Ancient Ukraine (New York 1999); and Joan Aruz et al., eds., The Golden Deer of Eurasia: Scythian and Sarmatian Treasures from the Russian Steppes (New York 2000). Aside from their art and other physical remnants, our main source of information about Scythians comes from writings of the “father of his­tory,” the Greek writer Herodotus. His text about Scythia, with extensive com­mentary based on our current state of knowledge of the ancient world, is found in The Landmark Herodotus: The Histories, edited by Robert B. Strassler (New York

2007).

Studies on the first eight centuries of the common era before the establish­ment of Kievan Rus’ deal either with invading nomadic peoples who made parts of Ukrainian territory their permanent home, or with the Slavs, whose origi­nal homeland is presumed to be centered in northwestern and north-central Ukraine. The relationships of these developments specifically to Ukrainian terri­tory is surveyed in Mykhailo Hrushevsky, History of Ukraine-Rus’, Vol. I (Edmonton and Toronto 1997), esp. chapters 3-6, although much of the author’s informa­tion reflects the now-outdated state of archaeological research at the beginning of the twentieth century.

Monographs on individual groups and the civilizations they created include Alexander A. Vasiliev, The Goths in the Crimea (Cambridge, Mass. 1936). Particu­lar attention has been accorded the Khazars and their “empire,” which encom­passed much of Ukraine, in the now classic introductory survey by D.M. Dunlop, The History of the Jewish Khazars (Princeton, N. J. 1954); in several essays by Peter B. Golden, Khazar Studies: An Historico-Philological Inquiry into the Origins of the

Khazars, esp. Vol. I (Budapest 1980); and in the more popular survey by Kevin Alan Brook, TheJews of Khazaria, 2nd ed. (Lanham, Md. 2006). The most recent scholarship is found in essays on the Khazar economy (by Thomas S. Noonan), on relations with Kievan Rus’ (by Vladimir Petrukhin), and on the conversion to Judaism (by Peter B. Golden), among other related topics, in Peter B. Golden, Haggai Ben-Shammai, and Andras Rona-Tas, eds., The World of the Khazars: New Perspectives (Leiden and Boston 2007).

It is the Slavs, however, who have received the most attention, whether in works that focus on archaeological and historical evidence: Marija Gimbautas, The Slavs (London 1971); Zdenek Vana, The World of the Ancient Slavs (Detroit 1983); Bohuslav Chropovsky, The Slavs: Their Significance - Political and Cultural History (Prague 1989); and Paul M. Barford, The Early Slavs: Culture and Society in Early Medieval Eastern Europe (Ithaca, N.Y. 2001); on linguistic data: Zbigniew Golgb, The Origins of the Slavs: A Linguist’s View (Columbus, Ohio 1992) and Alexander M. Schenker, The Dawn of Slavic: An Introduction to Slavic Philology (New Haven and London 1995); or on religious beliefs: Richard A.E. Mason, The Ancient Religion of Kyivan Rus’ (Cleveland, L’viv, and Ulm 1994). Most of these works contain extensive information on the early developments in Kievan Rus’.

3. The Kievan Period, circa 850-1350

Because of its importance in the historiography of Russia and eastern Europe in general, the literature in English on Kievan Rus’ is quite well developed. While general studies attempt to encompass the entire Kievan realm from the Baltic to the Black Sea, inevitably much attention is given to Kiev, the seat of the grand prince, and to the surrounding southern Rus’/Ukrainian territories.

Although by now dated, there is a still useful historiographic review of primary sources by Nora K. Chadwick, The Beginnings of Russian History: An Inquiry into Sources (Cambridge 1946; reprinted 1966). Several of the sources themselves have appeared in annotated English translations, including The Russian Primary Chronicle: Laurentian Text [to 1116], translated by Samuel Hazzard Cross and Olgerd P Sherbowitz-Wetzor (Cambridge, Mass. 1953; reprinted 1973); The Galician Volynian Chronicle [to 1292], translated by George A. Perfecky, 2nd rev. ed. (Cambridge, Mass. 1994); The Nikonian Chronicle, 5 vols., translated by Serge A. and Betty Jean Zenkovsky (Princeton, NJ 1984-89), esp. Vols. I and II [to 1240]; Medieval Russian Laws, translated by George Vernadsky, 2nd ed. (New York 1969) - in particular the short and long versions of the Pravda Russkaia; and A Source Book for Russian History from Early Times to 1917, comp. Sergei Pushkarev (New Haven and London 1972), esp. chapter 2. The concrete manner in which law functioned in Kievan Rus’ is discussed by Daniel H. Kaiser in The Growth of the Law in Medieval Russia (Princeton, N.J. 1980). A few documents and excerpts from some of the best secondary sources on aspects of Kievan Rus’ are found in Daniel H. Kaiser and Gary Marker, comps., Reinterpreting Russian History: Read­ings, 860- 1860s (New York and Oxford 1994), chapters 1-8. The invaluable report of the tenth-century Byzantine emperor Constantine Pophyrogenitus, with its detailed description of the Rus’, the Khazars, and other peoples north of the Black Sea, is available in English translation: De Administrando Imperio, edited and translated by Gy. Moravcsik and R.J.H. Jenkins, 2nd rev. ed. (Washington, D.C. 1967), and Vol. II: Commentary, by F. Dvornik, R.J.H. Jenkins, B. Lewis, et al. (London 1962). The extensive commentary from volume II dealing with vari­ous aspects of the early Rus’ is reprinted in Dimitrii Obolensky, Byzantium and the Slavs: Collected Studies (London 1971), chapter 5.

Introductory surveys on Kievan Rus’ have appeared in several multi-volume histories of Russia, beginning with the pre-revolutionary classics of nineteenth­century Russian imperial historiography: Sergei M. Soloviev, History of Russia, Vol. II: Early Russia, 1054-1157 (Gulf Breeze, Fla. 2002) and Vol. III: The Shift Northward: Kievan Rus', 1154-1228 (Gulf Breeze, Fla. 2000); and are available in one-volume histories by the late nineteenth-century Russian historian Vasily O. Kluchevsky, A History of Russia, Vol. I (New York i960); and continuing with the Russian emigre scholar George Vernadsky, A History of Russia, Vol. II: Kievan Rus­sia (New Haven and London 1948). There are one-volume histories written from the Russian Marxist perspective: Boris Grekov, Kiev Rus (Moscow 1959) and Boris Rybakov, Kievan Rus’ (Moscow 1984). Kievan Rus’ also features prominently in Janet Martin, MedievalRussia, 980-1584 (Cambridge 1995), esp. chapters 1-6, which is particularly useful for a concluding chapter on historiography and for the most comprehensive up-to-date bibliography of works on Kievan Rus’ in western languages.

The economy and urban geography is surveyed in Mikhail Tikhomirov, The Towns of Ancient Rus (Moscow 1959). In addition to the often extensive discussion of economic developments in each of the aforementioned surveys, of importance are Daniel H. Kaiser, “The Economy of Kievan Rus’: Evidence from the Pravda Rus’skaia”; Peter B. Golden, “Aspects of the Nomadic Factor in the Economic Development of Kievan Rus’” and Thomas S. Noonan, “The Flourishing of Kiev’s International and Domestic Trade, ca. 1100-ca. 1240,” in I.S. Koropeckyj, ed., Ukrainian Economic History: Interpretive Essays (Cambridge, Mass. 1991), pp. 37-146; David B. Miller, “Monumental Building and Its Patrons as Indicators of Economic and Political Trends in Rus’, 900-1262,” JahrbUcher fur Geschichte Osteuropas, XXXVIII, 3 (Stuttgart 1990), pp. 321-355; and Vladimir I. Mezentsev, “The Territorial and Demographic Development of Medieval Kiev and Other Major Cities of Rus’,” Russian Review, XLVIII, 2 (Columbus, Ohio 1989), pp. ¹45^-17^O.

Most of the works noted above deal with the entire territorial extent of Kievan Rus’, although they tend to end their narratives in the 1240s, with the Mongol invasions. By contrast, the first three volumes of Hrushevs’kyi’s history not only provide great detail on developments specifically on Ukrainian territory, but also treat the principality/Kingdom of Galicia-Volhynia as a direct continuation of Kievan Rus’ until its own demise in the 1340s: Mykhailo Hrushevsky, History of Ukraine-Rus’, Vol. I (Edmonton and Toronto, 1997) and Vols. II-III (forth­coming).

Of all the topics related to Kievan Rus’, the one with perhaps the most extensive literature in English as well as in other languages is the question of the origin of Rus’. The most wide-ranging discussion of this issue as well as of the early settle­ment of eastern Europe in general and the evolution of and differentiation among the East Slavs is found in two volumes by Henryk Paszkiewicz, The Origin of Russia (London 1954; reprinted New York 1969); and The Making ofthe Russian Nation (London 1963; reprinted Westport, Conn. 1977). The controversy over the pos­sible Scandivanian origin of the Rus’ - the so-called Normanist theory - is discussed at length in Alexander Riasanovsky, The Norman Theory of the Origin of the Russian State: A Critical Analysis (Stanford, Calif. i960), while the actual arguments for and against the theory appear in several works, including Vilhelm Thomsen, The Rela­tions between Ancient Russia and Scandinavia and the Origin ofthe Russian State (Oxford and London 1877; reprinted NewYork 1964); Adolf Stender-Petersen, Varangica (Aarhus 1953); Imre Boba, Nomads, Northmen and Slavs: Eastern Europe in the Ninth Century (The Hague 1967); Omeljan Pritsak, The Origin of Rus', Vol. I (Cambridge, Mass. 1981); Thomas S. Noonan, “Why the Vikings First Came to Russia,” Jahrbücher für Geschichte Osteuropas, XXXIV, 3 (Wiesbaden and Stuttgart 1986), pp. 321-348; and Wladyslaw Duczko, Viking Rus: Studies on the Presence ofScandinavians in Eastern Europe (Leiden and Boston 2004). The origin of Rus’, the creation of the first state structures, and the first centuries of Kievan Rus’ history are treated in an authori­tative manner by Simon Franklin and Jonathan Shepard, The Emergence of Rus, 750-1200 (London and New York 1996).

The subsequent evolution of the term ^us’/Rus’ Land to designate either relat­ed ethnic groups, a geographic territory, or an ideological myth is, in part, dealt with in the previously mentioned works on the origin of Rus’, but specifically in Paul Bushkovitch, “Rus’ in the Ethnic Nomenclature of the Povest vremennykh let,” Cahiers du monde russe et sovietique, XII, 1-2 (Paris 1971), pp. 296-306; Charles J. Halperin, “The Concept of the Russian Land from the Ninth to the Fourteenth Centuries,” Russian History, II, 1 (Pittsburgh 1975), pp. 29-38; Charles Halperin, “The Concept of the Ruskaia zemlia and Medieval National Consciousness from the Tenth to the Fifteenth Centuries,” Nationalities Papers, VII, 1 (Charleston, Ill. 1980), pp. 75-86; and Serhii Plokhy, The Origins of the Slavic Nations (Cambridge 2006), chapter 1.

There is as well an extensive body of scholarship in English on cultural life in Kievan Rus’. Many works deal with what Russian historiography describes as “Old Russian” culture and literature, as in a general collection of essays by Boris D. Grekov, The Culture of Kiev Rus (Moscow 1947); an analysis of several literary works, including the chronicles, by Dmitry Likhachev, The Great Heritage: The Clas­sical Literature, of Old Rus (Moscow 1981); and the initial chapters of descriptive surveys by Nikolai K. Gudzy, History of Early Russian Literature (New York 1949), and by J. Fennell and A. Stokes, Early Russian Literature. (Berkeley, Calif. 1974). A Ukrainian perspective on the same period is provided in the first half of Dmytro Cyzevs’kyj, A History of Ukrainian Literature (Littleton, Colo. 1975), esp. chapters 2-4.

Several of the literary works themselves from the Kievan period are available in English translation, whether as part of collections: Anthology of Old Russian Literature, compiled by Adolf Stender-Petersen (New York 1954); Medieval Russia’s Epics, Chronicles and Tales, compiled by Serge A. Zenkovsky, 2nd rev. ed. (New York 1974); The Hagiography of Kievan Rus', translated by Paul Hollingsworth (Cambridge, Mass. 1992); Sermons and Rhetoric of Kievan Rus', translated by Simon Franklin (Cambridge, Mass. 1991); The Edificatory Prose. of Kievan Rus', translated by William R. Veder (Cambridge, Mass. 1994); or as individual works: The Paterik of the Kievan Caves Monasteiy, translated by Muriel Heppell (Cambridge, Mass.

¹⁹⁸⁹⁾.

Special attention has been given to the Lay of Prince. Ihor’s Campaign, with at least two versions in English: The Song of ihor's Campaign, translated by Vladimir Nabokov (Woodstock, N.Y and New York 2003) and The Tale of the Campaign of Ihor, translated by Robert C. Howes (New York 1973). There exists a spir­ited scholarly debate around the question of whether it is an authentic literary work from the late twelfth century, as argued by Roman Jacobson, “The Puzzles of the Igor’ Tale on the 150 Anniversary of its First Edition,” in idem, Selected Writings,Vol. IV (The Hague 1971), pp. 380-410 and Omeljan Pritsak, “The Igor’ Tale as a Historical Document,” AUAAS, XII (1969-72), pp. 44-61; or a literary creation in medieval style from the late eighteenth century, as argued by Andre Mason, “Le Slovo d’Igor,” The Slavonic and East European Review, XXVII [69] (London 1949), pp. 515-535 and Edward L. Keenan, Josef Bobrovsky and the Origins of the Igor’ Tale (Cambridge, Mass. 2003).

Monuments of architecture are treated in the early chapters of three works: George Heard Hamilton, The Art and Architecture of Russia, 3rd ed. (New York 1983); William C. Brumfield, Gold in Azure (Boston 1983); and William C. Brumfield, A History of Russian Architecture (Cambridge 1993). The cathedral of St Sophia has been given particular attention in Olexa Powstenko, The Cathedral of St. Sophia in Kiev, in AUAAS, III-IV [10-12] (1954); and in Andrzej Poppe, “The Building of the Church of St Sophia in Kiev,” Journal of Medieval History, VII, 1 (Amsterdam 1981), pp. 15-66, reprinted in idem, The Rise of Christian Russia (London 1982), chapter 4.

The crucial relationship between the culture of Kievan Rus’ and its spiritual source, Byzantium, is best explored in Dmitri Obolensky, The Byzantine Common­wealth, 500-1453 (London 1971), esp. chapters 6 and 7. Particular attention has been given to Kiev’s acceptance of Christianity and the organization of the Rus’ church. These topics are covered in general histories of the church (see above, section l), in the historical surveys mentioned previously in this section, and in Yaroslav N. Shchapov, State and Church, in Early Russia, 1oth-1yth Centuries (New Rochelle, N.Y., Athens, and Moscow 1993); A.P Vlasto, The Entry of the Slavs into Christendom (Cambridge 1970), esp. chapter 5; Andrzej Poppe, The Rise of Chris­tian Russia (London 1982), esp. chapters 2 and 3; John Fennell, A History of the Russian Church to 1448 (New York 1995); and the extensive collection of essays by several specialists on the conversion, as well as a wide range of topics dealing with Byzantium’s impact on Kievan Rus’ in Proceedings of the International Congress Commemorating the Millennium of Christianity in Rus’-Ukraine, ed. Omeljan Pritsak and Ihor SevCenko, special issue of HUS, XII-XIII (1988-89). The topic is also treated in several essays by Ihor SevCenko, Hkraine Between East and West (Edmon­ton and Toronto 1996), esp. pp 12-111.

There is growing body of scholarship on the various nomadic peoples of the steppe who interacted with Kievan Rus’. For a general background on this wide-ranging topic, see Peter B. Golden, An Introduction to the History of the Turkic Peoples (Weisbaden 1992). There are also a few studies devoted to the Turkic Pechenegs in C.A. Macartney, “The Pechenegs,” Slavonic and East European Review, VIII (London 1929-30), pp. 342-355; Omeljan Pritsak, “The PeCenegs: A Case Study of Social and Economic Transformation,” Archivum Eurasiae Medii Aevi, I (Lisse, Netherlands 1975), pp. 211-235; and F. E. Wozniak, “Byzantium, the Pechenegs, and the Rus’,” ibid., pp. 299-316. Even more attention has been given to the steppe polity whose peoples are known variously as Polovcians/ Kipyaks/Cumans: Bruce A. Boswell, “The Kipchak Turks,” Slavonic and East Euro­pean Review, VI (London 1927-28), pp. 65-85; Omeljan Pritsak, “The Polovcians and Rus’,” ArchivumEurasiaeMedii Aevi, II (Lisse, Netherlands 1982), pp. 321­380; and several articles on this group as well as on Kiev’s close allies, the Chorni Klobuky, reprinted in Peter B. Golden, Nomads and their Neighbours in the Russian Steppe: Turks, Khazars, and Qipchaqs (Ashgate, U.K. and Burlington, Vt. 2003).

It is the Mongols, however, who have received the most extensive treatment, including a survey of their history both before and after their destruction of Kiev by George Vernadsky, A History of Russia, Vol. III: The Mongols and Russia (New Haven and London 1953). Much attention is given to Mongol military conquests toward the West (Kievan Rus’ and Europe) in Timothy May, The Mongol Art of War (Yardley, Pa., 2007); Richard A. Gabriel, Subotai the Valiant: Genghis Khan’s Gieatesl General (Westport, Conn. and London 2004); and the more popular survey by James Chambers, The Devil’s Horsemen: The Mongol Inva­sion in Europe (London 1979). The creation of the Golden Horde in the second half of the thirteenth century and the subsequent Mongolo-Tatar impact on Kievan Rus’ and its successor states, Lithuania and in particular Muscovy, is the topic of numerous studies, including the classic nineteenth century work by Sergei M. Soloviev, History of Russia, Vol. IV: Russia under Tatar Yoke, 1228-1389 (Gulf Breeze, Fla. 2000); a well-illustrated monograph by German A. Fedorov- Davydov, The Silk Road and the Cities of the Golden Horde. (Berkley, Calif. 1991); and popular surveys by Paul Harrison Silfen, The Influence of the Mongols on Russia (Hicksville, N.Y. 1974); and Leo de Hartog, Russia and the Mongol Yoke: the History of the Russian Principalities and the Golden Horde, 1221-1502 (London and New York 1996). More interpretative and intellectually sophisticated in approach are several works by Charles J. Halperin, Russia and the Golden Horde, 1221-1502 (Bloomington, Ind. 1985); Charles J. Halperin, The Tatar Yoke (Columbus, Ohio 1986); Charles J. Halperin, “Russia in the Mongol Empire in Compara­tive Prospective,” Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies, XLIII, 1 (Cambridge, Mass, 1983), pp. 239-261; and the comprehensive monograph by Donald Ostrowski, Muscovy and the Mongols: Cross-Cultural Infl.uenios of the Steppe Frontier, 1304-1589 (Cambridge 1998). The Mongol relationship to the last independent principal­ity in the southern Rus’ lands is discussed in Michael B. Zdan, “The Dependence of Halych-Volyn’ Rus’ on the Golden Horde,” Slavonic and East European Review, XXXV (London 1957), pp. 505-522.

Three of Kiev’s grand princes have English-language biographies. Volody­myr “the Great” is the subject of a scholarly biography by Jukka Korpela, Prince, Saint and Apostle: Prince Vladimir Svjatoslavovic of Kiev (Wiesbaden, 2001); a popular but well-informed historical novel by Vladimir Volkoff, Vladimir the Rus­sian King (London 1984); and an analysis of how the grand prince was viewed subsequently in Ukrainian and Russian society, by Francis Butler, Enlightener ofRus': The Image of Vladimir Sviatoslavovich Across the Centuries (Bloomington, Ind. 2002). The careers of two other Rus’ rulers are analyzed by Dimitri Obo­lensky, “Vladimir Monomakh,” in his Six Byzantine Portraits (Oxford 1988), pp. 83-114; and Martin Dimnik, Mikhail, Prince of Chernigov and Grand Prince of Kiev, 1224-1246 (Toronto 1981), a work which provides a good picture of the status of the southern Rus’ lands on the eve of the Mongol invasion. The principality of Chernihiv is given extensive attention in a two-volume study tracing its his­tory from the death of laroslav I “the Wise” to the establishment of the Mongol Golden Horde, by Martin Dimnik, The Dynasty of Chernigov, 1054-1146 (Toronto 1994) and The Dynasty of Chernigov, 1146-1246 (Cambridge 2003). The sub­sequent decline of Kiev as a political and ecclesiastical center in eastern Europe and the struggle between Muscovy and Lithuania to replace it is presented in a masterful work by John Meyendorff, Byzantium and the Rise of Russia: A Study of Byzantino-Russian Relations in the Fourteenth Century (Crestwood, N.Y. 1989); and in two essays by Dimitri Obolensky: “Byzantium, Kiev and Moscow: A Study in Ecclesiastical Relations,” Dumbarton Oaks Papers, XI (Washington, D.C. 1957), pp. 23-78, reprinted in his Byzantium and the Slavs: Collected Studies (London 1971), chapter 6; and “Metropolitan Cyprian of Kiev and Moscow,” in his Six Byzantine Portraits (Oxford 1988), pp. 173-200.

4. The Lithuanian-Polish-Crimean period, circa 1350-1648

The most comprehensive treatment of the three centuries of Lithuanian and Polish rule are five volumes in Mykhailo Hrushevsky’s History of Ukraine-Rus’. Among the topics covered in depth are political relations (Vol. IV, forthcoming); socioeconomic, cultural, and religious developments (Vols. V and VI, forthcom­ing); and the Cossack movement (see below). For an excellent introduction to the entire period and beyond, with an emphasis on Poland and its relation­ship to Lithuania (including Ukraine), see Daniel Stone, The Polish-Lithuanian State, 1386-1795, History of East Central Europe, Vol. IV (Seattle and London 2001). Excerpts of sixteen documents from this period dealing with the Union of Lublin, the Church Union of Brest, and the rise of the Cossacks are available in English translation in Sergei Pushkarev, A Source Book for Russian History from Early Times to 1917, Vol. I (New Haven and London 1972), esp. pp. 283-296.

Aside from Hrushevs’kyi, the available secondary literature in English deals with only a few topics. The rise of Lithuania and its rivalry with the Golden Horde for control of the southern lands of Kievan Rus’ are reviewed by Henryk

Paszkiewicz, The Origin of Russia (London 1954), chapters 8-9; Jaroslaw Pelenski, “The Contest between Lithuania-Rus’ and the Golden Horde in the Fourteenth Century for Supremacy over Eastern Europe,”’ Archivum Eurasiae Medii Aevi, II (Wiesbaden 1982), pp. 300-320; Serhii Plokhy, “The Lithuanian Solution,” in his The Origins of the Slavic Nations (Cambridge 2006), chapter 3; and more extensively in a monograph by S.C. Rowell, Lithuania Ascending: A Pagan Empire within East-Central Europe, 1295-1345 (Cambridge 1994), which includes as well a detailed discussion of the “Lithuanian” Orthodox metropolitanate of Rus’.

The impact of Lithuanian and, later, Polish political institutions on Ukrain­ian lands is explored by Omeljan Pritsak, “Kievan Rus’ and 16 th-17th-Century Ukraine,” in Ivan L. Rudnytsky, ed., Rethinking Ukrainian History (Edmonton 1981), pp. 1-28; and by Andrzej Kaminski, “The Polish-Lithuanian Common­wealth and Its Citizens: Was the Commonwealth a Stepmother for Cossacks and Ruthenians?” in Peter J. Potichnyj, ed., Poland and Ukraine: Past and Present (Edmonton and Toronto 1980), pp. 32-57. Poland’s acquisition of the Rus’ Kingdom of Galicia and the complex ethnic and religious composition of the region’s population is discussed in a collection of essays: Thomas Wunsch and Andrzej Janeczek, eds., On the Frontier of Latin Europe: Integration and Segregation in Red Ruthenia, 1350-1600 (Warsaw 2004). Polish expansion into neighboring Podolia is examined through the prism of that region’s most important city and fortress in Adrian O. Mandzy, A City on Europe 's Steppe Frontier: An Urban History of Early Modern Kamianets-Podilsky, Origins to 1672 (New York 2004). The legal sys­tem of Lithuania, which was implemented in Ukrainian lands, is discussed (with legal texts) by Karl von Loewe, The Lithuanian Statute of 1529 (London 1976); and Leo Okinshevich, The Law of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania: Background and Bibliography (New York 1953). Jaroslaw Pelenski, The Contest for the Legacy of Kievan Rus’ (Boulder, Colo. and New York 1998), provides several studies concerning the ideological claims and political policies of Muscovy, Lithuania, the Golden Horde, and Poland for control of lands that once were within the sphere of Kievan Rus’, including the background to the annexation of Ukrainian lands by Poland in 1569. The development of urban areas in Ukraine during the period of Polish-Lithuanian rule is surveyed in Vasyl P. Marochkin, The Ukrainian City in the XV to mid XVII Centuries (Toronto 2004), while the controversial question of the role of central Ukrainian lands in Poland’s international trade is addressed by Stephen Velychenko, “Cossack Ukraine and Baltic Trade, 1600-1648: Some Observations on an Unresolved Issue,” in I.S. Koropeckyj, ed., Ukrainian Economic History: Interpretive Essays (Cambridge, Mass. 1991), pp. 151—171.

