Notes

Preface

1 Serhii Plokhy and Mary Sarotte, “The Shoals of Ukraine: Where Amer­ican Illusions and Great-Power Politics Collide,” Foreign Affairs 99, no. 1 (January/February 2020): 85-91.

2 See Oxana Shevel, “Memory of the Past and Visions of the Future: Remembering the Soviet Era and Its End in Ukraine,” in Twenty Years after Communism, ed. Michael Bernhard and Jan Kubik (Oxford, 2014), 146-69; Shevel, “The Politics of Memory in a Divided Society: A Comparison of Post-Franco Spain and Post-Soviet Ukraine,” Slavic Review 70, no. 1 (Spring 2011): 137-64.

3 Patricia Herlihy, “What Vladimir Putin Chooses Not to Know about Russian History,” Los Angeles Times, 1 May 2014; Tarik Cyril Amar, “Another Conflict in Ukraine: Differing Versions of History,” Time, 25 February 2015; Andriy Portnov, “On Decommunization, Identity, and Legislating History, from a Slightly Different Angle,” Kyiv Post, 12 May 2015. See also relevant ar­ticles on “The Ukrainian Crisis and History” in the special issue of Kritika 16, no. 1 (Winter 2015) and the discussion of the Ukrainian crisis in the journal Ab Imperio 2014, no. 3.

Quo Vadis Ukrainian History?

Adapted from “Quo Vadis Ukrainian History?” in The Future of the Past: New Perspectives on Ukrainian History, ed. Serhii Plokhy (Cambridge, Mass., 2016), 1-24.

1 Edward Brown, preface to Pierre Chevalier, A Discourse of the Original, Country, Manners, Government and Religion of the Cossacks (London, 1672), fasc. A2-A3.

2 Dmytro Doroshenko, History of the Ukraine (Edmonton, 1939); W.

E. D. Allen, The Ukraine: A History (Cambridge, UK, 1940); Michael Hru- shevsky, A History of Ukraine (New Haven, Conn., 1941).

3 Ivan L. Rudnytsky, “The Role of the Ukraine in Modern History,” Slavic Review 22, no. 2 (June 1963): 199-216, and Rudnytsky, “Reply,” ibid., 256-62; Arthur E. Adams, “The Awakening of the Ukraine,” ibid., 217-23; Omeljan Pritsak and John S.

4 Ivan L. Rudnytsky, “Introduction,” in Rethinking Ukrainian History, ed. Ivan L. Rudnytsky, with the assistance ofJohn-Paul Himka (Edmonton, 1981), viii-x.

5 Roman Szporluk, Ukraine: A Brief History (Detroit, 1982); Orest Subtelny, Ukraine: A History (Toronto, 1988); Paul Robert Magocsi, A History of Ukraine (Toronto, 1996).

6 Mark von Hagen, “Does Ukraine Have a History?” Slavic Review 54, no. 3 (1995): 658-73, here 670, 673.

7 Georgiy Kasianov and Philipp Ther, “Introduction,” in A Laboratory of Transnational History: Ukraine and Recent Ukrainian Historiography, ed. Geor­giy Kasianov and Philipp Ther (Budapest and New York, 2009), 1-4; Andreas Kappeler, “From an Ethno-national to a Multiethnic to a Transnational Ukrainian History,” ibid., 51-80.

8 The papers given at the Munich conference were published in Ukralna na istoriohrafichnii karti mizhvoiennoiIevropy (Kyiv, 2014). For the papers of the Kyiv conference, see Svitlo i tini ukra'ins'koho radians'koho istoriopysannia, ed. Hennadii Boriak et al. (Kyiv, 2015), http://www.history.org.ua/?libid=10376.

9 The Future of the Past: New Perspectives on Ukrainian History (Cambridge, Mass., 2016).

10 Istoriia Ukrains'koiRSR, ed. Iurii Kondufor et al., 8 vols. (Kyiv, 1977-79); Ukraina kriz' viky, ed. Valerii Smolii et al., 13 vols. (Kyiv, 1998-99). Most of the volumes in the latter publication constitute monographic contributions by individual authors.

11 Johann Christian von Engel, Geschichte der Ukraine und der ukrainischen Cosaken, wie auch der Konigreiche Halitsch und Wladimir (Halle, 1796).

12 Larry Wolff, The Idea of Galicia: History and Fantasy in Habsburg Political Culture (Stanford, Calif., 2010).

13 For criticism of Russian interpretations of Ukrainian history by some of the authors of The Future of the Past, see Heorhii Kasianov, Valerii Smolii, and Oleksii Tolochko, Ukratna v rosiis'komu istorychnomu dyskursi:problemy doslidzhennia ta interpretatsi'i(Kyiv, 2013).

Placing Ukraine on the Map of Europe

For background information on the history of Ukraine, this essay draws on the relevant chapters of my book The Gates of Europe: A History of Ukraine (New York, 2015), on which I worked concurrently with producing the original draft of this paper. First published as “Princes and Cossacks: Putting Ukraine on the Map of Europe,” in Seeing Muscovy Anew: Politics, Institutions, Culture: Essays in Honor of Nancy Shields Kollmann, ed. Michael S. Flier, Val­erie Kivelson, Erika Monahan, and Daniel Rowland (Bloomington, Ind., 2017), 323-38.

1 Guillaume Levasseur de Beauplan, A Description of Ukraine, trans. An­drew B. Pernal and Dennis F. Essar (Cambridge, Mass., 1993).

2 See a copy of the 1613 edition of the map in the Stanford University Libraries: MAGNIDVCATVS LITHVANIAE, CAETERARVMQVE RE- GIONVM Illiadiacentivm exacta descriptio. Ill[ustri]ss[i]mi ac Excell[enti]ss[i]mi Pri[n]cipis et D[omi]ni D[omini]Nicolai Christophori Radzi- wil, D[ei] G[ratia] Olicae ac in Nieswies Ducis, S[acri] Rom[ani] Imperii Prin- cipis in Szylowiec ac Mir Comitis et S[ancti] Sepulchri Hierosolimitani Militis etc. opera, cura et impensis facta ac in lucem edita, https://searchworks.stanford. edu/view/10366631; for a 1633 edition of the map, which includes a map of the Dnieper River, see https://searchworks.stanford.edu/view/10366743.

3 On the history of the production of the map, see H. Bartoszewicz, “Geo­deci i kartografowie radziwillowscy,” Geodeta 2001, no. 2: 45-49; Stanislaw Alexandrowicz, “Rola mecenatu magnackiego w rozwoju kartografii ziem Rzeczypospolitej Obojga Narodow w XVI-I polowie XVII wieku,” in Europa Orientalis: Studia z dziejow Europy Wschodniej i Panstw Battyckich (Torun, 2010), 235-54; Stanislaw Alexandrowicz and Anna Treiderowa, “Makowski Tomasz,” in Polski stownik biograficzny 19 (Wroclaw, 1974), 248-49; Jaroslaw Luczynski. “Przestrzen Wielkiego Ksiesiwa Litewskiego na mapie radzi- willowskiej Tomasza Makowskiego z 1613 r.

i opisowej,” Ukraina Lithuanica 2 (2013): 121-52.

4 Stanislaw Alexandrowicz, Rozwoj kartografii Wielkiego Ksigstwa Litews- kiego odXVdopotowy XVIII wieku (Poznan, 1989); “The Radziwill Map of the Duchy of Lithuania,” Cartographia Rappersviliana Polonorum. Muzeum Polski w Rapperswilu, http://mapy.muzeum-polskie.org/articles-about-the- collection/the-radziwi-map-of-lithuania.html (accessed 7 April 2017).

5 On the Union of Lublin, see Robert Frost, The Oxford History of Poland-Lithuania, vol. 1, The Making of the Polish-Lithuanian Union, 1385-1569 (Oxford, 2015).

6 On Ostrozky and his cultural activities, see Vasyl' Ul'ianovs'kyi, Kniaz' VasyThKostiantyn Ostroz'kyl: Istorychnyiportret u halere'i predkiv i nashchadkiv (Kyiv, 2012).

7 For a detailed biography of Radvila, see Tomasz Kempa, Mikotaj Krzysz­tof Radziwitt Sierotka (Warszawa, 2000).

8 “Mikhalon Litvin o nravakh tatar, litovtsev i moskvitian,” trans. Kateryna Mel'nyk, in Memuary otnosiashchiesia k istorii Iuzhnoi Rusi, 8: XVI v. (Kyiv, 1890), 19.

9 On the economic preconditions of steppe colonization in seventeenth­century Ukraine, see chap. 11, “Socio-Economic Developments,” in Paul Rob­ert Magocsi, A History of Ukraine: The Land and Its People, 2nd ed. (Toronto, 2010), 144-58.