The question of the Ukrainian elite, its gradual absorption into the Polish sociopolitical structure, and the degree to which its members retained a sense of their political, religious, and national distinctiveness is explored in three studies by Frank E. Sysyn: “The Problem of Nobilities in the Ukrainian Past: The Polish Period, 1569-1648,” in Ivan L. Rudnytsky, ed., Rethinking Ukrain­ian History (Edmonton 1981), pp. 29-102; “Ukrainian-Polish Relations in the 17th Century: The Role of National Consciousness and National Conflict in the Khmel’nyts’kyi Movement,” in Peter J. Potichnyj, ed., Poland and Ukraine: Past andPresent (Edmonton and Toronto 1980), pp. 52-82; and “Regionalism and Political Thought in 17th-Century Ukraine: The Nobility’s Grievances at the Diet of 1641,” HUS, VI, 2 (1982), pp. 167-190. Another approach to this topic is pro­vided by Teresa Chynczewska-Hennel, “The National Consciousness of Ukrainian Nobles and Cossacks from the End of the 16th to the Mid 17th Century,” HUS, ^X,3^-4 ⁽¹9⁸⁶⁾,pp. 377^-39².

The rise of the Zaporozhian Cossacks remains for many writers the most important aspect of Ukrainian history during the period of Lithuanian and Polish rule. The best and most comprehensive introduction to this topic remains Mykhailo Hrushevsky, History of Ukraine-Rus’, Vol. VII: The Cossack Age to 1625 (Edmonton and Toronto 1999) and Vol. VIII: The Cossack Age, 1626-1650 (Edmonton and Toronto 2002), esp. pt. 1, pp. 2-249. A more concise survey of developments among Zaporozhian Cossacks before 1648 from the perspec­tive of Russian historiography is found in George Vernadsky, A History of Russia, Vol. V: The Tsardom of Moscow, 1547-1682 (New Haven and London 1969), pp. 323-368. The early stages of the movement are treated in a monograph on the late sixteenth-century revolts by Linda Gordon, Cossack Rebellions: Social Turmoil­in the Sixteenth-Century Ukraine. (Albany, N.Y. 1983); and an interpretive essay by Wladyslaw Serczyk, “The Commonwealth and the Cossacks in the First Quarter of the 17th Century,” HUS, II, 1 (1978), pp. 73-93. How the Cossacks gradually came to be associated with the defense of the Orthodox Church and how their political and military actions were increasingly motivated by religious ideology are topics treated with sophistication in Serhii Plokhy, The Cossacks and Religion in Early Modern Ukraine (Oxford and New York 2001). The role of Zaporozhian Cos­sacks as Black Sea pirates and the manner in which their aggression was viewed by the Ottoman Empire is covered in great detail by Victor Ostapchuk, “The Human Landscape of the Ottoman Black Sea in the Face of the Cossack Naval Raids,” OrienteModerno, XX [LXXXI], 1 (Rome 2001), pp. 23-95. Of particular value are the contemporary accounts of Cossack life by Guillaume Le Vasseur, Sieur de Beauplan, A Description of Ukraine [1660] (Cambridge, Mass. 1993); and of the group’s diplomatic activity: Lubomyr Wynar, ed., Habsburgs and Zaporozhian Cossacks: The Diary of Erich Lassota von Stehlau, 1594 (Littleton, Colo. 1975).

The formation of the Crimean Khanate in the mid-fifteenth century and its impact on Ukrainian lands farther north during the following two centuries is outlined in general histories about the state’s ruling people: Alan Fisher, The Crimean Tatars (Stanford, Calif. 1978), esp. chapters 1-5; and Brian G. Williams, The Crimean Tatars (Leiden, Boston, and Koln 2001), esp. chapter 2. There are also studies on more specialized topics: on the particular relationship of the Crimean Khanate to its nominal overlord, the Ottoman Empire, in Halil Inalcik, “Power Relationships between Russia, the Crimea, and the Ottoman Empire, as Reflected in Titulature,” in Passe turco-tatar, present sovietique: etudes offerts ä Alexander Bennigson (Louvain 1986), pp. 175-211, and Alan Fisher, “Crimean Separatism in the Ottoman Empire,” in William W. Haddad and William Ochsen­wald, eds., Nationalism in Non-National States: The Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire. (Columbus, Ohio 1977), pp. 57-76; on the state’s internal clan structure, in U.

Schamiloglu, “The QaraJ Beys of the Golden Horde,” in Archivum Eurasiae Medii Aevi, IV (Wiesbaden 1984), pp. 283-297; and Beatrice Forbes Manz, “The Clans of the Crimean Khanate, 1466-1532,” HUS, II, 3 (1978), pp. 282-310; on the formation of a distinct, if heterogeneous, people, in Brian Glyn Williams, “The Ethnogenesis of the Crimean Tatars: Historical Reinterpretation,” Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society: Series 3, XI, 3 (London 2001), pp. 329-348; and on the Crimean military and its closely related role in the slave trade, in L.J.D. Collins, “The Military Organization and Tactics of the Crimean Tatars, i6th-i7th Cen­turies,” in VJ. Parry and M.E. Yapp, eds., War, Technology, and Society in the Middle East (London 1975), pp. 257-276; Alan Fisher, “Muscovy and the Black Sea Slave Trade,” Canadian-American Slavic Studies, VI, 4 (Pittsburgh 1972), pp. 575-594, and Gilles Veinstein, “From the Italians to the Ottomans: The Case of the North­ern Black Sea Coast in the Sixteenth Century,” Mediterranean Historical Review, I, 2 (London 1986), pp. 221-237. Ukrainian lands also figure prominently in a general history dealing with the military and social impact of the Crimean Tatars on the Slavic lands to the north: Brian L. Davies, Warfare, State, and Society on the Black Sea Steppe, 1500-1700 (London and New York 2007), esp. pp. 1-114.

The best general introduction to the Jews of Poland-Lithuania, including Ukraine, is found is Salo Wittmayer Baron, A Social and Religious History of the Jews, Vol. XVI: Poland-Lithuania 1500-1650 (New York and Philadelphia 1976). For emphasis on Ukraine, see Shmuel Ettinger, “The Legal and Social Status of the Jews of Ukraine from the 15th Century to the Cossack Uprising of 1648,” JUS, XVII, 1-2 (1992), pp. 107-140. Eleonora Nadel-Golobic discusses the impor­tance ofJews and Armenians in the economy of western Ukraine in “Armenians and Jews in Medieval Lvov: Their Role in Oriental Trade, 1400-1600,” Cahiers du monde russe et sovietique, XX, 3-4 (Paris 1979), pp. 345-388. The influence of Greek merchants and scholars on schools and book printing is outlined by Iaro- slav Isaievych, “Greek Culture in the Ukraine, 1550-1650,” Modern Greek Studies Yearbook, VI (Minneapolis 1990), pp. 97-122.

Much more attention has been given to cultural developments, in particular religion and the role of churchmen during this period. A general introduction to the topic, with emphasis on the entire East Slavic/Orthodox world, is found in L.R. Lewitter, “Poland, the Ukraine and Russia in the 17 th Century,” Slavonic and Elast European Review, XXVII (London 1948-49), pp. 157-171 and 414-429; William K. Medlin and Christos G. Patrinelis, Renaissance Influences and Religious Reforms in Russia: Western and Post-Byzantine Impacts on Culture and Education (Geneva 1971); Georges Florovsky, Ways of Russian Theology, Pt. 1 (Belmont, Mass. 1979), esp. chapter 2; Frank E. Sysyn, “The Formation of Modern Ukrain­ian Religious Culture: The 16th and 17th Centuries,” in Geoffrey A. Hosking, ed., Church, Nation, and State in Russia and Ukraine (Edmonton 1990), pp. 1-22 - revised version in Serhii Plokhy and Frank E. Sysyn, Religion and Nation in Modem Ukraine· (Edmonton and Toronto 2003), pp. 1-22; and Iaroslav Isaievych, “Early Modern Belarus, Russia, and Ukraine: Culture and Cultural Relations,” JUS, XVII, 1-2 (1992), pp. 17-28. Iaroslav Isaievych gives particular attention to the brotherhood schools and book printing in a comprehensive monograph, Volun­tary Brotherhood Confraternities of Laymen in Early Modern Ukraine (Edmonton and Toronto 2006), and in two shorter studies: “Between Eastern Tradition and Influ­ences from the West: Confraternities in Early Modern Ukraine and Byelorussia,” Richerche Slavistiche, XXXVII (Rome 1990), pp. 269-293 (revised version in Jerzy Kloczowski and Henryk Gapski, eds., Belarus, Lithuania, Poland, Ukraine [Lublin and Rome 1994], pp. 175-198); and “Books and Book Printing in Ukraine in the 16th and First Half of the 17th Centuries,” Solanus, N.S., VII (London 1993), pp. ⁶9^-95.

The efforts at Church Union (Unia) culminating in the Union of Brest of 1596 are surveyed in the classic study of Oscar Halecki, From Horence to Brest, 1439-1596, 2nd ed. (New York 1968). The broader context of these develop­ments within the framework of an Orthodox spiritual and cultural reform in the face of challenges presented by the Protestant Reformation, the Catholic Counter-Reformation, and the ongoing relationship with the Ecumenical Patri­archate in Constantinople is addressed in a wide-ranging monograph by Borys A. Gudziak, Crisis and Reform: The Kyivan Met.ropolit.anat.e, the Patriarch of Constan­tinople, and the Genesis of the Union of Brest (Cambridge, Mass. 1998), and in his shorter study, “The Kievan Hierarchy, the Patriarchate of Constantnople, and Union with Rome,” in Bert Groen and Wil van den Bercken, eds., Four Hundred Years of the Union of Brest (1596-1996): A Critical Reevaluation (Leuven, 1998), pp. 17-56. Other studies on the events leading up to the Union of Brest and its immediate impact include: Taras Hunczak, “The Politics of Religion: The Union of Brest, 1596,” Ukrains’kyi istoryk, IX, 3-4 (New York 1972), pp. 97-106; Russel P. Moroziuk, Politics ofa Chinch Union (Chicago 1983); Mikhail Dmitriev, “The Religious Programme of the Union of Brest in the Context of the Counter­Reformation in Eastern Europe,” JUS, XVII, 1-2 (1992), pp. 29-44; and Sophia Senyk, “The Union of Brest: An Evaluation,” in Groen and van den Bercken, Four Hundred Years, pp. 1-16. The widespread polemical literature from this period is surveyed by Ihor SevCenko, “Religious Polemical Literature in the Ukrainian and Belarusian lands in the 16th and 17th Centuries,” ibid., pp. 45-58; and some of the texts are available in English translation: Lev Krevza’s “Defense of Church Unity” (1617) and Zaxarija Kopystens' kyi's “Palinodija or Book ofDefense of the Holy Apostolic Eastern Catholic Church and Holy Patriarchs” (1620-1623), translated by Bohdan Struminsky, 2 pts. (Cambridge, Mass. 1995); and Rus’ Restored: Selected Writings of Meletij Smotryc’kyj, 1610-1630, translated by David A. Frick (Cambridge, Mass. 2003).

Several churchmen and intellectuals from the period are the subject of study. Particular attention has been given to Meletii Smotryts’kyi: David A. Frick, Meletij Smotryc’kyj (Cambridge, Mass. 1995); “Zyzanij and Smotryc’kyj (Moscow, Constan­tinople, and Kiev): Episodes in Cross-Cultural Misunderstanding,” JUS, XVII, 1-2 (1992), pp. 67-94; David A. Frick, “Meletij Smotryc’kyj and the Ruthenian Ques­tion in the Early 17th Century,” HUS, VIII, 3-4 (1984), pp. 351-375 and IX, 1-2 (1985), pp. 25-52; and Francis J. Thomson, “Meletius Smotritsky and Union with Rome: The Religious Dilemma in 17th Century Ruthenia,” in Bert Groen and Wil van den Bercken, Four Hundred Years of the Union of Brest (Leuven 1998), pp. 55-126. Other figures whose careers are the subject of analysis include: Petro Mohyla - with essays by Ihor Sevcenko, Frank E. Sysyn, and Matei Cazacu in HUS, VIII, 1-2 (1984), pp. 9-44 and 155-222; Ivan Vyshens’kyi - with studies by Dmit­ry Cizevsky in AUAAS, I, 2 (1951), pp. 113-126, and by Harvey Goldblatt in HUS, XV, 1-2 and 3-4 (1991), pp. 7-34 and 354-382, and HUS, XVI, 1-2 (1992), pp. 37-66; David A. Frick on “Lazar Baranovych, 1680: The Union of Lech and Rus’,” in Andreas Kappeler et al., eds., Culture, Nation and Identity: The Ukrainian- Russian Encounter, 1600-1945 (Edmonton and Toronto 2003), pp. 19-56; and Sophia Senyk, “Rutskyj’s Reform and Orthodox Monasticism: A Comparison of Eastern Rite Monasticism in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth,” Orientalia Christiana Periodica, XLVIII, 2 (Rome 1982), pp. 406-430. Finally, an otherwise little known aspect of religious life in Ukraine is explored in great detail by George H. Williams, “Protestants in the Ukraine during the Period of the Polish- Lithuanian Commonwealth,” HUS, 11,1 and 2 (1978), pp. 41-72 and 184-210.

5. The Cossack state, 1648-1711

The uprising of 1648 and its leader Bohdan Khmel’nyts’kyi are of central con­cern to the historical literature on this period. An introductory survey outlining the uprising of 1648 and subsequent events that by the 1680s resulted in the division of Ukrainian lands between Poland and Muscovy is found in George Ver­nadsky, A History of Russia, Vol. V: The '/sardom of Moscow, 1546-1682 (New Haven and London 1969), pp. 432-581 and 626-644. The most comprehensive survey of events, with coverage that begins with the decade before the 1648 uprising until the death of Khmel’nyts’kyi in 1657, is Mykhailo Hrushevsky, History of Ukraine-Rus’, Vol. VIII: The Cossack Age, 1626-1650 (Edmonton and Toronto 2002), pts. 2 and 3 and Vol. IX, Book 1: The Cossack Age, 1650-1653 (Edmonton and Toronto 2005), as well as Book 2: The Cossack Age, 1654-1657, Part One (Edmonton and Toronto 2008) and Part Two (forthcoming). There are also two biographies - the popular work by George Vernadsky, Bohdan, Hetman of Ukraine. (New Haven, Conn. 1941); and the more sophisticated monograph by Frank E. Sysyn, Between Poland and the Ukraine: The Dilemma of Adam Kysil, 1600-1653 (Cambridge, Mass. 1985) - which place the careers of Khmel’nyts’kyi and Kysil’ in the broader context of developments just before and during the 1648 revolu­tion.

Excerpts from documents and treaties among the Cossacks, Poland, and Muscovy between 1649 and 1686 are available in English translation in Ser­gei Pushkarev, A Source Book for Russian History from Early Times to 1917, Vol. I (New Haven and London 1972), esp. pp. 296-306. The structure of the Cos­sack state that came into being as a result of the uprising is outlined in Leo Okinshevich, Ukrainian Society and Government, 1648-1781 (Munich 1978); and George Gajecky, The Cossack Administration of the Hetmanate, 2 vols. (Cambridge, Mass. 1978). The economic implications of the new Cossack regime in Dnieper Ukraine are reviewed briefly by Carol B. Stevens, “Trade and Muscovite Econom­ic Policy toward the Ukraine: The Movement of Cereal Grains during the Second Half of the 17th Century,” in I.S. Koropeckyj, ed., Ukrainian Economic History: Interpretive Essays (Cambridge, Mass. 1991), pp. 172-185.

The status of the Jews of Ukraine during the Khmel’nyts’kyi era has attracted the attention of several authors. The graphic contemporary account by Nathan Hanover, Abyss of Despair/Yeven Metzulah: The Famous 17th-Century Chronicle Depict­ing Jewish Life in Russia and Poland during the Chmielnicki Massacres of 1648-1649 (New Brunswick, N.J. and London 1983), is available in English translation. The questionable historical value of this and other accounts is discussed in three interpretive essays: Bernard D. Weinryb, “The Hebrew Chronicles on Bohdan Khmel’nyts’kyi and the Cossack-Polish War,” HUS, I, 2 (1977), pp. 153-177; Jaroslaw Pelenski, “The Cossack Insurrections in Jewish-Ukrainian Relations,” in Peter J. Potichnyj and Howard Aster, eds., Ukrainian-Jewish Relations in His­torical Perspective (Edmonton 1988), pp. 31-42; and Frank Sysyn, “The Jewish Factor in Khmel’nyts’kyi’s Uprising,” ibid., pp. 43-56. The results of the most recent research on the topic are found in a special issue of Jewish History, XVII, 2 (Haifa 2003), pp. 105-255, devoted to “Jews, Cossacks, Poles, and Peasants in 1648 Ukraine,” with studies by Shaul Stampfer, Frank E. Sysyn, Zenon E. Kohut, Natalia Yakovenko, Gershon Bacon, and Moshe Rosman. The otherwise little known presence and economic importance of the Armenians is discussed by Yaroslav Dashkevych, “Armenians in the Ukraine at the Time of Hetman Bohdan Xmel’nyc’kyj, 1648-1657,” HUS, III-IV (1979-80), pp. 166-188.

Particular attention has been given to the 1654 Agreement of Pereiaslav. The controversial nature of the event and how it has been viewed in the writings of Russian and Ukrainian historians ever since the seventeenth century is surveyed by John Basarab, Pereiaslav 1654: A Historiographical Study (Edmonton 1982). The most detailed account of what actually took place during the negotiations is found in Mykhaylo Hrushevsky, History of Ukraine-Rus’, Vol. IX, Book 2, Pt. 1 (Edmonton and Toronto 2008), pp. 129-267. Other accounts, which tend to focus on the subsequent controversial relationship of Ukraine to Muscovy and Russia, whose roots go back to in the 1654 agreement, are found in Alexander Ohloblyn, Treaty of Pereyaslav 1654 (Toronto and New York 1954); Mykhaylo I. Braichevskyi, Annexation or Reunification: Critical Notes on One Conception (Munich 1974); and Serhii Plokhy, “Was There a Reunification,” in his The Origins of the Slavic Nations (Cambridge 2006), chapter 6. The place of the agreement and its aftermath in the larger historical framework of eastern Europe is provided by Hans-Joachim Torke, “The Unloved Alliance: Political Relations between Mus­covy and Ukraine in the 17th Century,” in Peter J. Potichnyj et al., eds., Ukraine, and Russia in Their Historical Encounter (Edmonton 1992), pp. 39-66.

The status of Ukrainian lands as the object of rivalry between its powerful neighbors in the wake of the 1654 agreement is given extensive coverage in Mykhailo Hrushevsky, History of Ukraine-Rus’, Vol. IX, Book 2, Part 1 (Edmonton and Toronto 2008), esp. pp. 268-501, Vol. IX, Book 2, Pt. 2 (forthcoming), and Vol. X [1657-1659] (forthcoming); C. Bickford O’Brien, Muscovy and the Ukraine from the Pereiaslav Agreement to the Truce of Andrusovo, 1654-1667 (Berkeley and Los Angeles 1963); Andrzej Sulima Kaminski, Republic vs. Autocracy: Poland- Lithuania and Russia, 1686-1697 (Cambridge, Mass. 1993); Orest Subtelny, “Cos­sack Ukraine and the Turco-Islamic World,” in Ivan L. Rudnytsky, ed., Rethinking Ukrainian History (Edmonton 1981), pp. 120-134; and Zbigniew Wojcik, “The Early Period of Pavlo Teterja’s Hetmancy in the Right-Bank Ukraine 1661-1663,” HUS, III-IV (1979-80), pp. 958-992. The last attempts to reach a political accommodation with Poland are given particular attention in Janusz Tazbir, “The Political Reversals ofJurij NemyryC,” HUS, V, 3 (1981), pp. 306-319; and Andrzej Kaminski, “The Cossack Experiment in Szlachta Democracy in the Polish-Lithua­nian Commonwealth: The Hadiach (Hadziacz) Union,” HUS, I, 2 (1977), pp. 178-197. The manner in which Cossack Ukraine and its elites accommodated and understood their new political relationship with Muscovy, and how “Ruthe- nian” values in turn influenced Muscovite cultural life are topics explored in essays by Zenon E. Kohut, Hans-Joachim Torke, and Frank E. Sysyn in Andreas Kappeler et al., eds., Culture, Nation and Identity: The Ukrainian-Russian Encounter, 1600-1945 (Edmonton and Toronto 2003), pp. 57-143.

The Kievan-Mohyla Academy, Ukraine’s leading cultural and educational insti­tution during this period, is the subject of three works: Alexander Sydorenko, The Kievan Academy in the Seventeenth Century (Ottawa 1977); Frank B. Kortschmaryk, The Kievan Academy and its Role in the Organization of Russia at the Turn of the Sev­enteenth Century (New York 1976); and The Kiev Mohyla Academy, special issue of HUS, VIII, 1-2 (1984). The early career of one member of the Kiev Academy, Teofan Prokopovych, who is best known for his later ecclesiastical career in Mus- covy/Russia, is described in James Cracraft, “ProkopovyC’s Kiev Period Reconsid­ered,” HUS, II, 2 (1978), pp. 138-157.

The degree to which the Khmel’nyts’kyi uprising was actually a national revolt and the question of how contemporary intellectuals viewed the Cossack leader, the state he created, and its relationship to their own national identity are subjects explored in several insightful studies by Frank E. Sysyn: “The Khmel­nytsky Uprising and Ukrainian Nation-Building,” JUS, XVII, 1-2 (1992), pp. 141-170; “Concepts of Nationhood in Ukrainian History Writing, 1620-1690,” HUS, X, 3-4 (1986), pp. 393-423; 17th-Century Views on the Causes of the Khmel’nyts’kyi Uprising: An Examination of the “Discourse on the Present Cos­sack or Peasant War,’’ HUS, V, 4 (1981), pp. 430-466, together with the text of the “Discourse” and a synopsis in HUS, V, 2 (1981), pp. 245-257; “The Cossack Chronicles and the Development of Modern Ukrainian Culture and National Identity,” HUS, XIV, 3-4 (1990), pp. 592-607; and “Fatherland in Early 18th Century Ukrainian Political Culture,” in Giovanna Siedina, ed., Mazepa and His Time: History, Culture, Society (Alessandria 2004), pp. 39-53. See also Ser- hii Plokhy, “The Symbol of Little Russia: The Pokrova Icon and Early Modern Ukrainian Political Ideology,” JUS, XVII, 1-2 (1992), pp. 171-188.

The last important Cossack hetman from this period, Ivan Mazepa, has only limited literature in English. Clarence A. Manning wrote a popular biography, Hetman of Ukraine Ivan Mazeppa (New York 1957); more recently, Hubert F. Babinski, The Mazeppa Legend in European Romanticism (New York 1974) has sur­veyed how the Mazepa legend has been treated in European literature, painting, and music. Analytical studies on critical periods in Mazepa’s career are provided by Orest Subtelny, “Mazepa, Peter I, and the Question of Treason,” HUS, II, 2 (1978) pp. 158-183; and idem, ed., On the Eve of Poltava: The Letters of Ivan Maze­pa to Adam. Sienawski, 1704-1708 (New York 1975). There is also a multilingual collection of essays in which those that are in English discuss Mazepa’s relation­ship with Poland (by Teresa Chynczewska-Hennel), his capital at Baturyn (by Volodymyr Mezentsev), and his relationship to the Orthodox Church (by Giovan­na Brogi Bercoff), in Giovanna Siedina, ed., Mazepa e il suo tempo: storia, cultura, societa/Mazepa and His Time: History, Culture, Society (Alessandria 2004).