10 “Kozacy est genus militum ex honore privatis expulsis laboremq[ue] evitantibus conflatum. Hi armis levibus antea utebantur, unde et Velites dicti sunt, arcubus videlicet frameis, bombardis levioribus: nunc autem tormenta muralia et omne genus, annorum antea illis inusitatum, usui est. Hi itaq[ue] vitam d Porohas sive Cataracta in insulis Borysthenis, sub casis quibusuis tempestatibus expositi, degunt, in obedientia atq[ue] suprema [supremo] exer- cituum Poloniae praefecti continentur. Ducum [Ducem] inter se eligunt, elec- tum facile deponunt, infeliciter autem illi rebus succedentibus nonnunquam trucidant tum vero inopia annonae laborant, clam civitates vicinis invadere

et illis depopulatis praeda onusti reverti Solent, ut Duce Podkowa Tehiniam Moldaviae kosinscio kozlonum.

¿¿ Kronika Polska Marcina Bielskiego, ed. Kazimierz J. Turowski (Sanok, 1856), 3: 1346-58, 1358-61, 1430-35.

12 Mikhalon Litvin, O nravakh tatar, litovtsev i moskvitian (Moskva, 1994), 52-53.

13 On the early history of the Ukrainian Cossacks, see Mykhailo Hru- shevsky, History of Ukraine-Rus', 7: The Cossack Age to 1625, trans. Bohdan Struminski, ed. Frank E. Sysyn and Serhii Plokhy (Edmonton, 1999); Serhii Plokhy, The Cossacks and Religion in Early Modern Ukraine (Oxford, 2001).

14 On Lassota and his diary, see Habsburgs and Zaporozhian Cossacks: The Diary of Erich Lassota von Steblau, 1594, trans. Orest Subtelny, ed. Lubomyr R. Wynar (Littleton, Colo., 1975). On Komulovic and his encounters with Ostrozky and the Cossacks, see Lubomyr R. Wynar, Ukrainian Kozaks and the Vatican in 1654 (New York, 1965). For an English translation of the papal letters to the Cossacks, see Habsburgs and Zaporozhian Cossacks, 120-23.

Russia and Ukraine: Did They Reunite in 1654?

This essay has not been previously published.

1 See Viacheslav Lypyns'kyi, Ukraina naperelomi, 1657-59: Zamitky do istorii ukrains'koho derzhavnoho budivnytstva v XVII-im stolitti (Vienna, 1920), 28-29.

2 On the events of the period and the rise of the cult of Bohdan Khmel­nytsky in the late 1720s, see Serhii Plokhy, Tsars and Cossacks: A Study in Iconography (Cambridge, Mass., 2002), 45-54.

3 See Orest Subtelny, Ukraine: A History (Toronto, 1988), 203.

4 On the interpretation of Russo-Ukrainian relations in Russian impe­rial historiography, see Stephen Velychenko, National History as Cultural Process: A Survey of the Interpretations of Ukraine’s Past in Polish, Russian, and Ukrainian Historical Writingfrom the Earliest Times to 1914 (Edmonton, 1992), 79-140.

5 On Hrushevskys “deconstruction” of the Russian imperial narrative, see my Unmaking Imperial Russia: Mykhailo Hrushevsky and the Writing of Ukrainian History (Toronto, 2005).

6 On the interpretation of Russo-Ukrainian relations in Soviet historiog­raphy of the 1940s and 1950s, see Serhy Yekelchyk, Stalin’s Empire of Memory: Russian-Ukrainian Relations in the Soviet Historical Imagination (Toronto, 2004).

7 On the treatment of the Pereiaslav Agreement in Soviet historiography in connection with the 1954 celebrations of the “reunification of Ukraine with Russia,” see John Basarab, Pereiaslav 1654: A Historiographical Study (Edmon­ton, 1982), 179-87, and the introduction to the book by Ivan L. Rudnytsky, “Pereiaslav: History and Myth,” xi-xxiii. For an English translation of the “Theses,” see ibid., 270-87.

8 See, for example, Henadz' Sahanovich, Neviadomaia vaina, 1654-67 (Minsk, 1995). On the treatment of the term “reunification” in contemporary Russian and Ukrainian historiography, see my article “The Ghosts of Pere- iaslav: Russo-Ukrainian Historical Debates in the Post-Soviet Era,” Europe- Asia Studies 53, no. 3 (2001): 489-505.

9 See Akiy, Otnosiashchiesia k istorii Zapadnoi Rossii (Sankt-Peterburg, 1854), 4^: 47^-49.

10 See P. N. Zhukovich, “Protestatsiia mitropolita Iova Boretskogo i drugikh Zapadnorusskikh ierarkhov, sostavlennaia 28 aprelia 1621 goda,” in Stat'i po slavianovedeniiu, ed. V. I. Lamanskii (Sankt-Peterburg, 1910), vyp. 3: 135-53, here 143. Cf. Plokhy, The Cossacks and Religion, 291.