6. Ukrainian lands in the eighteenth century

The structure and functioning of the Cossack state in the eighteenth century are discussed in the works by Okinshevich and Gajecky (above, section 5). Much attention has also been given to the efforts to retain Cossack autonomy within an expanding Russian Empire. The activity of the exiled Cossack hetman, Pylyp Orlyk, is the subject of articles by Borys Krupnytsky, Mykola Vasylenko, and Elie Borschak, in AUAAS, VI, 3-4 (1958), pp. 1247-1312; and of a monograph by Orest Subtelny, The Mazepists: Ukrainian Separatism, in the Early Eighteenth Century (New York 1981). There is also a more popular biography by Elie Borschak, Hry- hor Orlyk:Lranc-e's Cossack General (Toronto 1956).

The final demise of Cossack autonomy within the Russian Empire, the adapta­tion of Ukraine’s elite to Russian imperial society, and its efforts to retain a distinct regional/national identity are best described in four works by Zenon E. Kohut: Russian Centralism and Ukrainian Autonomy: Imperial Absorption of the Het- manate, 176os-18gos (Cambridge, Mass. 1988); “The Ukrainian Elite in the 18th Century and Its Integration into the Russian Nobility,” in Ivo Banac and Paul Bushkovitch, eds., The Nobility in Russia and Eastern Europe. (New Haven, Conn. 1983), pp. 65-98; “The Development of a Little Russian Identity and Ukrain­ian Nationbuilding,” HUS, X, 3-4 (1986), pp. 559-576; and “The Problem of Ukrainian Orthodox Church Autonomy in the Hetmanate (i654-i78os),” ibid., XIV, 3-4 (1990), pp. 364-376. The end of autonomy in the Crimean Khanate is described by Alan W. Fisher, The Russian Annexation of the Crimea, 1772-1783 (Cambridge 1970). The decline in Ukraine’s cultural and social status after two centuries of Muscovite-Russian rule is the subject of Marc Raeff’s essay, “Ukraine and Imperial Russia: Intellectual and Political Encounters from the 17th to 19th Century,” in Peter J. Potichnyj et al., eds., Ukraine, and Russia in Their Historical Encounter (Edmonton 1992), pp. 69-85. The last of the major uprisings against Polish rule in Ukraine is discussed by Jaroslaw Pelenski, “The Haidamak Insur­rections and the Old Regimes in Eastern Europe,” in The American and European Revolutions, 1776-1848 (Iowa City 1980), pp. 228-242; and Barbara Skinner, “Borderlands of Faith: Reconsidering the Origins of a Ukrainian Tragedy,” Slavic Review·, LXIV, 1 (Champaign, Ill. 2005), pp. 88-116.

The economic transformation of Ukrainian lands under Russian imperial rule is described by Bohdan Krawchenko, “Petrine Mercantilist Economic Policies toward the Ukraine,” in I.S. Koropeckyj, ed., Ukrainian Economic History: Interpre­tive Essays (Cambridge, Mass. 1991), pp. 186-209. The acquisition and early years of Russia’s development of southern Ukraine (New Russia) and the estab­lishment of new port cities along the Black Sea are topics that feature promi­nently in a comprehensive biography of Grigorii Potemkin, the imperial official responsible for the area; Simon Sebag Montefiore, Prince of Princes: The Life of Potemkin (London 2000). Sociodemographic and territorial changes are given much greater attention in monographs by N.D. Polons’ka-Vasylenko, The Settle­ment of the Southern Ukraine, 1750-1775, special issue of AUAAS, IV-V (1955); Roger P. Bartlett, Human Capital: The Settlement of Foreigners in Russia, 1762-1804 (Cambridge 1980). The varied career of Ukraine’s leading eighteenth-century intellectual is dealt with in a collection of essays edited by Richard H. Marshall, Jr., and Thomas E. Bird, Hryhorij Savyc Skovoroda: An Anthology of Critical Articles (Edmonton and Toronto 1994), and in a special issue of JUS, XXII, 1-2, ed. Michael M. Naydan (Toronto 1997), pp. 1-44, devoted to Hryhorii Skovoroda.

7. Ukrainian lands in the Russian Empire, circa 1785-1914

There is a relatively solid literature in English on the socioeconomic status of Ukrainian lands within the Russian Empire. A general survey of agrarian condi­tions and early industrial development is provided by Konstantyn Kononenko, Ukraine and Russia: A History of the Economic Relations between Ukraine and Russia, 1654-1917 (Milwaukee 1958). Very useful, although more limited in chronologi­cal or territorial scope, are Daniel Beauvois, The Polish Nobility between Tsarist Imperialism and the Ukrainian Masses, 1831-1863 (New York 1992); Leonard G. Friesen, Rumi Revolutions in Southern Ukraine: Peasants, Nobles, and Colonists, 1774­1905 (Cambridge, Mass. 2008); Charters Wynn, Workers, Strikes, and Pogroms: The Donbass-Dnepr Bend in Late Imperial Russia, 1870-1905 (Princeton, N.J. 1992); and Robert Edelman, Proletarian Peasants: The Revolution of 1905 in Russia’s Southwest [the Right Bank] (Ithaca and London 1987), esp. chapter 2.

Essays on more specific topics include: Robert E. Jones on the early nine­teenth-century grain trade, Leonid Melnyk and Martin C. Spechler on industrial development, and Patricia Herlihy on southern Ukraine in I.S. Koropeckyj, ed., Ukrainian Economic History: Interpretive Essays (Cambridge, Mass. 1991), pp. 210-227, 246-276, and 310-338; and Bohdan Krawchenko, “The Social Struc­ture of Ukraine at the Turn of the 20th Century,” Blast European 1 Quarterly, XVI (Boulder, Colo. 1982), pp. 171-181. Despite the recent advancements in many countries in women’s studies, the literature on women in Dnieper Ukraine in the nineteenth century is limited to an introductory survey by Martha Bohachevsky- Chomiak, Feminists Despite Themselves: Women in Ukrainian Community Life, 1884­1939 (Edmonton 1988), chapter 1; and an interpretive essay by Christine D. Worobec, “Temptress or Virgin? The Precarious Sexual Position of Women in Postemancipation Ukrainian Peasant Society,” Slavic Review, XLIX, 2 (Austin

1990), pp. 227-238 - reprinted in Beatrice Farnsworth and Lynne Viola, eds., Russian Peasant Women (New York 1992), pp. 41-53. In a land traditionally associated with Eastern Christianity, the presence of other religions (Shalaputs, Stundists, Protestant sects) in Dnieper Ukraine has finally been given serious scholarly attention in Sergei I. Zhuk, Russia ’s Lost Relorm.at.ion: Peasants, Millen- nialsim, and Radical Sects in Southern Russia and Ukraine, 1830-1917 (Washington, D.C., Baltimore, and London 2004).

Particular attention has been given to urbanization, both in general stud­ies: Boris P. Balan, “Urbanization and the Ukrainian Economy in the Mid-19 th Century,” in I. S. Koropeckyj, ed., Ukrainian Economic History (Cambridge, Mass.

1991), pp. 277-309; Patricia Herlihy, “Ukrainian Cities in the 19th Century,” in Ivan L. Rudnytsky, ed., Rethinking Ukrainian History (Edmonton 1981), pp. 135­155; Roger L. Theide on New Russia [southern Ukraine] and Frederick W. Skin­ner on Odessa, in Michael Hamm, ed., The City in Russian History (Lexington, Ky. 1976), pp. 125-149; and in “biographies” of three cities: Michael F. Hamm, Kiev: A Portrait, 1800-1917 (Princeton, NJ 1993); Patricia Herlihy, Odessa: A History, 1794-1914 (Cambridge, Mass. 1986); Anna Makolkin, A History of Odessa: The Last Black Sea Colony (Lewiston, N.Y. 2004); and Theodore H. Friedgut, Yuzovka and Revolution: Life and Work/Politics and Revolution in Russia’s Donbass, 1869­1924, 2 vols. (Princeton, N.J. 1989-94). The manner in which peoples of various national backgrounds interacted in Ukraine’s cities is discussed in each of the urban “biographies” noted above, as well as in Natan M. Meir, “Jews, Ukrainians, and Russians in Kiev: Intergroup Relations in Late Imperial Associational Life,” Slavic Review, LXV, 3 (Champaign, Ill. 2006), pp. 475-501.

There is also material on developments among some of Ukraine’s “other” (i.e., non-ethnic Ukrainian) peoples. The Crimean Tatars are discussed in several chapters covering the historic nineteenth century in Alan Fisher, The Crimean Tatars (Stanford, Calif. 1978), chapters 6-10; and Brian G. Williams, The Crimean Tatars: The Diaspora Existence and the Forging of a Nation (Leiden, Boston, and Koln 2001), chapters 3-10. On the impact of the Crimean War on Tatar life in the peninsula and the subsequent massive emigration to the Ottoman Empire, see Mara Kozelsky, “Casualties of Conflict: Crimean Tatars during the Crimean War,” Slavic Review, LXVII, 4 (Cambridge, Mass. 2008), pp. 866-891; and Alan W. Fisher, “Emigration of Muslims from the Russian Empire in the Years after the Crimean War,” Jahrbücher für Geschichte Osteuropas, XXXV, 3 (Wiesbaden 1987), pp. 356-371. Particular attention to the Crimean Tatar national awakening and the role of its leading activist, Ismail Gaspirali, is found in Hakan Kirimli, Nation­al Movements and National Identity Among the Crimean Tatars, 1905-1916 (Leiden, Boston, and Koln, 2001); and in a portrait of the era’s leading Crimean national leader, by Alan Fisher, “Ismail Gaspirali, Model Leader for Asia,” in Edward Allworth, ed., Tatars of the Crimea (Durham, N.C. and London 1988), pp. 11-26. Essays by Detlef Brandes and Andreas Kappeler deal with German settlement and that group’s relations with Ukrainians, in Hans-Joachim Torke and John-Paul Himka, eds., German-Ukrainian Relations in Historical Perspective (Edmonton and Toronto 1994), pp. 10-28 and 45-68. David G. Rempel focuses on the very last years of imperial rule in “The Expropriation of the German Colonists in South Russia during the Great War,” Journal of Modern History, IV, 1 (Chicago 1932), pp. 49-67. A historic overview of the Czechs in Volhynia is found in Nad’a Valäskovä, Zdenek Uherek, and Stanislav Broucek, Aliens or One’s Own People: Czech Immi­grants from Ukraine in the Czech Republic (Prague 1997), esp. pp. 9-31. Two com­munities in nineteenth-century Odessa are given special attention in John Athanasios Mazis, The Greeks of Odessa: Diaspora Leadership in Late Imperial Russia (New York 2004); and Anna Makolkin, The Nineteenth Century in Odessa: One Hun­dred Years of Italian Culture on the Shores of the Black Sea, 1794-1894 (Lewiston N.Y 2007).

The Jews in nineteenth-century Dnieper Ukraine have an extensive literature. The economic and cultural relations ofJews with Poles and Russians in the Right Bank, Kiev, and Odessa are discussed by Daniel Beauvois, “Polish-Jewish Relations in the Territories Annexed by the Russian Empire in the First Half of the 19 th Century,” in Chimen Abramsky et al., eds., The Jews in Poland (Oxford 1986), pp. 78-90; John Doyle Klier, Imperial Russia’s Jewish Question, 1855-1881 (Cambridge 1995), esp. chapters 8-9; and Steven J. Zipperstein, TheJews of Odessa: A Cultural History, 1794-1881 (Stanford, Calif. 1985).

Two other topics have a rather extensive literature. The first concerns Jewish- Ukrainian political relations, with essays by Moshe Mishkinsky, Ivan L. Rudnytsky, Roman Serbyn, and Yury Boshyk, in Peter J. Potichnyj and Howard Aster, eds., Ukrainian-Jewish Relations in Historical Perspective. (Edmonton 1988), pp. 57-110 and 173-202; Ivan L. Rudnytsky, “Mykhailo Drahomanov and the Problem of Ukrainian-Jewish Relations,” Canadian Slavonic Papers, XI, 2 (Ottawa 1969), pp. 182-198; John D. Klier, “ Kievlianin and the Jews: A Decade of Disillusionment, 1864-1873,” HUS, V, 1 (1981), pp. 83-101; Olga Andriewsky, “Medved'iz ber- logi: Vladimir Jabotinsky and the Ukrainian Question, 1904-1914,” HUS, XIV, 3-4 (1990), pp. 249-267 and a monograph by Israel Kleiner, From Nationalism to Universalism: Vladimir (Ze’ev) Jabotinsky and the Ukrainian Question (Edmonton and Toronto 2000). The second topic concerns the pogroms that occurred in the early 1880s and again during the first decade of the twentieth century, which are treated from various perspectives by John D. Klier and Shlomo Lambroza, ed., Pogroms: Anti-Jewish Violence in Modern Russian History (Cambridge 1992), esp. chapters 3-5 and 8-9; J. Michael Aronson, “Geographical and Socio-economic Factors in the 1881 Anti-Jewish Pogroms in Russia,” Russian Review, XXXIX, 1 (Cambridge, Mass. 1980), pp. 18-31; Omeljan Pritsak, “The Pogroms of 1881,” HUS, XI, 1-2 (1987), pp. 8-43; and Erich Haberer, Jews and Revolution in Nine­teenth-Century Russia (Cambridge 1995), esp. chapter 10. All aspects of the 1913 Beilis trial in Kiev are discussed in an eyewitness report by Arnold D. Margo­lin, The Jews of Eastern Europe (New York 1926), pp. 155-247; and in studies by Maurice Samuel, Blood Accusation: The Strange History of the Beiliss Case (New York 1966) and Ezekiel Leikin, The Beilis Transcripts: The Anti-Semitic Trial That Shook the World (London 1993).

Notwithstanding their small size, it is the Mennonites who among Dnieper Ukraine’s other peoples have received extensive attention in English-language writings. The best introductions to the subject are by David G. Rempel, “The Mennonite Commonwealth in Russia: A Sketch of Its Founding and Endurance, 1789-1919,” Mennonite Quarterly Review, XLVII, 4 (Goshen, Ind. 1973), pp. 259-308 and XLVIII, 1 (1974), pp. 5-54; and James Urry, Mennonites, Politics, and Peoplehood: Europe - Russia - Canada, 1525 to 1980 (Winnipeg 2006). On the early settlement and socio-economic challenges faced by Mennonites, see John R. Staples, Cross-Cultural Encounters on the Ukrainian Steppe: Settling the Molochna Basin, 1783-1861 (Toronto 2003). There is also the monumental 1911 com­pendium of Peter M. Friesen, The Mennonite Biothi.eih.ood in Russia, 1789-1910 (Fresno, Calif, 1978); the synthetic history by James Urry, None but Saints: The Transformation of Mennonite Life in Russia, 1789-1889 (Winnipeg 1989); articles by several authors on all aspects of Mennonite development in John Friesen, ed., Mennonites in Russia, 1788-1988 (Winnipeg 1989), pp. 11-259 (including a historiographical survey by Peter J. Klassen, pp. 339-363); a biography of the leading Mennonite activist in Ukraine during the first half of the nineteenth century by David H. Epp, Johann Cornies (Winnipeg 1995); and a detailed mem­oir about Mennonite life with a scholarly introduction by Harvey L. Dyck that places the group within the larger imperial structure A Mennonite in Russia: The Diaries of JacobD. Epp, 1851-1880 (Toronto, Buffalo, and London 1991). There is a useful popular survey of Mennonite history in “Russia” (in fact, in Ukraine) that includes as well a discussion of the immigrant descendants of that group in Canada: Harry Loewen, Road to Freedom: Mennonites Escape the Land of Suffering (Kitchener, Ontario 2000).

Individual Mennonite communities, in particular those in south-central Ukraine, are described in great detail in First Mennonite Villages in Russia, 1789­1943 (Vancouver 1981); and Heinrich Goerz, The Molotschna Settlement (Winni­peg 1993). Shorter studies describe the community’s cultural life: John B. Toews, “Cultural and Intellectual Aspects of the Mennonite Experience in Russia,” Men­nonite Quarterly Review, LIII, 2 (Goshen, Ind. 1979), pp. 137-159, and David G. Rempel, “An Introduction to Russian Mennonite Historiography,” ibid., XLVIII, 4 (1974), pp. 409-446; or its responses to the opportunities and restrictions of tsarist rule: James Urry, “Through the Eye of a Needle: Wealth and the Men­nonite Experience in Imperial Russia,” Journal of Mennonite Studies, III (Winnipeg 1985), pp. 7-35; Harvey L. Dyck, “Russian Mennonitism and the Challenge of Russian Nationalism, 1889,” Mennonite Quarterly Review, LVI, 4 (Goshen, Ind. 1982), pp. 307-341; Leonard Friesen, “Mennonites in Russia and the Revolution of 1905,” ibid., LXII, 1 (1988), pp. 42-55; and Helmut-Harry Loewen and James Urry, “Protecting Mammon: Some Dilemmas of Mennonite Non-Resistance in Late Imperial Russia and the Origins of the Selbstschutz,” Journal of Mennon­ite Studies, IX (Winnipeg 1991), pp. 34-53. The problem of the relations - or lack of them - between Mennonites and Ukrainians is addressed by G.K. Epp, “Mennonite-Ukrainian Relations, 1789—1945,” ibid., VII (1989), pp. 131-144; and Leonard G. Friesen, “Mennonites and Their Peasant Neighbours in Ukraine before 1900,” ibid., X (1992), pp. 56-69.

The Ukrainian nationality question, in particular its relationship to socioeco­nomic and ideological factors, has an extensive literature. A conceptual introduc­tion is provided by Paul Robert Magocsi, “The Ukrainian National Revival: A New Analytical Framework,” Canadian Review of Studies in Nationalism, XVI, 1-2 (Char­lottetown, P.E.I. 1989), pp. 45-62. Roman Szporluk, “Ukraine: From Imperial Periphery to a Sovereign State,” Daedalus, CXXVI, 3 (Boston 1997), pp.86-119 provides a sketch of the formation of the Ukrainian nationality in the context of concurrent developments among Russians in the Russian Empire and Poles in the Habsburg Empire. The manner in which the Ukrainian elites were absorbed into the Russian imperial social fabric while retaining a degree of regional/ national distinctiveness is discussed in Zenon E. Kohut, Russian Centralism and Ukrainian Autonomy: Imperial Absorption of the Hetmanate, ijoo-ißjos (Cambridge, Mass. 1988), esp. chapter 6; David Saunders, The Ukrainian Impact on Russian Culture, 1750-1850 (Edmonton 1985); Andreas Kappeler, “The Ukrainians of the Russian Empire, 1860-1914,” in Andreas Kappeler, ed., The Formation of National Elites, Comparative Studies on Governments and Non-dominant Ethnic Groups in Europe, 1850-1940, Vol. VI (Aldershot, U.K. 1992), pp. 105-132; and Stephen Velychenko, “Identities, Loyalties, and Service in Imperial Russia: Who Administered the Borderlands?” Russian Review, LIV, 2 (Columbus, Ohio 1995), pp. 188-208. The attitude of the imperial government and its “use” of the Ukrainian national movement during the first half of the nineteenth century is treated by Orest Pelech, “The State and the Ukrainian Triumvirate in the Rus­sian Empire, 1831-47,” in Bohdan Krawchenko, ed., Ukrainian Past, Ukrainian Present (London and New York 1993), pp. 1-17. The participation of Ukrainians in the limited political structures of the Russian Empire in the decade before World War I is discussed in Oleh W. Gerus, “The Ukrainian Question in the Rus­sian Duma, 1906-1917: An Overview,” in Studia Ucrainica, Vol. II (Ottawa 1984), pp. 157-174; and Olga Andriewsky, “The Making of the Generation of 1917: Towards a Collective Biography,” JUS, XXIX, 1-2 (Toronto 2004), pp. 19-37.

The use of history in the formulation of a Ukrainian national ideology is examined from various points of view by Mykhailo S. Hrushevskyi, The Historical Evolution of the Ukrainian Problem (Cleveland 1981); Natalia Polonska-Vasylenko, Two Conceptions of the History of Ukraine and Russia (London 1968); Omeljan Pritsak and John S. Reshetar, Jr., “The Ukraine and the Dialectics of Nationbuild­ing,” Slavic Review, XXII, 2 (Seattle 1963), pp. 5-36, reprinted in Donald W. Treadgold, ed., The Development of the USSR (Seattle 1964), pp. 236-267; Ivan L. Rudnytsky and George G. Grabowicz, “Observations [and Further Observations] on the Problem of ‘Historical’ and ‘Non-historical’ Nations,” HUS, V, 3 (1981), pp. 358-388; George G. Grabowicz, “Three Perspectives on the Cossack Past: Gogol’, SevCenko, Kulis,” HUS, V, 2 (1981), pp. 171-194; Stephen Velychenko, National History as Cultural Process (Edmonton 1992), esp. pt 3; and Serhii Plokhy, “Ukraine or Little Russia?: Revisiting an Early 19th-century Debate,” Canadian Slavonic Papers, XLVIII, 3-4 (Edmonton 2006), pp. 335-353. The manner in which ethnic Ukrainians actually learned the history of their homeland is dis­cussed by Serhy Yekelchyk, “The Grand Narrative and Its Discontents: Ukraine in Russian History Textbooks and Ukrainian Students’ Minds, i83os-i9oos,” in Andreas Kappeler et al., eds., Culture, Nation, and Identity (Edmonton 2003), pp. 229-255. For the dissenting Polish and Russian views that deny the very existence of a distinct Ukrainian polity, see Stephen Velychenko, National History as Cultural Process (Edmonton 1992), pts. 1 and 2; and Pierre Bregy and Serge Obolensky, The Ukraine: A Russian Land (London 1940). A provocative variant of the Rus­sian interpretation, in which “all Russian” culture is considered to be primarily Ukrainian in origin following the reforms of the leading “Ukrainianizer,” Tsar Peter I, is argued by Nikolai Sergeevich Trubetzkoy in “The Ukrainian Problem,” in his The Legacy of Genghis Khan and Other Essays on Russia's Identity (Ann Arbor, Mich. 1991), pp. 245-267.

A useful overview of the work of intellectuals in the Ukrainian national revival is provided by Ivan Rudnytsky, “The Intellectual Origins of Modern Ukraine,” AUAAS, VI, 3-4 (1958), pp. 1381-1405, reprinted in Ivan L. Rudnytsky, Essays in Moder n Ukrainian History (Edmonton 1987), pp. 123-141. The best introduc­tion to intellectual currents and practical cultural work during the early stages of the national revival is George S.N. Luckyj, Between Gogol' and Sevcenko: Polarity in the Literary Ukraine, 1798-1847 (Munich 1971). On the ideology and limited practical activity of Dnieper Ukraine’s first national organization, see Stefan Kozak, “On the Tradition of Cyril and Methodius in Ukraine,” JUS, XIII, 2 [13] (1988), pp. 29-51; and George S.N. Luckyj, Young Ukraine: The Brotherhood of Saints Cyril and Methodius in Kiev, 1845-1847 (Ottawa 1991). The importance of pan-Slavic ideology for that organization and for subsequent activists is discussed in Johannes Remy, “Panslavism in the Ukrainian National Movement from 1840s to the 1870s,” JUS, XX, 2 (Edmonton 2005), pp. 27-50; the first call for Ukrain­ian independence is discussed in Zenon V. Wasyliw, “A Revolutionary Nationalist Declaration: Mykola Mikhnovsky’s Samostiina Ukraina," East European Quartely, XXXIII, 3 (Boulder, Colo. 1999), pp. 371-384.

The question of literary and broader intellectual relations with Russian and Polish culture and society are addressed in the three essays by George G. Grabo- wicz: “Ukrainian-Russian Literary Relations in the 19th Century: A Formulation of the Problem,” in Peter J. Potichnyj et al., eds., Ukraine, and Russia in Their Historical Encounter (Edmonton 1992), pp. 214-244; “Between Subversion and Self-assertion: The Role of Kotliarevshchyna in Russian-Ukrainian Relations,” in Andreas Kappeler et al. eds., Culture, Nation, and Identity (Edmonton and Toronto 2003), pp. 215-228; and “The History of Polish-Ukrainian Literary Relations: A Literary and Cultural Perspective,” in Peter J. Potichnyj, ed., Poland and Ukraine: Past and Present (Edmonton and Toronto 1980), pp. 107-131. The problematic nature of Nikolai Gogol’ and the relationship of this “Russian” writer to his ori­gins and early interest and extensive writings about Ukrainian history and culture is given serious attention in Edyta M. Bojanowska, Nikolai Gogol': Between Ukrain­ian and Russian Nationalism (Cambridge, Mass. 2007).

Several of the leading national activists have biographies or substantive stud­ies about them. Most attention has been given to Ukraine’s “national bard”: Volodymyr Mijakovs’kyj, ed., Taras Sevcenko, 1814-1861: A Symposium (The Hague 1962); George S.N. Luckyj, ed., Shevchenko and the Critics 1861-1980 (Toronto, Buffalo, and London 1980); George G. Grabowicz, The Poet as Mythmaker: A Study of Symbolic Meaning in Taras Sevcenko (Cambridge, Mass. 1982); and Pavlo Zaitsev, Taras Shevchenko: A Life (Toronto, Buffalo, and London 1988). There are also bio­graphical sketches of several writers (Hryhorii Osnovianenko, Panteleimon Kul­ish, Osyp lurii Fed’kovych, Ivan Nechui-Levyts’kyi, Ivan Franko, Lesia Ukrainka) by George S.N. Luckyj, Seven Lives: Vignettes of Ukrainian Writers in the Nineteenth Century, special issue of the AUAAS, XX (New York 1988-99); full-length biogra­phies of two figures: George S.N. Luckyj, Panteleimon Kulish: A Sketch of His Life and Times (Boulder, Colo. and New York 1983) and Thomas M. Prymak, Mykola Kost.om.amv: A Biography (Toronto, Buffalo, and London 1996); and a collection of essays by various authors on Mykhailo Drahomanov in a special issue edited by Ivan L. Rudnytsky of the AUAAS, II, 1 (1952). Rudnytsky’s essay in this collection, “Drahomanov as a Political Theorist” is reprinted together with his “The First Ukrainian Political Program: Mykhailo Drahamanov’s ‘Introduction’ to Hroma- da,” in Ivan L. Rudnytsky, Essays in Modern Ukrainian History (Edmonton 1987), pp. 203-282. Some of the key writings of these intellectual leaders are available in English, including several essays by Drahomanov in the special issue of the AUAAS, II, 1 (1952), pp. 141-218; and Nikolai Kostomarov, Books of Genesis of the Ukrainian People (New York 1954).

A useful introduction to Russian imperial policy toward its national minorities in the western part of the empire is found in Theodore R. Weeks, Nation and State in Imperial Russia: Nationalism and Russification on the. Western Frontier, 1863-1914 (De Kalb, Ill. 1996). Of particular use because of a comparative perspective is the work of Stephen Velychenko, “Empire Loyalism and Minority Nationalism in Great Britain and Imperial Russia, 1707 to 1914: Institutions, Law, and Nation­ality in Scotland and Ukraine,” Comparative Studies in Society and History, XIX, 3 (Cambridge 1997), pp. 413-441 and his “Identities, Loyalties and Service in Imperial Russia: Who Administered the Borderlands?,” The Russian Review, LIV, 1 (Columbus, Ohio 1995), pp. 188-208. On tsarist policy toward Poles, Czechs, and Jews in Ukraine, specifically in the Right Bank, Volhynia, see Valentyna Nadolska, “Volyn within the Russian Empire: Migratory Processes and Cultural Interaction,” in Kimitaka Matsuzato, ed., Imperiology: From Empirical Knowledge to Discussing the Russian Empire (Sapporo, Japan 2007), pp. 85-110; and Kimitaka Matsuzato, “The Issue of Zemstvos in Right Bank Ukraine, 1864- 1906: Russian Anti-Polonism under the Challenges of Modernization,” Jahrbücherfür Geschichte Osteuropas, LI, 2 (Stuttgart 2003), pp. 218-235. The restrictions directed specifically toward eth­nic Ukrainians are the subject of studies by Alexei Miller, The Ukrainian Question: The Russian Empire and Nationalism in the Nineteenth Century (Budapest 2003); Dav­id Saunders, “Russia and Ukraine under Alexander II: The Valuev Edict of 1863,” International History Review, XVII, l (Burnaby, B.C. 1995), pp. 23-50; Johannes Remy, “The Valuev Circular and Censorship of Ukrainian Publications in the Russian Empire (1863-1876): Intention and Practice,” Canadian Slavonic Papers, XLIX, 1-2 (Edmonton, 2007), pp. 87-110; George Y Shevelov, The Ukrainian Language in the First Half of the Twentieth Century (1900- 1941): Its State and Status (Cambridge, Mass. 1989), esp. chapters 1 and 2; and Stephen Velychenko, “Tsar­ist Censorship and Ukrainian Historiography, 1828-1906,” Canadian-American Slavic Studies, XXIII, 4 (Bakersfield, Calif. 1989), pp. 385-408.

The attitudes of the Russian political and intellectual elite toward the Ukraini­an movement and what forms the latter adopted in order to survive are discussed by Alexei Miller (noted in the previous paragraph); and in essays by Andreas Kappeler, “Mazepintsy, Malorossy, Khokhly: Ukrainians in the Ethnic Hierarchy of the Russian Empire,” by Olga Andriewsky, “The Russian-Ukrainian Discourse and the Failure of the ‘Little Russian Solution,’ 1782-1917,” and by Oleh S. Ilnytzkyj, “Modeling Culture in the Empire: Ukrainian Modernism and the Death of the all-Russian Idea,” in Andreas Kappeler et al., eds., Culture, Nation, and Identity (Edmonton and Toronto 2003), pp. 162-214 and 298-324; David Saunders, “Russia’s Ukrainian Policy (1847-1905): A Demographic Approach,” European History Quarterly, XXV, 2 (London 1995), pp. 181-208; and David Saunders, “Contemporary Critics of Gogol’s Vechera and the Debate about Rus­sian narodnost’, 1831-1832,” HUS, V, 1 (1981), pp. 66-82. More specific focus on individual Russian thinkers is found in Thomas M. Prymak, “Herzen on Poland and Ukraine,” JUS, VII, 1 [12] (1982), pp. 31-40; Stephen Horak, “Alexander Herzen, Poles, and Ukrainians: A Dilemma in Unity and Conflict,” East European Quarterly, XVII (Boulder, Colo. 1983), pp. 185-212; Andrea Rutherford, “Vis­sarion Belinskii and the Ukrainian National Movement,” The Russian Review, LIV, 4 (Columbus, Ohio 1995), pp. 500-515; Alexis E. Pogorelskin, “A.N. Pypin’s Defense of Ukraine: Sources and Motivation,” in Bohdan Krawchenko, ed., Ukrainian Past, Ukrainian Present (London and New York 1993), pp. 35-54; and Richard Pipes, “Peter Struve and Ukrainian Nationalism,” HUS, III-IV (1979­80), pp. 675-683. A good insight into Russian attitudes is found in the memoirs of one of Kiev’s leading opponents of the Ukrainian movement: V.V. Shulgin, The Years: Mem.oiis of a Member ofthe Russian Duma, 1906-1917 (New York 1984).

8. Ukrainian lands in the Austrian Empire, circa 1772-1914

The literature on Ukrainian developments in the Austrian Empire during the late eighteenth and the nineteenth centuries is differentiated according to the three regions where Ukrainians formed a majority population: eastern Galicia, northern Bukovina, and Transcarpathia. By far most of the material deals with the largest of these regions, Galicia. Still useful as a general introduction, with emphasis on politics and the nationality movement, is Ivan L. Rudnytsky, “The Ukrainians in Galicia under Austrian Rule,” Austrian History Yearbook, III, pt. 2 (Houston 1967), pp. 394-429 - reprinted in a revised version in Andrei S. Markovits and Frank E. Sysyn, eds., Nationbuilding and the Politics of Nationalism: Essays on Austrian Galicia (Cambridge, Mass. 1982), pp. 23-93, and in Ivan L. Rudnytsky, Essays in Modem Ukrainian History (Edmonton 1987), pp. 315-352.

Of the studies available on Galicia’s socioeconomic status, the best general introduction is found in the chapters by Francis Bujak, John Rozwadowski et al. in the Polish Encyclopedia, Vol. III: Economic Life of Poland (Geneva 1922), pp. 237-361. A focus on Ukrainian-inhabited eastern Galicia, in particular during the second half of the nineteenth century, is found in an introductory outline by John-Paul Himka, “The Background to Emigration: Ukrainians of Galicia and Bukovina, 1848-1914,” in Manoly R. Lupul, ed., A Heritage in Transition (Toronto 1982), pp. 11-31. The status of the peasantry is the subject of several studies. John-Paul Himka, “Serfdom in Galicia,” JUS, IX, 2 (1984), pp. 3-28, emphasizes the long-term negative impact of serfdom even after it was abolished in 1848. A revisionist view, which argues that at least in some regions the economic outlook for peasants was steadily improving, is presented in a microeconomic analysis by Stella Hryniuk, Peasants with Promise: Ukrainians in Southeastern Galicia, 1880-1900 (Edmonton 1991); and in a more interpretive essay by Hryniuk, “Polish Lords and Ukrainian Peasants: Conflict, Deference, and Accomodation in Eastern Gali­cia in the Late Nineteenth Century,” Austrian History Yearbook, XXIV (Minneapo­lis 1993), pp. 119-132. Cottage industry is given extensive coverage in an essay by Richard L. Rudolph, “The East European Peasant Household and the Begin­nings of Industry: East Galicia, 1786-1914,” in I.S. Koropeckyj, ed., Ukrainian Economic History: Interpretive Essays (Cambridge, Mass. 1991), pp. 339-382. The industry for which Galicia became a major world producer during the half cen­tury before World War I is described in detail in Alison Fleig Frank, Oil Empire: Visions of Prosperity in Austrian Galicia (Cambrige, Mass and London 2005). Of particular value for understanding the administrative and governmental struc­tures as well as the basic economic elements (weights, measures, currency) used in Ukrainian-inhabited Habsburg lands is John-Paul Himka, Galicia and Bukovina: A Research Handbook about Western Ukraine, Late 19th and 20th Centuries, Historic Sites Service Occasional Paper, No. 20 (Edmonton 1990).

A rather substantive literature exists on the nationality question in Galicia. The multicultural aspect of Habsburg Galicia as a land in which Poles, Ukrain­ians, Jews, and Austro-Germans interacted is discussed in a series of essays by various scholars in Christopher M. Hann and Paul Robert Magocsi, eds., Galicia: A Multicultured Land (Toronto, Buffalo, and London 2005). Particular atten­tion has been given to the provincial capital of L’viv as a focal point for the development of differing national movements: John Czaplicka, ed., Lviv: A City in the Crossroads of Culture, special issue of HUS, XXIV (Cambridge, Mass. 2000) and separately (Cambridge, Mass. 2007), esp. pp. 13-170; and Harald Binder, “Making and Defending a Polish Town: ‘Lwow’ (Lemberg), 1848-1914,” Aus­trian History Yearbook, XXXIV (Minneapolis 2003), pp. 57-81. For developments specifically among ethnic Ukrainians, see the comprehensive study on the earlier period, including events during the 1848 revolution, in Jan Kozik, The Ukrainian National Movement in Galicia, 1815-1849 (Edmonton 1986). There is also a short narrative of the revolutionary year by Martha Bohachevsky-Chomiak, The Spring of the Nat.ion: The Ukrainians ofEastern Galicia in 1848 (Philadelphia 1967); an inter­pretive essay on the second half of the century by Iaroslav Isaievych, “Galicia and Problems of National Identity,” in Ritchie Robertson and Edward Timms, eds., The Habsburg Legacy: National Identity in Historical Perspective (Edinburgh 1994), pp. 37-45; and a discussion of the first proposals for Ukrainian independence by John-Paul Himka, “Young Radicals and Independent Statehood: The Idea of a Ukrainian Nation-State, 1890-1895,” Slavic Review, XLI, 2 (Urbana, Ill. 1982), pp. ²¹9^-235^.

The manner in which national identity was understood by various factions of the Galician-Ukrainian intelligentsia and the population at large is dealt with in studies by Paul Robert Magocsi, “Old Ruthenianism and Russophilism: A New Conceptual Framework for Analyzing National Ideologies in Late 19 th Century Eastern Galicia,” in Paul Debreczyn, ed., American Contributions to the Ninth Interna­tional Congress of Slavists, Vol. II (Columbus, Ohio 1983), pp. 305-324 - reprinted in Paul Robert Magocsi, The Roots of Ukrainian Nationalism: Galicia as Ukraine's Piedmont (Toronto, London, and Buffalo 2002), pp. 99-ii8;John-Paul Himka “The Construction of Nationality in Galician Rus’: Icarean Flight in Almost All Directions,” in Ronald Grigur Suny and Michael D. Kennedy, eds., Intellectuals and the Articulation of the Nation (Ann Arbor, Mich. 1999), pp. 109-164; Ostap Sereda, “Whom Shall We Be?: Public Debates over the National Identity of Galician Ruthe- nians in the 1860s,” Jahrbücherfür Geschichte Osteuropa, XLIX, 2 (Wiesbaden 2001), pp. 200-211; Ostap Sereda, “From Church-Based to Cultural Nationalism: Early Ukrainophiles, Ritual-Purification Movement, and the Emerging Cult of Taras Shevchenko in Austrian Eastern Galicia in the 1860s,” Canadian-American Slavic Studies, XL, 1 (Idyllwild, Calif. 2006), pp. 21-47; and John-Paul Himka, Religion and Nationality in Western Ukraine: The Greek Catholic Church and the Ruthenian National Movement in Galicia, 1867-1900 (Montreal and Kingston, Ont. 1999). There are also intellectual biographies of two national activists: Peter Brock, “Ivan Vahylevych (1811-1866) and the Ukrainian National Identity,” Canadian Slavonic Papers, XIV, 2 (Ottawa 1972), pp. 153-190, reprinted in Markovits and Sysyn, Nationbuilding and the Politics of Nationalism, pp. 111-148, and by Ivan L. Rudnytsky, “Hipolit Vladimir Terlecki,” in Rudnytsky, Essays in Modern Ukrainian History, pp. 143-172; and a detailed study of how history was used to create among Galicia’s East Slavs a sense of national belonging: Andriy Zayarnyuk, “Obtaining History: The Case of Ukrainians in Habsburg Galicia, 1848-1900,” Austrian History Year­book, XXXVI (Minneapolis 2005), pp. 121-147.

John-Paul Himka describes in several studies the actual mechanisms by which nationalist ideologies were disseminated among the rural population: Galician Villagers and the Ukrainian National Movement in the Nineteenth Century (Edmonton 1988); and “Voluntary Artisan Associations and the Ukrainian National Move­ment in Galicia (1870s),” in Markovits and Sysyn, Nationbuilding and the Politics of Nationalism, pp. 178-195. He has given particular attention to the role of the Eastern-rite church in several articles: “The Greek Catholic Church in Galicia, 1848-1914,” Harvard Ukrainian Studies, XXVI, 1-4 (Cambridge, Mass. 2002-03), pp. 245-260; “Priests and Peasants: The Greek Catholic Pastor and the Ukrain­ian National Movement in Austria, 1867-1900,” Canadian Slavonic Papers, XXI, l (Ottawa 1979), pp. 1-14; “The Greek Catholic Church and Nation-Building in Galicia, 1772-1918,” HUS, VIII, 3-4 (1984), pp. 426-452; “The Transforma­tions and Formation of Social Strata and Their Place in the Ukrainian National Movement in Nineteenth-Century Galicia,” JUS, XXIII, 2 (Toronto 1998), pp. 3-22; and “The Propagation of Orthodoxy in Galicia on the Eve of World War I,” in Ukraina: kul'turna spadshchyna, natsional'na svidomist', derzhavnist', Vol. IX (L’viv, 2001), pp. 480-496. The role played by the leading Greek Catholic hierarch dur­ing the last two decades of Habsburg rule (until late 1918) in Galicia is discussed in Cyril Korolevskij, Metropolitan Andrew, 1865-1944 (L’viv 1993), esp. chapters 3, 4, and 6; and in essays by Wolfdieter Bihl and John Paul Himka in Paul Robert Magocsi, ed.,.Morality and Reality: The Life and Times of Andrei Sheptyts'kyi (Edmon­ton 1989), pp. 15-46.

Other cultural and organizational mechanisms for Galician-Ukrainian nation­ality-building are described in a study about the role of one city in that process by Stanislaw Stepen, “Borderland City: Przemysl and the Ruthenian National Awak­ening in Galicia,” in Hann and Magocsi, Galicia: A Multicultured Land, pp. 52-70; in three works by Paul Robert Magocsi: “The Language Question as a Factor in the National Movement in Eastern Galicia,” in Markovits and Sysyn, Nationbuild­ing and the Politics of Nationalism, pp. 220-238; “Nationalism and National Bibli­ography: Ivan E. Levyts’kyi and 19th-Century Galicia,” Harvard Library Bulletin, XXVIII, 1 (Cambridge, Mass. 1980), pp. 81-109; “The Kachkovs’kyi Society and the National Revival in 19th-Century East Galicia,” HUS, XV, 1-2 (1991), pp. 48-87 - reprinted in Paul Robert Magocsi, The Roots of Ukrainian Nationalism, pp. 83-98 and 119-189; and in studies by Martha Bohachevsky-Chomiak, Feminists Despite Themselves: Women in Ukrainian Community Life, 1884-1939 (Edmonton 1988), esp. chapter 59; Ann Sirka, The Nationality Question in Austrian Education: The Case of Ukrainians in Galicia, 1867-1914 (Frankfurt-am-Main 1980); and Stephen M. Horak, “The Shevchenko Scientific Society, 1873-1973,” East Euro­pean Quarterly, VII, 3 (Boulder, Colo. 1973), pp. 249-264.

Political life among Galicia’s Ukrainians varied in its attitude toward Habsburg rule. A discontented few hoped for salvation through annexation to the Russian Empire or in the changes that might be brought about at home by the socialist movement. Most of the populace and its leaders, however, remained to the end loyal subjects of the Austrian Habsburg monarch. These themes are discussed in John-Paul Himka, “Hope in the Tsar: Displaced Naive Monarchism among the Ukrainian Peasants of the Habsburg Empire,” Russian History, VI, 1-2 (Tempe, Ariz. 1980), pp. 125-138; John-Paul Himka, Socialism in Galicia: The Eiiiergerice of Polish Social Democracy and Ukrainian Radicalism, 1860-1890 (Cambridge, Mass. 1983); and Paul Robert Magocsi, The Roots of Ukrainian Nationalism (Toronto 2002), chapters 4 and 5. The achievements of the Ukrainian national movement in practical politics are described in three articles by Theodore Bohdan Ciuciura: “Ukrainian Deputies in the Old Austrian Parliament, 1861-1918,” Mitteilungen, XIV (Munich 1977), pp. 38-56; “Galicia and Bukovina as Austrian Crown Prov­inces: Ukrainian Experience in Representative Institutions, 1861-1918,” Studia Ucrainica, Vol. II (Ottawa 1984), pp. 175-195; and “Provincial Politics in the Habsburg Empire: The Case of Galicia and Bukovyna,” Nationalities Papers, XIII, 2 (North York, Ont. 1985), pp. 247-273.

Among the other peoples of eastern Galicia, only the Jews have a literature on them in English. The intellectual currents during the first half century of Aus­trian rule are described in Raphael Mahler, Hasidism and the Jewish Enlightenment (Philadelphia, New York, and Jerusalem 1985), esp. chapters 1-6. The problems of identity, economic status, and political activism during the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries are the subject of articles by Piotr Wrobel, “The Jews of Galicia under Austrian-Polish Rule, 1869-1918,” Austrian History Yearbook, XXV (Minneapolis 1994), pp. 97-138; Ezra Mendelsohn, “Jewish Assimilation in Lvov: The Case of Wilhelm Feldman,” Slavic Review, XXVIII (Seattle 1969), PP. 577-59⁰, reprinted in Markovits and Sysyn, Nationbuilding, pp. 94-110; Raphael Mahler, “The Economic Background ofJewish Emigration from Galicia to the United States,” YIVO Annual of Jewish Social Science, VIII (New York 1952), pp. 255-267; Jacob Bross, “The Beginnings of the Jewish Labor Movement in Galicia,” ibid., V (1950), pp. 55-84; and Leila P Everett, “The Rise ofJewish National Politics in Galicia, 1905-1907,” in Markovits and Sysyn, Nationbuilding, pp. 149-177. There are also twelve essays on Jews in Austrian-ruled Galicia, with those by John-Paul Himka and Jaroslav Hrytsak focussing specifically on eastern Galicia, in Polin: Studies in Polish Jewry, Vol. XII: Focussing on Galicia: Jews, Poles, and Ukrainians, 1772-1918 (London and Portland, Ore. 1999), esp. 3-176.

With regard to the other two Ukrainian-inhabited Habsburg lands, the litera­ture on developments in northern Bukovina is limited. Aside from the handbook by Himka and studies on Austrian parliamentary life by Ciuciura mentioned above in which Bukovina is discussed along with Galicia, a popular descrip­tion of national life is provided in the first part of I.M. Nowosiwsky, Bukovinian Ukrainians: A Historical Background and Their Self Determination in 1918 (New York 1970), esp. pp. 23-89. Non-Ukrainian views of the last decades before World War I are provided in the section on Bukovina in the reliable work of Keith Hitchins, Rumania, 1866-1917 (Oxford 1994), pp. 231-239; and in an essay by Fred Stambrook, “National and Other Identities in Bukovina in Late Austrian Times,” Austrian History Yearbook, XXXV (Minneapolis 2004), pp. 185-203. For Transcarpathia, see Paul Robert Magocsi, The Shaping of a National Identity: Subcar­pathian Rus', 1848-1948 (Cambridge, Mass. 1978), esp. chapters 2-3, and Elaine Rusinko, Straddling Borders: Literature and Identity in Subcarpathian Rus’ (Toronto, Buffalo, and London 2003), esp. chapters 1-4.

9. World War I, revolution, and civil war

The impact of military campaigns during the early years of the war, especially in Galicia, is covered in some detail in Norman Stone, The Eastern Front, 1914-1917 (New York 1975), esp. chapters 4-6 and 11. Russian imperial policy before, during, and after its wartime rule in Galicia is discussed in Mark von Hagen, War in a European Borderland: Occupations and Occupation Plans in Galicia and Ukraine, 1914-1918 (Seattle 2007). There are much more substantive studies of the German, Allied (French), and White Russian presence in eastern and southern Ukraine, in which the emphasis is on the diplomatic and political role of the foreign armies, not on their military activity: Oleh S. Fedyshyn, Germany's Drive to the East and the Ukrainian Revolution, 1917-1918 (New Brunswick, N.J. 1971); George A. Brinkley, The Volunteer Army and the Allied Intervention in South Russia, 1917-1921 (Notre Dame, Ind. 1966); Peter Kenez, Civil War in South Russia, 1918: The First Year of the Volunteer Army (Berkeley, Calif. 1971); Peter Kenez, Civil War in South Russia, 1919-1920: The Defeat of the Whites (Berkeley, Calif. 1977); Anna Procyk, Russian Nationalism and Ukraine: The Nationality Policy of the Volunteer Army during the Civil War (Edmonton and Toronto 1995); and Aleksandr Ushakov and Vladimir Fediuk, “The Nationalities Policy of the Whites in the South of Rus­sia in the Civil War Period,” in John Morison, ed., Ethnic and National Issues and East European History (New York 2000), pp. 174-191.

The best introduction to the revolutionary era throughout the Russian Empire as a whole is in Richard Pipes, A Concise History ofthe Russian Revolution (New York 1995). For developments specifically in Ukraine, see in particular John S. Reshetar, Jr., The Ukrainian Revolution, 1917-1920 (Princeton, N.J. 1952; reprinted New York

1972). Less satisfactory are Isidore Nahayewsky, History of the Modern Ukrainian State, 1917-1923 (Munich 1966); and Matthew Stachiw, Peter G. Stercho, and Nicholas

L. F. Chirovskyy, Ukraine and the Emiripean Turmoil, 1917-1919, 2 vols. (New York

1973). More reliable is a collection of essays on various aspects of the entire era, Taras Hunczak, ed., The Ukraine, 1917-1921: A Study in Revolution (Cambridge, Mass. 1977). Whereas this volume omits developments in western Ukraine, it does include translations of the Ukrainian government’s four universals.

There are two substantive monographs on the revolution during its first two years, one written from the perspective of a professional historian and participant as minister of foreign affairs in the Hetmanate government: Dmytro Dorosh­enko, History of Ukraine, 1917-1923, Vol. II: The Hetmanate (Winnipeg, Toronto, and Detroit 1973); and the other from the perspective of a patriotic emigre: Oleh Semenovych Pidhainy, The Formation of the Ukrainian Republic (Toronto and New York 1966). The influential role of the first head of the Central Rada is outlined in an impartial biography by Thomas M. Prymak, Mykhailo Hrush- evsky: The Politics of National Culture (Toronto, Buffalo, and London 1987), esp. chapters 6-8. The clauses dealing with Ukraine in the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk are translated into English in Texts of the Ukraine “Peace,” ed. Paul R. Magocsi, 2nd ed. (Cleveland 1981); and the treaty’s significance is analyzed by Stephan

M. Horak, The First Treaty of World War I: Ukraine’s Treaty with the Central Powers of February 9, 1918 (Boulder, Colo. 1988). The practical impact of the treaty on subsequent German-Ukrainian relations is discussed in Wlodzimerz Mydrzecki, “Germany and Ukraine between the Start of Brest-Litovsk Peace Talks and Het­man Skoropads’kyi’s Coup,” HUS, XXIII, 1-2 (Cambridge, Mass. 1999), pp. 26-46; the complex ideological orientation and policies of the Hetmanate under Pavlo Skoropads’kyi are the subject of Mark von Hagen, “‘I Love Russia, and/ but I Want Ukraine,’ or How a Russian General became Hetman of Ukrainian State, 1917-1918,” JUS, XXIX, 1-2 (Edmonton 2004), pp. 115-148. Finally, the attempt by Symon Peliura to save the Ukrainian National Republic by allying with the new state of Poland is covered in great detail by Michael Palij, The Ukrainian- Polish Defensive Alliance, 1919-1921 (Edmonton and Toronto 1995). The current status of historiography on the Ukrainian revolutionary era is discussed by Vla- dyslav Verstiuk, “Conceptual Issues in Studying the History of Ukrainian Revolu­tion,” followed by extensive commentaries on his analysis by Marco Bojcun and Mark Baker, in JUS, XXIV, 1 (Toronto 1999), pp. 5-68.

There is much less literature on western Ukrainian lands during the revolu­tionary years. For Eastern Galicia the best work on the topic is Vasyl Kuchabsky, Western Ukraine. in Conflict with Poland and Bolshevism, 1918-1923 (Edmonton and Toronto 2009). Other studies that are uncritically sympathetic to one side or the other are, from Ukrainian perspective: Matthew Stachiw and Jaroslaw Szten- dera, Western Ukraine at the Turning Point of Europe’s History, 1918-1923, 2 vols. (New York 1969-71); and from the Polish perspective: Rosa Bailly, A City Fights for Freedom: The Rising of Lwow in 1918-1919 (London 1956). The impact on the Jews in Galicia, in particular those in L’viv, of imperial Russia’s occupation, the subsequent collapse of Habsburg rule, and the creation of independent Poland is discussed in Alexander Victor Prusin, Nationalizing a Borderland: War, Ethnicity, and Anti-Jewish Violence in East Galicia, 1914-1920 (Tuscaloosa, Ala. 2005). The attempts of the Ukrainians to reach an accommodation with the Jews is reviewed in great detail by Nahum Michael Gelber, “The National Autonomy of Eastern Galician Jewry in the West Ukrainian Republic, 1918-1919,” in Isaac Lewin, A History of Polish Jewry during the Revival of Poland (New York 1990), pp. 221-326. The little-known diplomatic background to Romania’s eventual annexation of Bukovina is described in Leonid C. Sonevytsky, “Bukovina in the Diplomatic Negotiations of 1914,” AUAAS, VII, 1-2 (1959), pp. 1586-1629. For Buko­vina’s role in the Ukrainian revolution and the Romanian annexation, see L. M. Nowosiwsky, Bukovinian Ukrainians: A Historical Background and Their Self-Deter­mination in 1918 (New York 1970). The Romanian understanding of these events is provided by Ion I. Nistor, The Union of Bucovina with Romania (Bucharest 1940). The unique developments in Transcarpathia are given detailed attention in two articles by Paul R. Magocsi, “The Political Activity of Rusyn-American Immigrants in 1918,” EastEuropean Quarterly, X, 3 (Boulder, Colo. 1976), pp. 347-365; and “The Ruthenian Decision to Unite with Czechoslovakia,” Slavic Review, XXXIV, 2 (Seattle 1975), pp. 360-381 - reprinted in Paul Robert Magocsi, Of the Making of Nationalities There is No End, Vol. I (New York 1999), pp. 124-146 and 394-415.

A few aspects of the revolutionary era have received particular attention. The sociodemographic structure of Ukrainian territory and the relationship of various social strata toward the Ukrainian revolution is analyzed by Steven L. Guthier, “The Popular Base of Ukrainian Nationalism in 1917,” Slavic Review, XXXVIII, 1 (Columbus, Ohio 1979), pp. 30-47; by Bohdan Krawchenko, “The Social Structure of the Ukraine in 1917,” HUS, XIV, 1-2 (1990), pp. 97-112; and by Rudolf A. Mark, “Social Questions and National Revolution: The Ukrain­ian National Republic in 1919-1920,” ibid., pp. 113-131. The impact of events in eastern Ukraine are covered in great detail in Theodore H. Friedgut, luzovka and Revolution, Vol. II: Politics and Revolution in Russia’s Donbass, 1869-1924 (Princeton, N.J. 1994), esp. chapters 8-10. The reaction of the rural masses to the various governments that claimed to represent them is surveyed by Vsevolod Holubnychy, “The 1917 Agrarian Revolution in Ukraine,” in Selected Works of Vsevolod Holubnychy (Edmonton 1982), pp. 3-65; and by Arthur E. Adams, “The Great Ukrainian Jacquerie,” in Taras Hunczak, ed., The Ukraine, 1917-1921: A Study in B/volution (Cambridge Mass. 1977), pp. 247-270. Nestor Makhno, the leader who was most successful in mobilizing peasant discontent, is the subject of no fewer than five monographic studies: Peter Arshinov, A History of the Makhno­vist Movement, 1918-1921 (Detroit 1974); Michael Malet, Nestor Makhno in the Russian Civil War (London 1982); Michael Palij, The Anarchism of Nestor Makhno, 1918-1921 (Seattle and London 1976); Victor Peters, Nestor Makhno: The Life of an Anarchist (Winnipeg 1970); and Frank Sysyn, “Nestor Makhno and the Ukrain­ian Revolution,” in Hunczak, Ukraine, 1917-1921, pp. 271-304.

The attempts to create a national Orthodox Church are surveyed in sev­eral essays by Bohdan Bociurkiw: “The Church and the Ukrainian Revolution: The Central Rada Period,” in Hunczak, Ukraine, 1917-1921, pp. 220-246; “The Issues of Ukrainianization and Autocephaly of the Orthodox Church in Ukrainian-Russian Relations, 1917-1921,” in Peter J. Potichnyj et al., eds., Ukraine, and Russia in Their Historical Encounter (Edmonton 1992), pp. 245-273; and “The Rise of the Ukrainian Autocephalous Orthodox Church, 1919-22,” in Geoffrey A. Hosking, ed., Church, Nation, and State in Russia and Ukraine. (Edmon­ton 1990), pp. 228-249. For information on the leading secular figure behind the movement, see Andre Partykevych, Between Kyiv and Constantinople: Oleksander Lototsky and the Quest for Ukrainian Autocephaly (Edmonton 1998).

The diplomatic interest of the Allied Powers was surveyed as early as 1921 by a former Ukrainian government official of non-ethnic Ukrainian background: Arnold Margolin, Ukraine and Policy of the Entente, 2nd ed. (n.p. 1977). His mem­oirs also deal in large part with events in Ukraine during the revolutionary era: Arnold Margolin, From a Political Diary: Russia, Ukraine, and America, 1905-1945 (New York 1946). Specific aspects of the various Allied Powers have subsequently been studied by George A. Brinkley, “Allied Policy and French Intervention in the Ukraine, 1917-1920,” in Hunczak, Ukraine, 1917-1921, pp. 323-351; Con­stantine Warvariv, “America and the Ukrainian National Cause, 1917-1920,” in ibid., pp. 352-381; and by David Saunders, “Britain and the Ukrainian Question, 1912-1920,” English Historical Review, CIII (London 1988), pp. 40-68.

The various attempts of the Bolsheviks to establish their regime in Ukrain­ian lands are also the subject of several studies. Developments in Ukraine as they relate to the larger context of other lands in the former Russian Empire are surveyed in Richard Pipes, The Formation of the Soviet Union: Communism and Nationalism, 1917-1923, 2nd rev. ed. (New York 1968), esp. chapters 1-3. More detail is provided by Arthur E. Adams, Bolsheviks in the Ukraine: The Second Cam­paign, 1918-1919 (New Haven and London 1963); by Jurij Borys, The Sovietiza­tion of Ukraine, 1917-1923, 2nd rev. ed. (Edmonton 1980); and, in a memoiristic account, by two Bolshevik supporters of Ukrainian national communism, Serhii Mazlakh and Vasyl’ Shakhrai, On the Current Situation in the Ukraine (Ann Arbor, Mich. 1970).

The general legal status of minorities is outlined by George Liber, “Ukrainian Nationalism and the 1918 Law on National-Personal Autonomy,” Nationalities Papers, XV, 1 (New York 1987), pp. 22-42. The status specifically ofJews has been given particular attention in a collection of government documents and other contemporary materials in F. Pigido, ed., Material Concerning Ukrainian Jewish I tela- tions during the Years of the Revolution, 1917-1921 (Munich 1956); and in three accounts by Jewish members of the Ukrainian government: Solomon I. Goldel- man, Jewish National Autonomy in Ukraine., 1917-1920 (Chicago 1968); Moses Silberfarb, The Jewish Ministry and Jewish National Autonomy in Ukraine. (New York 1993); Abraham Revutsky, Wrenching Times in Ukraine: Memoir of a Jewish Minister (1924) (St. John’s, Newfoundland 1998). Among several interpretive analyses by latter-day historians, the most comprehensive is by Henry Abramson, A Prayer for the Government: Ukrainians and Jews in Revolutionary Times, 1917-1920 (Cam­bridge, Mass., 1999); others include: Joseph Schechtman, “Jewish Community Life in the Ukraine, 1917-1919,” in Gregor Aronson et al., eds., RussianJewry, 1917-1967 (New York, South Brunswick, N.J., and London 1969), pp. 39-57; Henry Abramson, “Jewish Representation in the Independent Ukrainian Govern­ments of 1917-1920,” Slavic Review, L, 3 (Stanford, Calif. 1991), pp. 542-550; Mattityahu Minc, “Kiev Zionists and the Ukrainian National Movement,” and Jonathan Frankel, “The Dilemmas ofJewish Autonomism: The Case of Ukraine, 1917-1920,” in Peter J. Potichnyj and Howard Aster, eds., Ukrainian Jewish Rela­tions in Historical. Perspective (Edmonton 1988), pp. 247-280; and M. Mintz, “The Secretariat of Internationality Affairs (Sekretariat mizhnatsional’nykh sprav) of the Ukrainian General Secretariat, 1917-1918,” HUS, VI, 1(1982), pp. 25-42.

The pogroms have received even more attention in the literature. A useful introduction to the controversy regarding their extent and the responsibility of the Ukrainian government is provided by Henry Abramson, “Historiography on the Jews and the Ukrainian Revolution,” JUS, XV, 2 (1990), pp. 33-45. Some of the published material contains contemporary reports or analyses of concrete statistical data: Elias Heifetz, The Slaughter of the Jews in the Ukraine, in 1919 (New York 1921); Arnold D. Margolin, The Jews of Eastern Europe (New York 1926), esp. pp. 126-152; L. Motzkin, ed., The Pogroms in the Ukraine 1917-1920 under the Ukrainian Governments: A Historical Survey (London 1927); N. Gergel, “The Pogroms in the Ukraine in 1918-21,” YIVO Annual of.Jewish Social Science, Vol. VI (New York 1951), pp. 237-252; and Peter Kenez, “Pogroms and White Ideol­ogy in the Russian Civil War,” in John D. Klier and Shlomo Lambroza, eds., Pogroms: Anti-Jewish Violence in Modern Russian History (Cambridge 1992), pp. 293-313. Other material is more polemical in nature, focusing on the Directory leader Symon Petliura and the question of his guilt or innocence with regard to the pogroms: Saul S. Friedman, Pogromchik (New York 1976); Taras Hunczak, “A Reappraisal of Simon Petliura and Jewish-Ukrainian Relations, 1917-1921”; Zosa Szajkowski, “A Rebuttal,” Jewish Social Studies, XXXI (New York 1969), pp. 163-213; and Lars Fischer, “The Pogromshchina and the Directory: A New Historiographical Synthesis?,” Revolutionary Russia, XVI, 2 (2003), pp. 47­93.

Like the Jews, the Mennonites view the revolutionary and civil war years as one of the most tragic periods in their history. Their plight worsened at the very outset of the war, when the Russian imperial government singled out all its ethnic Germans for deportation, as discussed in David Rempel, “The Expropriation of the German Colonists in South Russia during the Great War,” Journal of Modern History, IV, 1 (Chicago, 1932), pp. 49-67. The dilemmas encountered specifi­cally by Mennonites, a community that professes non-violence but was faced with lawless and anarchic conditions, is discussed by John B. Toews, “The Origins and Activities of the Mennonite Selbstschutz in the Ukraine, 1918-1919,” Mennonite Quarterly Review, XLVI, 1 (Goshen, Ind. 1972), pp. 5-40. There are also two memoirs from the period: Dietrich Neufeld, A Russian Dance of Death: Revolution and Civil War in the Ukraine. (Winnipeg 1977); and a popular study of a specific community by Gerhard Lorenz, Fire over Zagradovka (Steinbach, Man. 1983). The effort of the Crimean Tatars toward their own national liberation is described by Alan Fisher, The Crimean Tatars (Stanford, Calif. 1978), pp. 109-129.

10. The interwar years

The literature on the interwar years of the twentieth century, like that on the nineteenth century, is basically divided between works dealing with eastern, by then Soviet Ukraine, and works dealing with the individual western Ukrainian lands of Galicia, Bukovina, and Transcarpathia. Several monographs are avail­able that cover developments during the entire interwar period or a portion of it in Soviet Ukraine. Bohdan Krawchenko, Social Change and National Consciousness in Twentieth-Century Ukraine. (New York 1985), esp. chapters 2-3; and George O. Liber, Soviet Nationality Policy, Urban Growth, and Identity Change in the Ukrainian SSR 1923-1934 (Cambridge and New York 1992) concentrate on analyzing the available statistical data on demographic trends, Communist party membership, and state-driven cultural and educational activity. These and other topics are dealt with over a longer time period with focus on an important industrialized region of eastern Ukraine in Hiroaki Kuromiya, Freedom and Terror in the Donbas: A Ukrainian-Russian Borderland, 18yos-199os (Cambridge 1999). Basil Dmytryshyn, Moscow and the Ukraine 1918-1953 (New York 1956); Robert S. Sullivant, Soviet Politics and the Ukraine, 1917-1957 (New York and London 1962), esp. chap­ters 3-5; and James E. Mace, Communism and the Dilemmas of National liberation: National Communism in Soviet Ukraine, 1918-1933 (Cambridge, Mass. 1983) are concerned with Bolshevik administrative policy and the ideological response of the defenders of Ukrainian particularism.

The very decision to create a Ukrainian Socialist Republic and the role played by the Bolsheviks in that matter is discussed by Stanislav Kulchytsky, “The Phe­nomenon of Soviet Statehood,” in Andreas Kappeler et al., eds., Culture, Nation, and Identity (Edmonton and Toronto 2003), pp. 344-359. For the history of the party created by the Ukrainian Bolsheviks, see Vsevolod Holubnychy, “Out­line History of the Communist Party of Ukraine,” in Selected Works of Vsevolod Holubnychy, ed. Iwan S. Koropeckyj (Edmonton 1982), pp. 66-137. The abor­tive efforts by non-Bolshevik Marxists to gain political power are surveyed by Iwan Majstrenko, Borotbism: A Chapter in the History of Ukrainian Communism (New York 1954); and the ongoing post-civil war military resistance to Soviet rule is discussed by Bohdan Nahaylo, “Ukrainian National Resistance in Soviet Ukraine during the 1920s,” JUS, XV, 2 (1990), pp. 1-18. Some of the writings of an early Bolshevik government leader in Ukraine and defender of federalism in the Soviet Union have been translated: Christian Rakovsky, Selected Writings on Opposi­tion in the USSR, 1923-1930 (London and New York 1980).

Developments during the NEP period and under the new command economy are discussed by Bohdan Somchynsky, “National Communism and the Politics of Industrialization in Ukraine, 1923-1928,” JUS, XIII, 2 [25] (1988), pp. 52-69; by I.S. Koropeckyj, Location Problems in Soviet Industry before World War II: The Case of the Ukraine (Chapel Hill, N.C. 1971); by Bohdan Krawchenko, “The Impact of Industrialization on the Social Structure of Ukraine,” Canadian Slavonic Papers, XXII, 3 (Ottawa 1980), pp. 338-357; by Steven L. Guthier, “Ukrainian Cities during the Revolution and the Interwar Era,” in Ivan L. Rudnytsky, ed., Rethink­ing Ukrainian History (Edmonton 1981), pp. 156-179; by Theodore H. Friedgut, luzovka and Revolution, Vol. II: Politics and Revolution in Russia’s Donbass, 1869­1924 (Princeton, N.J. 1994), esp. chapters 11-12; and by Vsevolod Holubnychy, “On the Rationale of the Soviet Collectivization of Agriculture in 1929,” AUAAS, IX, 1-2 (1961), pp. 75-109.

The human cost of the radical political and socioeconomic changes put in place by the Bolshevik/Soviet regime, especially the suffering inflicted on the rural population, has received particular attention. The first crisis of the early 1920s is the subject of a monograph by Wasyl Veryha, A Case Study of Genocide in the Ukrainian Famine of 1921-1923 (Lewiston, N.Y. 2007), and of several articles by Kazuo Nakai, “Soviet Agricultural Policies in the Ukraine and the 1921-1922 Famine,” HUS, VI, (1982), pp. 43-61; Wasyl Veryha, “Famine in Ukraine in 1921-1923 and the Soviet Government’s Countermeasures,” Nation­alities Papers, XII, 2 (Charleston, Ill. 1984), pp. 265-286; Roman Serbyn, “The Famine of 1921-1923: A Model for 1932-1933,” in Roman Serbyn and Bohdan Krawchenko, eds., Famine in Ukraine, 1932-1933 (Edmonton 1986), pp. 147­178; and of an earlier, more general monograph by H.H. Fisher, The Famine in Soviet Russia, 1919-1923 (Stanford and London 1935).

It is the famine of 1932-1933, however, which has the most extensive litera­ture. Some authors suggest that the tragedy was a natural disaster or the result of bureaucratic bungling; others argue that it was artificially created by the Soviet government in an effort to punish all peasants opposed to collectivization; still others maintain that it was an act of genocide directed specifically against Ukrainians. The first serious study of the subject was published as early as 1936 by a foreign observer and eyewitness: Ewald Ammende, Human Life in Rus­sia, 2nd ed. (Cleveland 1984). It was followed by the publication of eyewitness accounts and documents: S.O. Pidhainy, V.I. Hryshko, and P.P. Pavlovych, eds., The Black Deeds of the Kremlin: A White Book, Vol. II: The Great Famine in Ukraine in 1932-1933 (Toronto and Detroit 1955); D. Solovey, ed., The Golgotha of Ukraine: Eyewitness Accounts of the Famine in Ukraine (New York 1953); and of a scholarly analysis: Dana Dalrymple, “The Soviet Famine of 1932-1934,” Soviet Studies, XV, 3 (London 1964), pp. 250-284.

But it was in conjunction with the fiftieth anniversary of the famine in 1983 that Ukrainianists in the West began to publish an exceedingly wide range of works on the subject. These include an extensive historiographical survey of all published sources on the subject by James Mace, in Report to [the U.S.] Congress: Commission on the Ukraine.Famine (Washington, D.C. 1988), pp. 1-133, which forms the preface to a translation of select oral histories of eyewitnesses and of foreign diplomatic and consular dispatches from Ukraine during the early 1930s, ibid., pp. 237-523. Another volume of sources deals with the reaction of the Western powers: Marco Carynnyk, Lubomyr Y. Luciuk, and Bohdan S. Kordan, eds., The Foreign Office and the Famine: British Documents on Ukraine and the Great Famine of 1932-1933 (Kingston, Ont. and Vestal, N.Y. 1988). Of the many recent­ly published eyewitness accounts, particularly insightful are Wasyl Hryshko, The Ukrainian Holocaust of 1933 (Toronto 1983); and Olexa Woropay, The Ninth Circle (Cambridge, Mass. 1983). The best scholarly studies are a monograph by Robert Conquest, The Harvest of Sorrow: Soviet Collectivization and the Terror-Famine (New York and Toronto 1986); an essay by James E. Mace, “The Famine of 1932-1933: A Watershed in the History of Soviet Nationality Policy,” in Henry R. Hutten­bach, ed., Soviet Nationality Policies: Ruling Ethnic Groups in the USSR (London 1990), pp. 177-205; and in collections of essays by various authors, in Roman Serbyn and Bohdan Krawchenko, eds., Famine in Ukraine, 1932-1933 (Edmonton 1986); Lubomyr Haida, ed., “The Great Famine of 1932-1933,” HUS, XXV, 3/4 (Cambridge, Mass. 2001), pp. 153-265 - reprinted in Halyna Hryn, ed., Hunger by Design: The Great Famine and Its Soviet Context (Cambridge, Mass. 2008); and Wsevolod W. Isajiw, ed., Famine-Genocide in Ukraine, 1932-1933: Western Archives, Testimonies, and New Research (Toronto 2003).

There are as well several studies which reveal how scholars interpret the new archival data that has become available. For an overall assessment, see Jacques Vallin, France Mesle, Serguei Adamets, and Serhii Pyrozhkov, “A New Estimate of Ukrainian Population Losses During the Crises of the 1930s and 1940s,” Popula­tion Studies, LVI, 3 (London 2002), pp. 249-264. For the demographic impact specifically of the Great Famine, see Steven Rosefielde, “Excess Collectivization Deaths, 1929-1933: New Demographic Evidence,” Slavic Review, XLIII, 1 (Stan­ford, Calif. 1984), pp. 83-88, with subsequent commentary and rejoinders by Stephen G. Wheatcroft, Steven S. Rosefielde, Barbara A. Anderson, and Brian D. Silver, ibid., XLIV, 3 (1985), pp. 505-536; Mark B. Tauger, “The 1932 Harvest and Famine of 1933,” ibid., L, 1 (1991), pp. 70-89; Serhii Pirozhkov, “Popula­tion Loss in Ukraine in the 1930s and 1940s,” in Bohdan Krawchenko, ed., Ukrainian Past, Ukrainian Present (London and New York 1993), pp. 84-96; R.W. Davies, M.B. Tauger, and S.G. Wheatcroft, “Stalin, Grain Stocks and the Famine of 1932-1933,” Slavic Review, LIV, 3 (Cambridge, Mass. 1995), pp. 642-657; and R. W. Davies and Stephen G. Wheatcroft, eds., The Years of Hunger: Soviet Agricul­ture, 1931-1933 (New York 2003). For a discussion of how the Great Famine is viewed in present-day Ukraine and elsewhere among scholars, see The Holodomor of 1932-33: Papers From the 75th Anniversary Conference on the Ukrainian Famine-Gen­ocide, University of Toronto, special issue of the Harriman Review, XVI, 2 (New York

2008) ; Lubomyr Y. Luciuk, ed., Holodomor: Reflections on the Great. Famine of 1932­1933 in Soviet Ukraine. (Kingston, Ont. 2008); and Andrea Graziosi, “The Soviet 1931-1933 Famines and the Ukrainian Holodomor: Is a New Interpretation Possible, and What Would Its Consequences Be?,” HUS, XXVII [2004-2005], 1-4 (Cambridge, Mass. 2008), pp. 97-115.

The best introduction to the Soviet Union’s policy toward the various nation­alities under its rule is Terry Martin, The Affirmative Action Empire: Nations and Nationalism in the Soviet Union, 1923-1939 (Ithaca, N.Y. 2000). Martin provides an invaluable discussion of the policies of rooting or indigenization (korenizatsiia) and Ukrainianization. The latter phenomenon, in particular as it affected literary and intellectual currents, is treated systematically by George S.N. Luckyj, Literary Politics in the Soviet Ukraine, 1917-1934, 2nd rev. ed. (Durham, N.C. and London 1990); and Myroslav Shkandrij, Modernists, Marxists and the Nation: The Ukrain­ian Literary Discussion of the 1920s (Edmonton 1992). The impact of subsequent changes in Soviet policy are traced in a monograph by Hryhory Kostiuk, Stalinist Rule in the Ukraine: A Study of a Decade of Terror, 1929-1939 (New York i960); in a collection of 234 biographies of purged intellectuals by Borys Levytsky, The Stalin­ist Terror in the Thirties: Documentation from the Soviet Press (Stanford, Calif. 1974); in eyewitness recollections compiled by S.A. Pidhainy, ed., The Black Deeds of the Kremlin, Vol. I: Book of Testimonies (Toronto and Detroit 1953); in an analysis of secret police files on victims of Stalinist reprssion in Kiev, by Hiroaki Kuromiya, The Voices of the Dead: Stalin's Great Terror in the 1930s (New Haven 2007); in a study of the role played by the Soviet counter-intelligence services in undermin­ing the Ukrainianization program, by Yuri Shapoval, “The GPU-NKVD as an Instrument of Counter-Ukrainization in the 1920s and 1930s,” in Andreas Kap­peler et al., eds., Culture, Nation, and Identity (Edmonton and Toronto 2003), pp. 325-343; and in a reassessment especially of the literary aspect of this period by Halyna Hryn, “The Executed Renaissance Paradigm Revisited,” HUS, XXVII, 1-4 (Cambridge, Mass. 2004-2005), pp. 67-96.

Several essays by a leading intellectual from the period have been translated into English: Mykola Khvylovy, The Cultural Renaissance in Ukraine: Polemical Pam­phlets, 1925- 1926 (Edmonton 1986); and there are two biographies and a collec­tion of articles devoted to Ukraine’s influential practitioner of what was then the newest form of art and propaganda - film: Vance Kepley, Jr., In the Service of the State: The Cinema ofAlexander Dovzhenko (Madison, Wis. 1986); George O. Liber, AlexanderDovzhenko: A Life in Soviet Film (London 2002); and Bohdan Y. Nebesio, ed., The Cinema of Alexander Dovzhenko, special issue of JUS, XIX, 1 (1994). The manner in which the authorities tried to manipulate historical memory in order to create loyal Soviet citizens among Ukrainians is discussed at length in Serhy Yekelchyk, Stalin's Iwifiire. of Memory: Russian-Ukrainian Relations in the Soviet Histori­cal Imagination (Toronto, Buffalo, and London 2004).

Statistical data on the concrete mechanisms of cultural production are out­lined by George O. Liber, “Language, Literacy, and Book Publishing in the Ukrainian SSR, 1923-1928,” Slavic Review, XLI, 4 (Stanford, Calif. 1982), pp. 673-685. More attention is given to the use of language as an instrument of national development or of repression in George Y. Shevelov, The Ukrainian Language in the First Half of the Twentieth Century (1900-1941): Its State and Status (Cambridge, Mass. 1989), esp. chapters 4-7; and Roman Solchanyk, “Language Politics in the Ukraine,” in Isabelle T. Kreindler, ed., Sociolinguistic Perspectives on Soviet National Languages (Berlin, New York, and Amsterdam 1985), pp. 57-73.

There are a few studies about the impact of Soviet policies on other peoples in interwar Soviet Ukraine. For an insight into the fate of Poles and Germans living in the borderlands (kresy) on the Soviet side of the interwar border with Poland, see Kate Brown, A Biography of No Place: From Ethnic Borderland to Soviet Hinterland (Cam­bridge, Mass. and London 2003). Aspects of the Jewish experience are covered by Mordechai Altschuler, “Ukrainian-Jewish Relations in the Soviet Milieu in the Interwar Period,” in PeterJ. Potichnyj and Howard Aster, eds., Ukrainian-Jewish Rela­tions in Historical Perspective (Edmonton 1988), pp. 281-305; Jonathan Dekel-Chen, Farming the Red Land: Jewish Agricultural Colonization and Local Soviet Power (New Haven 2005); Hillel Kazovsky, Kultur-Lige: Artistic Avant-Garde ofthe 1910s and 1920s (Kiev 2007); and Yohanan Petrovsky-Shtern, The Anti-Imperial Choice: The Making of the UkrainianJew (New Haven and London 2009). On the Crimean Tatars, see Alan Fisher, The Crimean Tatars (Stanford, Calif. 1978), esp. chapter 12; Brian Glyn Williams, The Crimean Tatars (Leiden 2001), chapter 11; and Edward Lazzerini, “Crimean Tatar: The Fate of a Severed Tongue,” in Isabelle T. Kreindler, ed., Socio­linguistic Perspectives on Soviet National Languages (Berlin, New York, and Amsterdam 1985), pp. 109-124. On the Mennonites, seeJohn B. Toews, “Early Communism and Russian Mennonite Peoplehood,” in John Friesen, ed., Mennonites in Russia, 1788-1988 (Winnipeg 1989), pp. 265-287; John B. Toews, “The Russian Mennon­ites and the Military Question, 1921-1927,” Mennonite Quarterly Review, XLIII, 1 (Goshen, Ind. 1969), pp. 153-168; and Harry Loewen, “Anti-Menno: Introduction to Early Soviet-Mennonite Literature, 1920-1940,” Journal of Mennonite Studies, XI (Winnipeg 1993), pp. 23-42.

The efforts to sustain a distinct Ukrainian Orthodox Church in the face of a generally antagonistic Soviet government are described in three studies by Boh- dan Bociurkiw: “The Ukrainian Autocephalous Orthodox Church, 1920-1930,” in Dennis Dunn, ed., Religion and Modernization in the Soviet Union (Boulder, Colo. 1977), pp. 310-347; “Ukrainianization Movements within the Russian Orthodox Church and the Ukrainian Autocephalous Orthodox Church,” HUS, III-IV, pt. 1 (1979-80), pp. 92-111; and “The Soviet Destruction of the Ukrainian Orthodox Church, 1929-1936,” JUS, XII, 1 [22] (Edmonton 1987), pp. 3-21. The largest and still most important Orthodox jurisdiction in Ukraine, that belonging to the Moscow Patriarchate, is surveyed by Bohdan R. Bociurkiw, “The Russian Orthodox Church in Ukraine: the Exarchate and Renovationists, and the ‘Conciliar-Episcopal’ Church, 1930-1939,” HUS, XXVI, 1-4 (Cambridge, Mass. 2002-03), pp. 63-91.

There is less literature on western Ukrainian lands during the interwar period. A useful introductory overview of developments in Galicia, Bukovina, and Tran­scarpathia is provided by John-Paul Himka, “Western Ukraine in the Interwar Period,” Nationalities Papers, XX, 2 (New York 1994), pp. 347-364. Ukrainians in Poland, in particular eastern Galicia, are given attention in a few general and specific works. General surveys of political, demographic, economic, and cultural developments are found in Bohdan Budurowycz, “Poland and the Ukrainian Problem, 1921-1939,” Canadian Slavonic Papers, XXV, 4 (Toronto 1983), pp. 473-500; Stephen Horak, Poland and Her National Minorities, 1919-1939 (New York 1961); Stephen Horak, “Belorussian and Ukrainian Peasants in Poland,

1919- 1939,” in Ivan Volgyes, ed., The Peasantry of Eastern Europe, Vol. I (New York 1979), pp. 133-156; Volodymyr Kubijovyc, Western Ukraine within Poland,

1920- 1939: Ethnic Relationships (Chicago 1963); and Volodymyr KubijovyC, Ethnic Groups of the South-Western Ukraine: Halycyna - Galicia I.I. 1939 (Wiesbaden 1983), with large-scale, detailed maps. The contemporary Polish perspective is provided by M. Felinski, The Ukrainians in Poland (London 1931); and Stanislaw Los, “The Ukrainian Question in Poland,” Slavonic and East European Review, IX [27] (Lon­don 1931), pp. 567-587. Twelve polemical pamphlets from the interwar years representing the Ukrainian and Polish views on Galicia are reprinted in Seeds of Conflict Series I: Irredentist and National Questions in Central Europe, 1913-1939, Vol. VIII: Poland (Nendeln, Liechtenstein 1973).

The fate of Galicia in diplomatic negotiations at the close of World War I is the subject of several studies: Laurence Orzell, “A ‘Hotly Disputed’ Issue: Eastern Galicia at the Paris Peace Conference,” Polish Review, XXV, 1 (New York 1980), pp. 49-68; Leonid C. Sonevytsky, “The Ukrainian Question in R.H. Lord’s Writ­ings on the Paris Peace Conference,” AUAAS, X, 1-2 (1962-63), pp. 65-84; Taras Hunczak, “Sir Lewis Namier and the Struggle for Eastern Galicia,” HUS, I, 2 (1977), pp. 198-210; and Mark Baker, “Lewis Namier and the Problem of Eastern Galicia,” JUS, XXIII, 2 (Toronto 1998), pp. 59-104. Subsequent prob­lems related to Polish rule are outlined in a collection of accusatory eyewitness reports: Emil Revyuk, ed., Polish Atrocities in Ukraine (New York 1931); and in two impartial studies on the efforts to reach a modus vivendi and political compromise with Ukrainians: Miroslaw Sycz, “Polish Policy toward the Ukrain­ian Cooperative Movement, 1920-1939,” HUS, XXIII, 1-2 (Cambridge, Mass. 1999), pp. 25-46; and E. Wynot, Jr., “The Ukrainians and the Polish Regime, 1937-1939,” Ukrains’kyi istoryk, VII, 4 (New York 1970), pp. 44-60. The efforts to create in Volhynia an environment in which Ukrainians could accommodate to Polish rule is viewed through the career of that region’s governor during the 1930s, Henryk Jozewski, in Timothy Snyder, Sketches from a Secret. War: A Polish Art­ist’s Mission to Liberate Soviet Ukraine (New Haven, Conn. 2005). A balanced view of the relations among Poles, Jews, and Ukrainians in the region’s largest city is provided in essays by Liliana Hentosh, Waclaw Wierzbreniec and Philip Thier in John Czaplicka, ed., Lviv: A City in the Crosscurrents of Culture, special issue of HUS, XXVI (Cambridge Mass. 2000), published separately (Cambridge Mass. 2007), pp. 171-204 and 223-284, and in two essays by Anna Veronika Wendland that focus on Polish-Ukrainian relations: “Post-Austrian Lemberg: War Commemora­tion, Interethnic Relations, and Urban Identity in L’viv, 1918-1939,” Austrian History Yearbook, XXXIV (Minneapolis 2003), pp. 83-102; and her “Neighbors as Betrayers: Nationalization, Remembrence Policy, and the Urban Public Sphere in L’viv,” in Christopher Hann and Paul Robert Magocsi, eds., Galicia: A Multicul­tured Land(Toronto 2005), pp. 139-159.

The Greek Catholic Church, which remained an important Ukrainian “nation­al” institution in interwar Polish-ruled Galicia is given comprehensive coverage in Bohdan Budurowycz, “The Greek Catholic Church in Galicia, 1914-1944,” Harvard Ukrainian Studies, XXVI, 1-4 (Cambridge, Mass. 2002-03), pp. 291-375. Particular attention has been accorded Metropolitan Sheptyts’kyi, the most important church and civic figure in eastern Galicia during the first half of the twentieth century. Aside from the comprehensive biography by Cyril Korolevskij, Metropolitan Andrew (1865-1914) (L’viv 1993), specific aspects of his career are treated in monographs by Andrii Krawchuk, Christian Social Ethics in Ukraine: The Legacy of Andrei Sheptysfkyi (Edmonton, Ottawa, and Toronto 1997) and Peter Galadza, The Theology and Liturgical Work of Andrei Sheptyst'kyi, 1865-1944 (Rome and Ottawa, 2004), and in essays by Bohdan Budurowycz (national movement), Ryszard Torzecki (Polish society), Ann Slusarczuk Sirka (education and philan­thropy), and Myroslava M. Mudrak (art patronage) in Paul Robert Magocsi, ed., Morality and Reality: The Life and Times of Andrei Sheptyts’kyi (Edmonton 1989), esp. chapters 3, 4, 12, 13, and 14. The women’s movement and the influence of the Greek Catholic Church are discussed in some detail in a monograph by Martha Bohachevsky-Chomiak, Feminists Despite Themselves: Women in Ukrainian Community Life, 1884-1939 (Edmonton 1988), esp. chapters 12-18. Although of second­ary importance during the interwar period, the Communist party, because of its subsequent significance, has been studied in detail by Roman Solchanyk, “The Foundation of the Communist Movement in Eastern Galicia, 1919-1921,” Slavic Review, XXX, 4 (Columbus, Ohio 1971), pp. 774-794; and Janusz Radziejowski, The Communist Party of Western Ukraine, 1919-1929 (Edmonton 1983).

A special topic that is linked only in part to that of eastern Galicia during the interwar period is Ukrainian political thought. A useful introductory survey is Ivan L. Rudnytsky, “Trends in Ukrainian Political Thought,” in his Essays in Modern UkrainianHistory (Edmonton 1987), pp. 91-122. The relationship between political thought and action is the subject of Alexander J. Motyl, The Turn to the Right: The Ideological Origins and Development of Ukrainian Nationalism, 1919-1929 (New York 1980). One political thinker has received particular attention, inJaro- slaw Pelenski, ed., The Political and Social Ideas of Vjaceslav Lypyns’kyj, special issue of HUS, IX, 3-4 (1985); and in AlexanderJ. Motyl, “Viacheslav Lypyns’kyi and the Ideology and Politics of Ukrainian Monarchism,” Canadian Slavonic Papers, XXVII, 1 (Toronto 1985), pp. 31-48; and the work by Rudnytsky above, pp. 437-462.

With regard to the other territories in western Ukraine, Bukovina during the interwar years is given only limited attention. Irina Livezeanu, Cultural Politics in Great Romania: Regionalism, Nation Building, and Ethnic Struggle, 1918-1930 (Ith­aca and London 1995), esp. chapter 2, provides a dispassionate account of the new school system established for both Ukrainians and Romanians; and David Shaary, “Jewish Culture in Multinational Bukovina between the World Wars,” in Shvut, Vol. XVI, edited by Liviu Rotman (Tel Aviv 1993), pp. 281-296, surveys cultural developments among the region’s third-largest minority.

In contrast, the literature about Transcarpathia is much more developed. The best general introductions are by C.A. Macartney, “Ruthenia,” in his Hungary and Her Successors: The Treaty of Trianon and Its Consequences, 1919-1937 (London 1937), pp. 200-250; and by Oscar Jaszi, “The Problem of Sub-Carpathian Ruthe- nia,” in Robert J. Kerner, ed., Czechoslovakia (Berkeley, Calif. 1940), pp. 193-215. Paul Robert Magocsi, The Shaping of a National Identity: Subcarpathian Rus’, 1848­1948 (Cambridge, Mass. 1978), esp. chapters 5-11, deals with the political, cul­tural, and religious aspects of the nationality question; Elaine Rusinko, Straddling Borders: Literature and Identity in Subcarpathian Rus' (Toronto, Buffalo, and London 2003), chapter 5, looks at the struggle between adherents of a Caryatho-Rusyn, Russian, and Ukrainian national identity through the prism of literature; Peter G. Stercho, Diplomacy of Double Moiality: Europe's Crossroads in Carpatho-Ukraine, 1919-1939 (New York 1971), esp. chapter 2, and Walter K. Hanak, The Subcar- pathian-Ruthenian Question, 1918-1945 (Munhall, Pa. 1962) both focus on efforts to achieve autonomy. The economic, political, cultural, and religious life ofJews in the region is treated in three essays by Aryeh Sole and Hugo Stransky in The Jews of Czechoslovakia (Philadelphia and New York 1968), Vol. I, pp. 125-154 and Vol. II, pp. 347-389 and 401-439; in a popular account by Herman Dicker, Piety and Perseverance: Jews from the Carpathian Mountains (New York 1981); and in a comprehensive monograph by Yeshayahu A. Jelinek, The Carpathian Diaspora: The Jews of Subcarpathian Rus’ and Mukachevo, 1848-1948 (New York 2007), esp. chapters 8-16.

11. World War II

General introductions on the war years are found in two collections of essays by various authors: Yury Boshyk, ed., Ukraine during World War II: History and Its After­math (Edmonton 1986); and Taras Hunczak and Dmytro Shtohryn, eds., Ukraine: the Challenges of World War II (Lanham, Md. 2003). The relationship of the war to the national movement is best described in a detailed monograph by John A. Armstrong, Ukrainian Nationalism, 1939-1945 (New York 1955; 3rd rev. ed., Littleton, Colo. 1990); while the attitudes of Great Britain and the United States toward Ukraine are traced in critical essays and a selection of diplomatic papers in Lubomyr Y Luciuk and Bohdan S. Kordan, eds., Anglo-American Perspectives on the Ukrainian Question, 1938-1951: A Documentary Collection (Kingston, Ont. and Vestal, N.Y 1987). Of particular interest is the perspective on these years by the head of the Communist Party of Ukraine at the time, as related in the Memoirs of Nikita Khrushchev, Vol. I: Commissar, 1918-1945 (University Park, Pa. 2004).

The “prewar” events that led to the creation of a Carpatho-Ukrainian autono­mous state and its precarious position in the rapidly changing international set­ting are traced in Peter G. Stercho, Diplomacy of Double Morality: Europe's Crossroads in Carpatho-Ukraine, 1919-1939 (New York 1971), esp. chapters 3-8; and Bohdan Budurowycz, “The Ukrainian Problem in International Politics, October 1938 to March 1939,” Canadian Slavonic Papers, III, 2 (Ottawa 1959), pp. 59-75. A view of these events as well as of the wartime occupation of the region by Hungary from local political leaders or eyewitnesses is provided by Augustin Stefan, Julian Revay, Vincent Shandor, and Vasyl Markus in a special issue, Carpatho-Ukraine’s

Struggle, of the Ukrainian Quarterly, X, 3 (New York 1954), pp. 219-256. On the same period from the perspective of an outsider, see Michael Winch, Republic for a Day: An Eyewitness Account of the Carpatho-Ukraine Incident (London 1939).

The first stage of the war - the Soviet invasion and annexation of eastern Galicia and western Volhynia - and its impact on Poles and Jews as well as Ukrainians is well documented in Jan T. Gross, Revolution from Abroad: The Soviet Conquest of Poland's Western Ukraine and Western Belorussia (Princeton, N.J. 1988); and in a collection of essays in Keith Sword, ed., The Soviet Takeover of the Polish Eastern Provinces, 1939-1941 (London 1991). The broader context of Soviet policy toward what that country’s leaders considered problematic social and national groups, including those in newly annexed lands from former eastern Poland is found in Pavel Polian, Against Their Will: The History and Geography of lowed Migration to the USSR (Budapest 2004). For more information about the specific impact on Ukrainians, see David R. Marples, “Western Ukraine and Western Belorussia under Soviet Occupation: The Development of Socialist Farming, 1939-1941,” Canadian Slavonic Papers, XXVII, 2 (Toronto 1985), pp. 158-177 - reprinted in his Stalinism in Ukraine. in the 1940s (Edmonton 1992), pp. 24-41. Soviet policy toward eastern Galicia’s influential church is discussed in Bohdan Rostyslav Bociurkiw, The Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church and the Soviet State, 1939-1950 (Edmonton and Toronto 1996), esp. pp. 32-61, and his shorter study “Sheptyts’kyi and the Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church under Soviet Occu­pation, 1939-1941,” in Paul Robert Magocsi, ed., Morality and Reality: The Life and Times of Andrei Sheptyts’kyi (Edmonton 1989), pp. 101-124.

The war years are dealt with in great detail in several monographs. Good intro­ductions to the military campaigns on Ukrainian territory by both the German and the Soviet armies are John Erickson, The Road to Stalingrad: Stalin’s War with Germany (London 1975); John Erickson, The Road to Berlin: Continuing the His­tory of Stalin’s War with Germany (Boulder, Colo. 1983); and Joseph L. Wieczynski, ed., Operation Barbarossa: The German Attack on the Soviet Union, June 22, 1941 (Salt Lake City, Utah 1993). Ukraine also figures prominently in general works on Nazi rule in eastern Europe: Alexander Dallin, German Rule in Russia, 1941­1945: A Study in Occupation Policies (New York 1957; 2nd rev. ed., Boulder, Colo. 1981); Gerald Reitlinger, The House Built on Sand: The Conflicts of German Policy in Russia, 1939-1945 (New York i960); Ihor Kamenetsky, Secret Nazi Plans for East­ern Europe: A Study of Lebensraum Policies (New Haven, Conn. 1961); Theo Schulte, The German Army and Nazi Policies in Occupied Russia (New York 1989); and Timo­thy Patrick Mulligan, The Politics of Illusion and Empire: German Occupation Policy in the Soviet Union, 1942-1943 (New York 1988), esp. chapters 5 and 7 on the Reichskommissariat Ukraine. The overall loss of life is documented by Stephan G. Prociuk, “Human Losses in the Ukraine in World War I and II,” AUAAS, XIII (New York 1973-77), pp. 23-50.

Developments specifically in Ukraine are given attention in Ihor Kamenetsky, Hitler’s Occupation ofUkraine, 1941-1944 (Milwaukee 1956); Wolodymyr Kosyk, The Third Reich and Ukraine (NewYork 1993); Dieter Pohl, “Russians, Ukrainians, and German Occupation Policy 1941-43,” in Andreas Kappeler et al., eds., Culture, Nation, and Identity (Edmonton 2003), pp. 277-297; and Rudolf A. Mark, “The Ukrainians as Seen by Hitler, Rosenberg, and Koch,” in Hunczak and Shtohryn, eds., Ukraine: The Challenges of World War II, pp. 23-36. The best work on daily life under the Nazi German rule in the Reichskommissariat Ukraine is Karel C. Berkoff, Harvest of Despair: Life and Death in Ukraine under Nazi Rule (Cambridge, Mass. 2004). The same author has also produced a comprehensive guide to archi­val and secondary sources in “Ukraine Under Nazi Rule (1941-1944): Sources and Finding Aids,” Jahrbücher für Geschichte Osteuropas, XLV, 1 and 2 (Wiesbaden, 1997), pp. 85-103 and 273-309. Coverage of Romanian wartime rule in Transnistria is available in Alexander Dallin, Odessa, 1941-1944: A Case Study of Soviet Territory UnderForeignRule, 2nd ed. (Ia$i, Romania and Portland, Ore. 1998).

The status of Ukrainian churches is treated prominently in general works on the wartime religious revival: Wassilij Alexeev and Theofanis G. Stavrou, The Great Revival: The Russian Chinch, under German Occupation (Minneapolis 1976), esp. chapter 5; Harvey Fireside, Icon and Swastika: The Russian Orthodox Church under Nazi and Soviet Control (Cambridge, Mass. 1971); and in studies focusing specifi­cally on Ukraine: Hansjakob Stehle, “Sheptyts’kyi and the German Regime,” in Magocsi, Morality and Reality, pp. 125-144; and Karel C. Berkhoff, “Was There a Religious Revival in the Soviet Union under the Nazi Regime?,” The Slavonic and East European Review, LXXVIII, 3 (London 2000), pp. 536-567.

Many studies deal with Ukrainian military formations and their role in the nationalist struggle against the armies of both the Soviet Union and Nazi Ger­many. The Ukrainian Insurgent Army - UPA is perhaps the most controversial among these formations; a good introduction to the current state of knowledge is in Per Anders Rudling, “Theory and Practice: Historical Representation of the Wartime Accounts of the Activities of the OUN-UPA,” East European Jewish Affairs, XXXVI, 2 (Oxon, U.K. 2006), pp. 163-189. Accounts of the UPA, how it derived from the Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists, and the changing relationship of both movements to the Nazi German authorities in Ukraine are reviewed in essays by Wolfdieter Bihl, Peter J. Potichnyj, and Taras Hunczak, in Hans-Joachim Torke and John-Paul Himka, eds., German-Ukrainian Relations in Historical Perspective (Edmonton and Toronto 1994), pp. 138-186; and by Myro- slav Prokop, “Ukrainian Anti-Nazi Resistance, 1941-1944,” in Hunczak and Shtohryn, Ukraine: the Challenges of World War II, pp. 63-88. Details on the UPA’s military operations are found in: Y Tys-Krokhmaliuk, UPA Warfare in Ukraine: Strategical, Tactical, and Organizat.ional Problems of Ukrainian Resistance in World WarII (New York 1972); Oleh Martowych [Lev Shankowsky], The Ukrainian Insurgent Army (Munich 1950); and Petro R. Sodol, UPA: They Fought Hitler and Stalin: A Brief Overview of Military Aspects from the History of the Ukrainian Insurgent Army, 1942-1949 (New York 1987). On the role of the UPA in American foreign policy, see Jeffrey Burds, The Early Cold War in Soviet West Ukraine, 1944-1948, The Carl Beck Papers in Russian and East European Studies, No. 1505 (Pittsburgh 2001). The ideology of the movement is presented in an annotated collection of contemporary documents compiled by Peter J. Potichnyj and Yevhen Shtendera, eds., Political Thought of the Ukrainian Underground, 1943-1951 (Edmonton 1986); and in the writings of one of the movement’s most prominent leaders: Yaroslav Stetsko, Ukraine and the Subjugated Nations: Their Struggle for National Liberation - Selected Writings and Speeches by a Former Prime Minister of Ukraine (New York 1989).

Ukrainian forces that fought on the side of Germany have been given particu­lar attention in: Myroslav Yurkevich, “Galician Ukrainians in German Military Formations and in the German Administration,” in Yuri Boshyk, ed., Ukraine during World War II (Edmonton 1986), pp. 67-88; Basil Dmytryshyn, “The SS Division Galicia, 1943-1945,” in Hunczak and Shtohryn, Ukraine: The Challenges of World WarII, pp. 209-230; Richard Landwehr, FightingforFreedom: The Ukrain­ian Volunteer Division of the Waffen-SS (Silver Spring, Md. 1985); Michael O. Lo- gosz, The Waffen-SS 14th Grenadier Division, 1943-1945 (Atglen, Pa. 1997); Carlos Caballero Jurado, Breaking the Chains: 14 Waffen-Grenadier Division der SS and Other Ukrainian Volunteer Formations, Eastern Front, 1941-45 (Halifax, United Kingdom 1998); Taras Hunczak, On the Horns of a Dilemma: The Story of the Ukrainian Divi­sion “Halychyna” (Lanham, Md. 2000); and Michael James Melnyk, To Battle: The Formation and History of the 14th Galician Waffen-SS Division (Solihull, U.K. 2002). There are also memoirs of German and Ukrainian officers connected with the Galicia Division: Wolf-Dietrich Heike, The Ukrainian Division “Galicia”: 1943-45: A Memoir (Toronto, Paris, and Munich 1988); and Pavlo Shandruk, Arms of Valor (New York 1959).

Soviet writers and their sympathizers in the West also produced a wide body of accusatory polemics against what they described as “Ukrainian nationalist collaborators”: V. Cherednychenko, Collaborationists (Kiev 1975); V. Chered- nychenko, Anatomy of Treason (Kiev 1984); Yaroslav Halan, Lest People Forget: Pam­phlets, Articles, and Reports (Kiev 1986); and Marko Terlytsia, Here Is the Evidence (Toronto 1984). To make the accusations sound more plausible, the Soviets published select documentary evidence: V.N. Denisov and G.I. Changuli, eds., Nazi Crimes in Ukraine, 1941-1944: Documents and Materials (Kiev 1987). The issue of wartime collaboration in scholarly as well as polemical writings is discussed by David R. Marples, Stalinism in Ukraine in the 1940s, esp. chapter 4 (Edmonton

¹⁹⁹²⁾. Collaboration of a different kind, that of leftist Czechoslovak and Soviet diplomats arranging for the acquisition of new territory south of the Carpathian Mountains, is the subject of a historical analysis and collection of documents from 1944-1945 in F. Nemec and V. Moudry, The Soviet Seizure of Subcarpathian Ruthenia (Toronto 1955).

The fate ofJews on Ukrainian lands during World War II is treated in several works. The transformation of their traditional life in western Ukraine in the wake of the Soviet annexation in late 1939 is discussed at some length in Ben- Cion Pinchuk, Shtetl Jews under Soviet Rule: Eastern Poland on the Eve of the Holocaust (Oxford 1990); Aharon Weiss, “Some Economic and Social Problems of the Jews of Eastern Galicia in the Period of Soviet Rule,” in Norman Davies and Antony Polansky, eds., Jews in Eastern Poland and the USSR1939-46 (Basingstoke, Hamp­shire, and London 1991), pp. 77-109; and by Jan Gross, “The Jewish Community in the Soviet-Annexed Territories on the Eve of the Holocaust,” in Lucjan Dobro- szycki and Jeffrey S. Gurock, eds., The Holocaust in the Soviet Union (Armonk, N.Y and London 1993), pp. 155-172.

The impact of the German invasion and Nazi racial policy specifically on Jews is described in studies by Philip Friedman, “Ukrainian-Jewish Relations during the Nazi Occupation,” YIVO Annual of Jewish Social Science, XII (New York 1958­59), pp. 259-296 - reprinted in Philip Friedman, Roads to Extinction: Essays on the Holocaust (New York and Philadelphia 1980), pp. 176-208; and in collection of essays about all Ukrainian lands: Roy Brandon and Wendy Lower, eds., The Shoah in Ukraine: History, Testimony, Memorialization (Bloomington and Indianapolis 2008). There are also studies of Nazi German policy in specific regions: Michael Gesin, Nazi Genocide of Jews in Southern Ukraine (Lewiston, N.Y. 2006), including a discussion of Transnistria and Crimea; Shmuel Spector, The Holocaust of Volhynian Jews, 1941-1944 (Jerusalem 1990), and - with emphasis on the city of Zhytomyr - in Wendy Lower, Nazi Empire-Building and the Holocaust in Ukraine (Chapel Hill, N. C. 2005). There are also several contemporary recollections printed in Ilya Ehrenburg and Vasily Grossman, eds., The Black Book: The Ruthless Murder of Jews by German-Fascist Invaders throughout, the Tem.porarily-Occupied Regions of the Soviet Union and in the Death Camps of Poland during the War of 1941-1945 (New York 1981), esp. pt. 1: “The Ukraine,” pp. 1-136.

The policy of the Soviet government toward Jews and its subsequent attitude toward the Holocaust are dealt with in essays by Zvi Gitelman, Lukasz Hirszowicz, William Korey, and Mordechai Altschuler in Lucjan Dobroszycki and Jeffrey S. Gurock, eds., Holocaust in the Soviet Union (Armonk, N.Y. and London 1993). The question of collaboration of the local non-Jewish population is treated with great care in John-Paul Himka, “Ukrainian Collaboration in the Extermination of the Jews during the Second World War: Sorting Out the Long-Term and Conjuctural Factors,” in Jonathan Frankel, ed., The Fate of European Jews, 1939-1945/Studies in Contemporary Jewry: An Annual, Vol. XIII (New York and Oxford 1997), pp. 170-189. Other aspects of this problem are discussed in Yaroslav Bilinsky, “Meth­odological Problems and Philosophical Issues in the Study ofJewish-Ukrainian Relations during the Second World War,” in Peter J. Potichnyj and Howard Aster, eds., Ukrainian-Jewish. Relations in Historical Perspective (Edmonton 1988), pp. 373-4o8; Taras Hunczak, “Ukrainian-Jewish Relations during the Soviet and Nazi Occupations,” in Boshyk, Ukraine, during World War II, pp. 39-57; Andrzej Zbikowski, “Local Anti-Jewish Pogroms in the Occupied Territories of Eastern Poland,” in Dobroszycki and Gurock, Holocaust in the Soviet Union, pp. 173-180; Martin Dean, Collaboration in the Holocaust: Crimes of the Local Police in Belorussia and Ukraine, 1941-44 (New York 2000); and Vladimir Melamed, “Organized and Unsolicited Collaboration in the Holocaust: The Multifaceted Ukrainian Con­text,” East European Affairs, XXXVII, 2 (Oxon, U.K. 2007), pp. 217-248.

Jewish communities in western Ukrainian lands have been given particular attention. There are several memoirs of survivors: Leon Weliczker-Wells, Janowska Road (New York 1963); Joachim Schoenfeld, Holocaust Memoirs: Jews in the Lwow Ghetto, the Janowski Concentration Camp, and as Deportees in Siberia (Hoboken, N.J. 1985); Yitzhak Sternberg, Under Assumed Identity (Jerusalem 1986); David Kahane, Lvov Ghetto Diary (Amherst, Mass. 1990); Robert Marshall, In the Sewers of Lvov (London 1990); Michael Diment, The Lone Survivor: A Diary of the Lukacze Ghetto and Svyniukhy, Ukraine (New York 1992); Nelly S. Toll, Behind the Secret. Window (New York 1993); Kurt I. Lewin, A Journey through Illusions (Santa Bar­bara, Calif. 1994); and Ya. Khonigsman, Janovska Hell: Brief Essay on the History of Janovska Concentration Camp in L’viv (L’viv 2003).

There are also scholarly studies on the Jews in various western Ukrainian lands. On German-administered eastern Galicia, see Philip Friedman, “The Destruction of the Jews of Lwow,” in his Roads to Extinction, pp. 244-321; Aharon Weiss, “Jewish-Ukrainian Relations in Western Ukraine during the Holocaust,” in Potichnyj and Aster, Ukrainian-Jewish Relations, pp. 409-420; Shimon Red­lich, “Sheptyts’kyi and the Jews,” in Magocsi, Morality and Reality, pp. 145-162; Gabriel N. Finder and Alexander V. Prusin, “Collaboration in Eastern Galicia: The Ukrainian Police and the Holocaust,” Eastern European Jewish Affairs, XXXIV, 2 (Oxon, U.K. 2004), pp. 95-118; and Simon Redlich, Together and Apart in Brzezany: PoLs, Jews, and Ukrainians, 1919-1945 (Bloomington, Ind. 2002). On Hungarian-ruled Transcarpathia, the most comprehensive treatment of the Holo­caust is in Yeshayahu A. Jelinek, The Carpathian Diaspora: The Jews of Subcarpathian Rus’ and Mukachevo, 1848-1948 (New York 2007), esp. chapters 17-19. Other studies on the topic include Livia Rothkirchen, “Deep-Rooted Yet Alien: Some Aspects of the History of the Jews in Subcarpathian Ruthenia,” Yad Vashem Studies, XII (Jerusalem 1977), pp. 147-191; and Randolph L. Braham, “The Destruction of the Jews of Carpatho-Ruthenia,” in Hungarian-Jewish Studies (New York 1966), pp. 223-235. On Romanian- ruled Transnistria, the region between the Dniester and Southern Buh Rivers, see the series of essays in Randolf L. Braham, ed., The Destruction of Romanian and Ukrainian Jews during the Antonescu Era (Boulder, Colo. and New York 1997); Dalie Ofer, “The Holocaust in Transnistria,” in Dobroszyc- ki and Gurock, Holocaust in the Soviet Union, pp. 133-154; and Dennis Deletant, “Transnistria and the Romanian Solution to the ‘Jewish Problem’,” in Ray Bran­don and and Wendy Lower, eds., The Shoah in Ukraine: History, Testimony, Materiali­zation (Bloomington and Indianapolis 2008), pp. 159-189.

The fate of Poles, whether as a result of the first Soviet annexation or of the forced deportations and exchange of populations at the end of the war, is recorded in scholarly studies by Keith Sword, Deportation and Exile: Poles in the Soviet Union, 1939-1948 (New York and London 1994); John J. Kulczycki, “The Soviet Union, Polish Communists, and the Creation of a Polish Nation-State,” Russian History, XXIX, 2-4 (Idlewood, Calif. 2002), pp. 251-276; John J. Kulczyc­ki, “‘Repatriation’: Bringing Poles from the Soviet Union Home after World War II,” Sprawy Narodowosciowe: Seria nowa, XXIII (Poznan 2003), pp. 7-41; and in an eyewitness report by Zygmunt Sobieski, “Reminiscences from Lwow, 1939-1944,” Journal of Central European Affairs, VI, 4 (Boulder, Colo. 1947), pp. 350-374. The historiography on Polish-Ukrainian relations both during the war and the imme­diate postwar years is surveyed in short essays by Jozef Lewandowski and John Basarab, in Peter J. Potichnyj, ed., Poland and Ukraine: Past and I resent (Edmonton and Toronto 1980), pp. 231-270; and by Andrzej Zieba, “Sheptyts’kyi in Polish Public Opinion,” in Magocsi, Morality and Reality, pp. 377-406.

The ongoing struggle between partisan and other armed forces representing both groups during the last years of World War II and the immediate postwar period is treated with greatjudiciousness by Timothy Snyder in “The Causes of Ukrainian-Polish Ethnic Cleansing 1943,” Past and Present, No. 179 (Oxford 2003), pp. 197-234, and in his more wide-ranging monograph, The Reconsteuc- tion of Nations: Poland, Ukraine, Lithuania, Belarus, 1569-1999 (New Haven and London 2003), in which there is also a discussion of the Poles and Ukrainians during the Communist and post-Communist eras. The wartime clashes are described in a partisan and often emotional manner in several individual works and in collections of memoirs: Mikolaj Terles, ed., Ethnic Cleansing of Poles in Volhynia and East Galicia, 1942-1946 (Toronto 1993); Tadeusz Piotrowski, Polish- Ukrainian Relations During World War II: Ethnic Cleansing in Volhynia and Eastern Galicia (Toronto 1995); Tadeusz Piotrowski, Vengeance of the Swallows: Memoir of a Polish Family's Ordeal under Soviet Aggression, Ukrainian Ethnic Cleansing and Nazi Enslavement, and Their Emigration to America (Jefferson, N.C. 1994); Waldemar Lot- nik, with Julian Preece, Nine Lives: Ethnic Conflict in the Polish-Ukrainian Borderlands (London 1999); Wladyslaw Dzemianczuk, Polish SelfDefence in Volhynia (Toronto 1999); and in the best work in this genre, Tadeusz Piotrowski, ed., Genocide and Rescue, in Wofyn: Recollections of the Ukrainian Nationalist Ethnic Cleansing Campaign Against the Poles During World War II (Jefferson, N. C. 2000).

The postwar years, when Ukrainian-Polish relations were determined by inter­national agreements on “voluntarily” and forced population resettlement, are discussed by Bohdan Kordan, “Making Borders Stick: Population Transfer and Resettlement in the Trans-Curzon Territories, 1944-1949,” International Migra­tion Review, XXXI, 3 (Staten Island, N.Y. 1997), pp. 704-720; Tadeusz Piotrowski, “Akcja ‘Wisla’ - Operation ‘Vistula’, 1947: Background and Assessment,” Polish Review, XLIII, 2 (New York, 1998), pp. 219-238; and by several Polish and Ukrainian authors in the collection, TheLemkoRegion, 1939-1947: War, Occu­pation and Deportation, ed., Paul Best and Jaroslaw Moklak (New Haven, Conn. 2002), esp. chapters 5-10. The ongoing friction between Poles and Ukrain­ians in borderland regions within Poland, especially among Roman Catholics and Greek Catholics in the city of Przemysl, is the subject of several studies by the British anthropologist, Christopher M. Hann: “Ethnic Cleansing in Eastern Europe and Ukrainians beside the Curzon Line,” Nations and Nationalism, II (Oxford, 1996), pp. 389-406; “Postsocialist Nationalism: Rediscovering the Past in Southeast Poland,” Slavic Review, LVII, 4 (Cambridge, Mass. 1998), pp. 840­863; and “Religion, Trade, and Trust in South-East Poland,” Religion, State, and Society, XXVI, 3-4 (Keston, U.K. 1998), pp. 235-249.

12. The Soviet era, 1945-1991

There is an extensive literature on the postwar years. Good introductions to the first two decades, with particular emphasis on administrative and ideological matters, are found in: Yaroslav Bilinsky, The Second Soviet Republic: The Ukraine after World War II (New Brunswick, N.J. 1964); and Robert S. Sullivant, Soviet Politics and the Ukraine, 1917-1957 (New York and London 1962), esp. chapters 6-7. A description of developments until the end of the 1970s is provided by Borys Lewytzkyj, Politics and Society in Soviet Ukraine, 1953-1980 (Edmonton 1984); Bohdan Krawchenko, Social Change and National Consciousness in Twentieth-Century Ukraine (New York 1985), esp. chapter 5; Peter J. Potichnyj, ed., Ukraine in the Seventies (Oakville, Ont. 1975); and Bohdan Krawchenko, ed., Ukraine after Shelest (Edmonton 1983). It is also useful to view this same period through the eyes of a former longtime first secretary of the Communist party of Ukraine: V.V. Shcher- bitsky, Soviet Ukraine (Moscow 1985).

The manner in which the Communist party actually administered the country is described by John A. Armstrong, The Soviet Bureaucratic Elite: A Case Study of the Ukrainian Apparatus (New York 1959). The Ukrainian variant of Kremlinology - the attempt by western observers to determine by indirect evidence the reasons why Soviet leaders acted the way they did - produced a number of studies that tried to explain the motivations behind the changes in the Communist Ukrainian leadership: Grey Hodnett, “The Views of Petro Shelest,” AUAAS, XIV (1978-80), pp. 209-243; Yaroslav Bilinsky “Mykola Skrypnyk and Petro Shelest: An Essay on the Persistence and Limits of Ukrainian National Communism,” in Jeremy R. Azrael, ed., Soviet Nationality Policies and Practices (New York 1978), pp. 105-143; Lowell Tillett, “Ukrainian Nationalism and the Fall of Shelest,” Slavic Review, XXXIV, 4 (Columbus, Ohio 1975), pp. 752-768; and Yaroslav Bilinsky, “Schcher- bytsky, Ukraine and Kremlin Politics,” Problems of Communism, XXXII, 4 (Washing­ton, D.C. 1983), pp. 1-20.

The particular status of Soviet Ukraine as a “state within a state” also attracted the attention of several political and legal analyses. Theoretical issues are out­lined in Theofil I. Kis, Nationhood, Statehood, and the International Status of the Ukrainian SSR/Ukraine (Ottawa, London, and Paris 1989). The manner in which the state functioned on the international scene is surveyed by Alexander J. Motyl, “The Foreign Relations of the Ukrainian SSR,” HUS, VI, 1 (1982), pp. 62-78; and Yaroslav Bilinsky, “The Ukrainian SSR in International Affairs after World War II,” AUAAS, IX, 1-2 (1961), pp. 147-166. The role of Soviet Ukraine in specific events is treated in great detail in Konstantin Sawczuk, The Ukraine in the United Nations Organization: A Study in Soviet Foreign Policy, 1944-1950 (Boulder, Colo. 1975); and Grey Hodnett and Peter J. Potichnyj, The Ukraine and the Czecho­slovak Crisis (Canberra 1970). Soviet Ukraine’s economic and cultural relations with Poland as well as the status of Poles in postwar Soviet Ukraine are discussed by Vasyl Markus, Volodymyr N. Bandera, Georges Mond, Borys Lewytzkyj, and Roman Szporluk in Peter J. Potichnyj, ed., Poland and Ukraine: Past and Present (Edmonton and Toronto 1980), pp. 132-227.

Economic development in the decades after World War II is traced by several authors in I.S. Koropeckyj, ed., The Ukraine within the USSR: An Economic Balance Sheet (New York and London 1977); specifically in the 1970s, by Gennady Ozor- noy, in Krawchenko, Ukraine, after Shelest, pp. 73-100; and, specifically in agricul- ture, by Ihor Stebelsky, in Potichnyj, Ukraine in the Seventies, pp. 103-126. The question of Ukraine’s economic integration in the Soviet Union is given particu­lar attention in I.S. Koropeckyj, Development in the Shadow: Studies in Ukrainian Economics (Edmonton 1990); and I.S. Koropeckyj, “A Century of Moscow-Ukraine Economic Relations: An Interpretation,” HUS, V, 4 (1981), pp. 467-496. Urban growth and its effect on society as a whole is discussed in great detail by Peter Woroby, “Effects of Urbanization in the Ukraine,” AUAAS, XIII (1973-77), pp. 51-115; and by Roman Szporluk, “Urbanization in Ukraine since the Second World War,” in Ivan Rudnytsky, ed., Rethinking Ukrainian History (Edmonton 1981), pp. 180-202. Particular attention is given to one urban environment in which Soviet-style socialism and Western cultural influencs successfully inter­acted: Sergei I. Zhuk, Rock in the Rocket City: The West, Identity and Ideology in Soviet Dnepropetrovsk, 1960-1985 (Washington, D.C., Baltimore, and London 2009).

The newly annexed western Ukrainian lands, in particular Galicia, are the subject of several studies. The manner in which the Soviet system was imple­mented in concrete terms is discussed by David Marples, “The Kulak in Western Ukraine,” Soviet Studies, XXXVI, 4 (Glasgow 1984), pp. 560-570, and “Collec­tivization in Western Ukraine, 1948-1949,” Nationalities Papers, XIII, 1 (North York, Ont. 1985), pp. 24-44 - both articles reprinted, together with “Khrushchev and Mass Collectivization in Western Ukraine, 1950-1951,” in David R. Marples, Stalinism in Ukraine, in the 1940s (Edmonton 1992), pp. 97-160. The subsequent impact of the more nationally aware Galician Ukrainians on the rest of the coun­try is treated by Yaroslav Bilinsky, “The Incorporation of Western Ukraine and Its Impact on Politics and Society in Soviet Ukraine,” in Roman Szporluk, ed., The Influence of East Europe· and the Soviet West on the USSR (New York 1976), pp. 180-228.

The destruction of the Greek Catholic Church has received special atten­tion. An early description of events by church leaders, together with documents, that appeared in First Victims of Communism: White Book of the Religious Persecution in Ukraine. (Rome 1953), was followed by three scholarly articles: Bohdan R. Bociurkiw, “The Uniate Church in the Soviet Ukraine: A Case Study in Soviet Church Policy,” Canadian Slavonic Papers, VII (Ottawa 1965), pp. 89-115; D. Dirscherl, “The Soviet Destruction of the Greek Catholic Church,” Journal of Church and State, XII (Waco, Tex. 1970), pp. 421-439; and Dennis J. Dunn, “The Disappearance of the Ukrainian Uniate Church: How and Why?” Ukrainskyi istoryk, IX, 1-2 (New York and Munich 1972), pp. 57-65; and in a general history of the destruction as well as survival of the “underground church” throughout the Soviet era in Serge Keleher, Passion and Resurrection: The Greek Catholic Church in Soviet Ukraine, 1938-1989 (L’viv 1993). The Orthodox and approved Soviet view of these events is available in Lvov Church Council: Documents and Materials, 1946-1981 (Moscow 1983). The most comprehensive analysis of the L’viv Sobor (council), based on extensive archival documentation from recently opened former Soviet archives, is Bohdan Rostyslav Bociurkiw, The Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church and the Soviet State, 1939-1950 (Edmonton and Toronto 1996). A broader discussion, including the fate of the Greek Catholic Church in neighbor­ing Communist countries, is provided by Dennis Dunn, The Catholic Church and the Soviet Government, 1939-1949 (Boulder, Colo. 1977). The destruction of the church specifically in Transcarpathia and eastern Slovakia is discussed by Michael Lacko, “The Forced Liquidation of the Union of Uzhorod,” Slovak Studies, I (Rome 1961), pp. 145-185.

The various ways in which Ukrainian nationalism survived and evolved under the postwar Soviet regime is best described in Kenneth C. Farmer, Ukrainian Nationalism in the Post-Stalin Era (The Hague, Boston, and London 1980). Also of importance are extended essays by Yaroslav Bilinsky, “Assimilation and Ethnic Assertiveness among Ukrainians of the Soviet Union,” in Eric Goldhagen, ed., Ethnic Minorities in the Soviet Union (New York 1968), pp. 147-184; and by Roman Szporluk, “The Ukraine and Russia,” in Robert Conquest, ed., The Last Empire: Nationality and the Soviet Future (Stanford, Calif. 1986), pp. 151-182. The persis­tence of language as a political factor and as a barometer of national survival is discussed by Paul Wexler, Purism and Language: A Study of Modern Ukrainian and Belorussian Nationalism, 1940-1967 (Bloomington, Ind. 1974); by Roman Sol- chanyk, “Language Politics in the Ukraine,” in Isabelle T. Kreindler, ed., Sociolin- guistic Perspectives on Soviet National Languages (Berlin, New York, and Amster­dam 1985), esp. pp. 73-105; and by Roman Szporluk, “West Ukraine and West Belorussia: Historical Tradition, Social Communication, and Linguistic Assimila­tion,” Soviet Studies, XXXI, 1 (Glasgow 1979), pp. 76-98.

The experience of World War II and the manner in which the Soviet regime was able to use memories of those difficult years to bolster the allegiance and loyalty of the Ukrainian masses is the subject of a major monograph by Amir Weiner, Making Sense of War: The Second World War and the Fate of the Bolshevik Revo­lution (Princeton, N.J. 2001). The way in which the writing of Ukrainian history was used and misused by Soviet policy makers to justify and buttress their rule is the subject of several studies, including Stephen Velychenko, Shaping Identity in Eastern Europe, and Russia: Soviet Russian and Polish Accounts of Ukrainian History, 1914-1991 (New York 1993), esp. chapters 7-8; Stephen Velychenko, “The Ori­gins of the Official Soviet Interpretation of Eastern Slavic History: A Case Study of Policy Formulation,” Forschungen zur osteuropäischen Geschichte, XLVI (Berlin 1992), pp. 225-253; Roman Szporluk, “National History as a Political Battle­ground: The Case of Ukraine and Belorussia,” in Michael S. Pap, ed., Russian Empite: Some Aspects of Tsarist and Soviet Colonial Ptactitces (Cleveland 1985), pp. 131-150; Jaroslaw Pelenski, “Soviet Ukrainian Historiography after World War II,” Jahrbücher fur Geschichte Osteuropas, N.S., XII (Wiesbaden 1964), pp. 375-418; Lubomyr R. Wynar, “The Present State of Ukrainian Historiography in Soviet Ukraine: A Brief Overview,” Nationalities Papers, VII, 1 (Charleston, Ill. 1979), pp. 1-23; and Serhy Yelelchyk, “How the ‘Iron Minister’ Kaganovich Failed to Discipline Ukrainian Historians: A Stalinist Ideological Campaign Reconsidered,” Nationalities Papers, XXVII, 4 (Oxfordshire, U.K. 1999), pp. 579-604.

Since the mid-1980s, during the decline and eventual end of Soviet rule, the historical past has again been used in an effort to help chart Ukraine’s political future. The Cossack period, in particular, is emphasized, as in several essays by Frank Sysyn, “The Reemergence of the Ukrainian Nation and Cossack Mythol­ogy,” Social Research, LVIII, 4 (New York 1991), pp. 845-864; Zenon E. Kohut, “Russian-Ukrainian Relations and Historical Consciousness in Contemporary Ukraine” and Serhii M. Plokhy, “Cossack Mythology in the Russian-Ukrainian Border Dispute,” in S. Frederick Starr, ed., The Legacy of History in Russia and the New States ofEurasia (Armonk, N.Y. and London 1994), pp. 123-146; and Karel C. Berkhoff, “‘Brothers, We Are All of Cossack Stock’: The Cossack Campaign in Ukrainian Newspapers on the Eve of Independence,” HUS, XXI, 1-2 (Cam­bridge, Mass. 1997), pp. 119-140.

Scholars in the West, especially during the Cold War and the so-called era of detente, were anxious to uncover all forms of opposition, however limited or politically innocuous, against Soviet rule. A book-length bibliography of pub­lished literature on the subject is available: George Liber and Anna Mostovych, comp., Nonconformity and Dissent in the Ukrainian SSR, 1955-1975: An Annotated Bibliography (Cambridge, Mass. 1978). A good introduction to the sociodemo­graphic background of dissidents and the response of the Soviet government is provided in Jaroslaw Bilocerkowycz, Soviet Ukrainian Dissent: A Study of Political Alienation (Boulder, Colo. and London 1988). For emphasis on ideological con­tent, see Ivan L. Rudnytsky, “The Political Thought of Soviet Ukrainian Dissent,” JUS, VI, 2 [11] (1981), pp. 3-16, reprinted in Ivan L. Rudnytsky, Essays in Modern Ukrainian History (Edmonton 1987), pp. 477-489; George S.N. Luckyj, “Polar­ity in Ukrainian Intellectual Dissent,” Canadian Slavonic Papers, XIV, 2 (Ottawa 1972), pp. 269-279; and Victor Swoboda, “The Party Guidance of a Soviet Litera­ture: The Case of the Ukraine, 1968-1975,” in Evelyn Bristol, ed., East European Literature: Selected Papers from the Second World Congress for Soviet and East European Studies (Berkeley, Calif. 1982), pp. 85-106. The relationship of the dissident movement to Ukraine’s other peoples is discussed in Yaroslav Bilinsky, “Politi­cal Relations between Russians and Ukrainians in the USSR: The 1970s and Beyond,” in Peter J. Potichnyj et al., Ukraine and Russia in Their Historical Encounter (Edmonton 1992), pp. 165-198; Peter J. Potichnyj, “The Struggle of the Crime­an Tatars,” Canadian Slavonic Papers, XVII, 2-3 (Ottawa 1975), pp. 302-319; and Israel Kleiner, “The Present-Day Ukrainian National Movement in the USSR and the Jewish Question,” Soviet Jewish Affairs, XI, 3 (London 1981), pp. 3-14.

Many of the writings of the dissidents from the period were translated into English. These exist as anthologies: Slava Stetsko, ed., Revolutionary Voices: Ukrain­ian Political Prisoners Condemn Russian Colonialism, 2nd rev. ed. (Munich 1971); Michael Browne, ed., Ferment in the Ukraine: Documents by V. Chornovil, I. Kemelyba, L. Lukyanenko, V. Moroz, and Others (Woodhaven, N.Y. 1973); The Ukrainian He.rald, issues 4-8 (Munich and Baltimore, 1972-77); Lesya Verba and Nina Strokata, eds., The Human Rights Movement in Ukraine: Documents of the Ukrain­ian Helsinki Group, 1976-1980 (Baltimore 1980); or as individual works: Iurii Badzo, “An Open Letter to the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR and the Central Committee of the CPSU,” JUS, IX, 1 and 2 [16 and 17] (1984), pp. 74-94 and 47-70; Vyacheslav Chornovil, The Chornovil Papers (New York and Toronto 1968); Ivan Dzyuba, Internationalism or Russification? A Study in the Soviet Nationalities Problem, 3rd ed. (New York 1974); The Grigorenko Papers: Writings by General P.G Grigorenko and Documents on His Case (Boulder, Colo. 1976); Valentyn Moroz, Report from the Beria Reserve (Toronto 1974); Valentyn Moroz, Boomerang: The Works of Valentyn Moroz (Baltimore, Paris, and Toronto 1974); Mykhaylo Osad- chy, Cataract (New York 1976); Leonid Plyushch, History's Carnival: A Dissident’s Autobiography (New York 1979); Ivan Sverstiuk, Clandestine Essays (Cambridge, Mass. 1976); and Danylo Shumuk, Life Sentence: Memoirs of a Ukrainian Political Prisoner (Edmonton 1984).

A specific form of dissent against the Soviet system was related to religious belief and church life in Ukraine. This was discussed in two general studies: Bohdan Bociurkiw, “Religion and Nationalism in Contemporary Ukraine,” in G. Simmonds, ed., Nationalism in the USSR and Eastern Europe in the Era of Brezhnev and Kosygin (Detroit 1977), pp. 81-93; and Bohdan Bociurkiw, “The Religious Situation in Soviet Ukraine,” in Walter Dushnyk, ed., Ukraine in the Changing World (New York 1977), pp. 173-194. The specific status of Orthodoxy was reviewed by Bohdan R. Bociurkiw, “The Orthodox Church and the Soviet Regime in the Ukraine, 1953-1971,” Canadian Slavonic Papers, XIV, 2 (Ottawa 1972), pp. 191-212; and Frank E. Sysyn, “The Ukrainian Orthodox Question in the USSR,” Religion in Communist Lands, XI, 3 (Keston, U.K. 1983), pp. 251-263 - reprinted in Frank E. Sysyn, The Ukrainian Orthodox Question in the USSR (Cam­bridge, Mass. 1987), pp. 9-22. The suppressed Greek Catholic Church received much more attention, including articles by Bohdan Bociurkiw, “Religious Dissent and Soviet State,” and Vasyl Markus, “Religion and Nationality: The Uniates in Ukraine,” in Bohdan R. Bociurkiw and John Strong, eds., Religion and Atheism in the USSR and Eastern Europe (London 1975), pp. 58-90 and 101-122 - reprinted in Vasyl Markus, Religion and Nationalism in Soviet Ukraine after 1945 (Cambridge, Mass. 1987); by Ivan Hvat, “The Ukrainian Catholic Church, the Vatican, and the Soviet Union during the Pontificate of Pope John Paul II,” Religion in Com­munist Lands, XI, 3 (Keston, U.K. 1983), pp. 264-279 - reprinted in Ivan Hvat, The Catacomb Ukrainian Catholic Church, and Pope John Paul II (Cambridge, Mass. 1984); and by Myroslaw Tataryn, “The Re-emergence of the Ukrainian (Greek) Catholic Church in the USSR,” in Sabrina Petra Ramet, ed., Religious Policy in the Soviet Union (New York 1993), pp. 319-349. Also available is an intellectual biog­raphy of the church’s imprisoned and later exiled metropolitan: Jaroslav Pelikan, Confessor between East and West: A Portrait of Ukrainian Cardinal Josyf Slipyj (Grand Rapids, Mich. 1990); and a memoir-like account of a leading dissident: Josyp Terelya, Witness to Apparitions and Persecutions in the USSR (Milford, Ohio 1991).

The last years of the Soviet era in Ukraine are discussed in a growing body of literature about the impact of Mikhail Gorbachev and his policies of perestroika and glasnost that began in 1985 and culminated in the collapse of the Soviet Union and the creation of an independent Ukraine in 1991. A useful chronicle­like introduction to the years just before and after independence is found in Bohdan Nahaylo, The Ukrainian Resurgence (Toronto and Buffalo 1999). More wide-range and interpretive are essays in Roman Szporluk, Russia, Ukraine, and the Breakup of the Soviet Union (Stanford 2000). For the specific impact of the Gor­bachev era on Soviet Ukraine, see Taras Kuzio, Ukraine: Perestroika to Independence, 2nd ed. (London 2000), and the views of leading Ukrainian activists in their own words as presented in Roman Solchanyk, ed., Ukraine: From Chernobyl’ to Sover­eignty: A Collection of Interviews (Edmonton 1992) and Leonid Kravchuk, Our Goal - Free Ukraine: Speeches, Interviews, Press-Conferences, Briefings (Kiev 1993).

The ecological and political fallout from the 1986 nuclear disaster at Chorno- byl’ just north form Kiev has been accorded much attention. Among the more important works are three books by David R. Marples: Chernobyl and Nuclear Power in the USSR (Edmonton 1986); The Social Impact of the Chernobyl Disaster (New York 1988); and Ukraine under Perestroika: Ecology, Economics, and the Workers' Revolt (London 1991). Of the several other works on this topic, the best are by Vic­tor Haynes and Marko Bojcun, The ChornobylDisaster (London 1988); Grogorii Medvedev, The Truth About Chernobyl (New York 1991); Zhores Medvedev, The Legacy of Chernobyl (New York 1990); Yuri Scherbak, Chernobyl: A Documentary Story (London 1989); and Paul Read Piers, Ablaze: The Story of Chernobyl (New York

¹⁹⁹³⁾.

The legalization of several church bodies in Gorbachev’s Soviet Union and the problem of ecclesiastical jurisdiction that has arisen in Ukraine both before and after independence, especially among the Orthodox, are discussed in several essays by Serhii Plokhy and Frank Sysyn, Religion and Nation in Modern Ukraine (Edmonton and Toronto 2003), esp. pp. 88-135. On the more general role of religion in independent Ukraine, see Jose Casanova, “Ethno-Linguistic and Reli­gious Pluralism and Democratic Construction in Ukraine,” in Barnett R. Rubin and Jack Snyder, eds., Post-Soviet Political Order: Conflict and State Building (London and New York 1998), pp. 81-103. The enormous increase in the number of Protestant Evangelicals, in particular Baptist and Pentecostals both on the eve of and after independence, is discussed at length in Catherine Wanner, Communities of the Converted: Ukrainians and Global Evangelism (Ithaca and London 2007).

13. Independent Ukraine

The so-called transitional period during the initial years of Ukrainian independ­ence is discussed in several monographs. Among the earliest is an informed theoretical analysis that speculates on the possible evolution of the new state: Alexander J. Motyl, Dilemmas of Independence: Ukraine after Totalitarianism (New York 1993). A more traditional descriptive account of events during the first dec­ade of independent Ukraine is provided by Bohdan Harasymiv, Post-Communist Ukraine (Edmonton and Toronto 2002). Various aspects and challenges faced by the newly sovereign country are dealt with in a series of recent books: Andrew Wilson, Ukrainian Nationalism in the 1990s: A Minority Faith (Cambridge 1997); Theofil Kis, Irena Makaryk et al., eds., Toward a New Ukraine, 3 vols. (Ottawa 1997-2001); Taras Kuzio, Ukraine: State and Nation Building (London and New York 1998); Taras Kuzio, ed., Contemporary Ukraine: Dynamics of Post-Soviet Trans­formation (Armonk, N.Y 1998); Marta Dyczok, Ukraine: Movement without Change, Change without Movement (Amsterdam 2000); Robert S. Kravchuk, Renaissance in Blue and Gold: Ukrainian Politics, Economics and Governance 1991-1996 (Basing­stoke, U.K. 2000); Taras Kuzio, ed., Ulnaint·: A Decade of Independence, special issue of JUS, XXVI, 1-2 (Toronto 2001), pp. 1-324; Kataryna Wolczuk, The Moulding of Ukraine: The Constitutional Politics of State Formation (Budapest 2001); Wsewolod W. Isajiw, ed., Society in Transition: Social Change in Ukraine in Western Perspectives (Toronto 2003); Andrew Wilson, Virtual Politics: Faking Democracy in the Post-Soviet World (New Haven, Conn. 2005); Paul D’Anieri, Understanding Ukrainian Politics: Power, Politics, and Institutional Design (Armonk, N.Y. and London 2007). A useful overview of the period up until the Orange Revolution is Verena Fritz’s, State­Building: A Comparative Study of Ukraine, Lithuania, Belarus, and Russia (Budapest and New York 2007), esp. pp. 109-209.

Particular attention has been given to Ukraine’s economy and its international status. On the economy, see Axel Siedenberg and Lutz Hoffmann, eds., Ukraine. at the Crossroads: Economic Reforms in International Perspective (Heidelberg 1999); King Banaian, The Ukrainian Economy Since Independence (Aldershot, U.K. 1999); Andrew Wilson and Igor Burakovsky, eds., The Ukrainian Economy under Kuchma (London 1996); and Hans von Zon, The Political Economy of Independent Ukraine (London and New York 2000). The country’s international status, its relations with neighboring countries, and its national security are treated in Lubomyr A. Hajda, ed., Ukraine in the World: Studies in the International Relations and Security Structure ofa Newly Independent State, special issue of HUS, XX (Cambridge, Mass. 1996); Sherman W. Ganett, Keystone, in the Arch: Ukraine in the Emerging Security Environment of Central and Eastern Europe (Washington, D.C. 1997); Tor Bukkvol, Ukraine and European Security (London 1997); Yaroslav Bilinsky, Endgame in NATO’s Enlargement: The Baltic States and Ukraine. (Westport, Conn. 1999); Marga­rita M. Balmaceda, ed., On the Edge: Ukrainian - Central European - Russian Security Triangle (Budapest 2000); Roman Solchanyk, Ukraine and Russia: The Post-Soviet Transition (London, Md. 2001); Jennifer D. P. Moroney et al., eds., Ukrainian Foreign and Security Policy: Theoretical and Comparative Perspectives (Westport, Conn. 2002); and Roman Wolczuk, Ukraine's Foreign and Security Policy, 1991-2000 (Lon­don and New York 2003).

As a newly independent country, Ukraine continues to face the challenge of creating in its citizenry an awareness and desire of belonging to a common civic political entity. This process, called nation-building, has focused on issues of lan­guage use, the educational system, and historical ideology. The theoretical and practical aspects of this topic are the subject of essays by various authors in Taras Kuzio and Paul D’Anieri, eds., Dilemmas of State-Led Nation Building in Ukraine (Westport, Conn. and London 2002). The relationship of historical ideology to national identity is the focus of a monograph by Catherine Wanner, Binden of Dreams: History and Identity in Post-Soviet Ukraine (University Park, Pa. 1998); and Kataryna Wolczuk, “History, Europe and the ‘National Idea’: The ‘Official’ Nar­rative of National Identity in Ukraine,” Nationalities Rupees, XXVIII, 4 (New York 2000), pp. 671-694. For a general overview of challenges faced by the historical profession both in post-Communist Ukraine and abroad (mostly North America), see the monograph by Serhii Plokhy, Ukraine and Russia: Representation of the Past (Toronto, Buffalo, and London 2008), esp. chapters 9-16; and articles by Orest Subtelny, “The Current State of Ukrainian Historiography,” Journal of Ukrainian Studies, XVIII, 1-2 (Edmonton 1993), pp. 33-54; by Mark von Hagen, “Does Ukraine Have a History?” with commentaries by George G. Grabowicz, Andreas Kappeler, laroslav Isaievych, Serhii Plokhy, and Yuri Slezkine, Slavic Review, LIV, 3 (Cambridge, Mass. 1995), pp. 658-719; by Taras Kuzio, “Post-Soviet Ukrainian Historiography in Ukraine,” International Textbook Research, XXIII, 1 (Hannover 2001), pp. 27-42; and by Taras Kuzio, “Historiography and National Identity among the Eastern Slavs: Toward a New Framework,” National Identities, III, 2 (Abingdon, U.K. 2001), pp. 109-132. One author has focused on how specific topics - the Great Famine of 1933, the Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists (OUN) and Ukrainian Insurgent Army (UPA), and the Ukrainian-Polish con­flict - are dealt with by post-Communist Ukrainian scholars and publicists as well as some Ukrainianists in the West: David R. Marples, Heroes and Villains: Creating National History in Contemporary Ukraine (Budapest and New York 2007).

Scholars outside Ukraine, mostly political scientists, continue to be fascinated by the manner in which the new state has addressed the question of national identity. See in particular the collection of studies by Taras Kuzio, Theoretical and Comparative Perspectives of Nationalism (Stuttgart 2007), and the articles by Paul Kubicek, “Dynamics of Contemporary Ukrainian Nationalism: Empire Break­ing to State Building,” Canadian Review of Studies in Nationalism (Charlottetown, Prince Edward Is. 1996), pp. 39-50; Paul Kubicek “What Happened to the Nationalists in Ukraine?,” Nationalism and Ethnic Politics, V, 1 (London and Port­land, Ore. 1996), pp. 29-45; Paul Pirie, “National Identity and Politics in South­ern and Eastern Ukraine,” Europe-Asia Studies, XLVIII, 7 (Glasgow 1996), pp. 1079-1104; and Stephen Shulman, “Ukrainian Nation-Building under Kuchma,” Problems of Post-Communism, LII, 5 (Armonk, N.Y., 2005), pp. 32-47. The signifi­cance of the Ukrainian language as a factor of nation-building and identity is giv­en particular attention in German Janmaat, Nation-Building in Post-Soviet Ukraine: Educational Policy and the Response of the Russian Speaking Population (Utrecht and Amsterdam 2000); and in Dominique Arel, “Language Politics in Independent Ukraine: Towards One or Two State Languages?,” Nationalities Papers, XXIII, 3 (New York 1995), pp. 597-622; Dominique Arel, “Interpreting ‘Nationality’ and ‘Language’ in the 2001 Ukrainian Census,” Post-Soviet Affairs, XVIII, 3 (Palm Beach, Fla. 2002), pp. 213-249; and Alexandra Hrycak, “Institutional Legacies and Language Revival in Ukraine,” in Dominique Arel and Blair A. Ruble, eds., Rebounding Identities: The Policies of Identity in Russia and Ukraine (Washington, D.C. and Baltimore 2006), pp. 62-88.

Related to the nationality question is regionalism and the status of peoples other than ethnic Ukrainians. These factors, as potentially disruptive to Ukrain­ian state- and nationality-building, are viewed from the perspective of various regions and groups throughout the country. For a general introduction to the problem, see Dominique Arel, “The Hidden Face of the Orange Revolution: Ukraine in Denial Toward Its Regional Problem,” (www.ukrainianstudies.uottawa. ca), p. 41; and Gwendolyn Sasse, “The ‘New’ Ukraine: A State of Regions,” in Gwendolyn Sasse and James Hughes, eds., Ethnicity and Territory in the Former Soviet Union: Regions in Conflict (London and Portland, Ore. 2002), pp. 69-100. Legal guarantees for national minorities, interethnic relations, and specific recent developments among Poles, Jews, and Crimean Tatars are the subject of several studies in Evgeniy Golovakha, Nataliya Panina, and Valeriy Vorona, eds., Sociology in Ukiaine: Selected Works Published During the 1990s (Kiev 2000).

Although ever decreasing in numerical size, the status and treatment of the Jews is considered by many observers to be an important litmus test for the protection of human rights and democratic values in independent Ukraine. The best study on this topic is Aleksandr Burakovskiy, “The Characteristics and Transformation ofJewish-Ukrainian Relations During the Period of Ukraine’s Independence, 1991-2008,” Nationalism and Ethnic Politics, XV, 1 (London

2009), pp. 109-132. On the numerically larger ethnic Russian and Russian­speaking Ukrainian population of eastern Ukraine, see Paul Kolstoe, Russians in Former Soviet Republics (Bloomington and Indianapolis 1995), esp. pp. 170-199; Jan Bremmer, “The Politics of Ethnicity: Russians in the New Ukraine,” Europe- Asia Studies, XLVI, 2 (Glasgow 1994), pp. 261-284; Andrew Wilson, “The Donbas between Ukraine and Russia: The Use of History in Political Disputes,” Journal of Contemporary History, XX, 2 (London 1995), pp. 265-290; Roman Solchanyk, “Russians in Ukraine: Problems and Prospects,” HUS, XXII (Cambridge, Mass. 1998), pp. 539-554; and Kateryna Stadniuk, “Inter-Ethnic Coexistence and Cultural Autonomy in Ukraine: the Case of the Donetsk Region,” in Christopher Lord and Olga Strietska-Ilina, eds., Parallel Cultures: Majority-Minority Relations in the Countries of the Former Eastern Bloc (Aldershot, U.K. 2001), pp. 209-244.

Two other regions sought to achieve autonomy within Ukraine. The Crimea succeeded in its efforts, and the most comprehensive discussion of those develop­ments following the collapse of the Soviet Union is found in Gwendolyn Sasse, The Crimean Question: Identity, Transition, and Conflict (Cambridge, Mass. 2007), esp. chapters 6-10. The role of the Crimea as a factor in relations between present-day Ukraine and Russia is explored in great detail in Taras Kuzio, Ukraine - Crimea - Russia: Triangle of Conflict (Stuttgart 2007). Other studies related to the political status of the Crimean Autonomous Republic and the separate issue of Crimean Tatars who have returned to their ancestral homeland include: David R. Marples and David F. Duke, “Ukraine, Russia, and the Question of Crimea,” Nationalities Papers, XXIII, 2 (New York 1995), pp. 261-289; Edward A. Allworth, ed., The Tatars of Crimea: Return to the Homeland (Durham, N.C. 1998); Brian G. Williams, The Crimean Tatars (Leiden, Boston, and Koln 2001), esp. chapter 13; and Gwendolyn Sasse, “Conflict-Prevention in a Transition State: The Crimean Issue in Post-Soviet Ukraine,” Nationalism and Ethnic Politics, VIII, 2 (London 2002), pp. 1-26. The 1944 deportation and the important role that the memory of that event has on Crimean Tatars who have returned to their homeland in 1990s is explored in Gretta Lynn Uehling, Beyond Memory: The Crimean Tatars’ Deportation and Return (New York 2004). The second region, Transcarpathia, did not achieve autonomous status. On its Rusyn and Hungarian inhabitants, see Paul Robert Magocsi, Of the Making of Nationalities There, is No End, 2 vols. (New York 1999), and Ildiko Orosz and Istvan Csernicsko, The Hungarians in Transcarpathia (Buda­pest 1999). Yet one more region, Galicia - otherwise considered the fount of Ukrainian nationalism - includes writers and civic activists who have toyed with the idea of separatism, even independence, from the rest of Ukraine: Lidia Ste- fanowska, “Back to the Golden Age: The Discourse of Nostalgia in Galicia in the 1990s,” HUS, XXVII [2004-2005], 1-4 (Cambridge, Mass. 2008), pp. 181-193.

Finally, there is the topic which many observers consider to be the watershed event in the history of independent Ukraine: the controversial presidential elec­tions of 2004 that led to what has become known as the Orange Revolution. The best introduction to this topic is by Andrew Wilson, Ukraine's Orange Revolution (New Haven and London 2005), and Anders Aslund, Revolution in Orange: the Ori­gins of Ukraine's Democratic Breakthrough (Washington, D.C. 2006). Also available is a multivolume collection of articles by several scholars as well as documents and a chronology of events in Paul D’Anieri, Taras Kuzio, Bohdan Harasymiw, Ingmar Bredies et al., eds., Aspects of the Orange Revolution, 6 vols. (Stuttgart 2007).