¿¿ See “Hustyns'kyi litopys,” in Ukra'ins'ka Iiteratura XVIIstolittia (Kyiv, 1987), 146-66, here 147.

12 For the text of the letter, see Vossoedinenie Ukrainy s Rossiei: Dokumenty

i materialy v trekh tomakh (Moskva, 1954), 1: 46-48. Cf. Plokhy, The Cossacks and Religion, 289-90.

13 See letters from Kopynsky to Filaret (December 1622) and Filaret’s letter to Boretsky (April 1630) in Vossoedinenie Ukrainy s Rossiei, 1: 27-28, 81. On the negotiations of 1632, see Sergei Solov'ev, Istoriia Rossii s drevneishikh vremen (Moskva, 1961), 5: 176.

14 On the origins of the “Ukase” and its impact on Muscovite religious poli­cy, see Tat'iana Oparina, “Ukrainskie kazaki v Rossii: edinovertsy ili inovert- sy? (Mikita Markushevskii protiv Leontiia Pleshcheeva),” Sotsium 3 (2003): 21-44, here 32-33. Cf. Oparina, Ivan Nasedka ipolemicheskoe bogoslovie kievskoi mitropolii (Novosibirsk, 1998), 60-65.

15 For a detailed discussion of the rebaptism of Ukrainian Cossacks in Muscovy, see Oparina, “Ukrainskie kazaki v Rossii,” 34-44.

16 On the legal nature of the Pereiaslav Agreement, see the articles by Mykhailo Hrushevs'kyi, Andrii Iakovliv, and Oleksander Ohloblyn in Pereiaslavs'ka Rada 1654 roku (istoriohrafiia ta doslidzhennia) (Kyiv, 2003). For recent debates on the issue, see my article “The Ghosts of Pereiaslav: Russo- Ukrainian Historical Debates in the Post-Soviet Era,” Europe-Asia Studies 53, no. 3 (May 2001): 489-505.

17 See Vossoedinenie Ukrainy s Rossiei, 3: 189.

18 See the ambassadorial report of Ivan Fomin, the Muscovite emissary to Khmelnytsky, on his discussions with the hetman in August 1653 (Vossoedine- nie Ukrainy s Rossiei, 3: 357).

19 See the report on Ivan Iskra’s embassy to Muscovy in the spring of 1653 in Vossoedinenie Ukrainy s Rossiei, 3: 209.

20 For a survey of developments in the Muscovite church in the mid-sev­enteenth century, see Paul Bushkovitch, Religion and Society in Russia: The Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries (New York and Oxford, 1992), 51-73, 128-49. On the publication of Kyivan books in Moscow, see Oparina, Ivan Nasedka, 245-86.

21 On the course of the negotiations of 1653, which took place in Lviv and involved a Muscovite embassy headed by Boris Repnin-Obolensky, see Hru- shevs'kyi, Istoriia Ukralny-Rusy (New York, 1958) 9, pt. 2: 619-41.

22 See the decisions of the Assembly of the Land in Vossoedinenie Ukrainy s Rossiei, 3: 414.

23 For the texts of the speeches, see the report of Buturlin’s embassy in Vossoedinenie Ukrainy s Rosiiei, 3: 423-89. Cf. Plokhy, The Cossacks and Religion, 318-25.

24 See Khmelnytsky’s letter dated 29 July (8 August) 1648 in Dokumenty Bohdana Khmel'nyts'koho (1648-1657), comp. Ivan Kryp’iakevych (Kyiv, 1961), 65.

25 There was also no attempt to play on the theme of ethnic affinity in Khmelnytsky’s letter of 29 September (9 October) 1649 to the voevoda Fedor Arseniev, in which the hetman complained about attacks on “the Orthodox Rus' and our faith” (ibid., 143). Khmelnytsky’s use of the formula “sovereign of all Rus'” in his letters to the tsar seems to have been fairly insignificant, given that in his letters to Muscovite correspondents (including the missive to Arseniev) the hetman also used the full title ofJohn Casimir, which included a reference to the king as “Prince of Rus'.”

26 See Khmelnytsky’s letters in Dokumenty Bohdana Khmel'nyts'koho, 286, 298, 316.

27 On the tsar’s new title, see Mykhailo Hrushevs'kyi, “Velyka, Mala i Bila Rus',” Ukralna 1917, nos. 1-2: 7-19; A. V. Solov'ev, “Velikaia, Malaia i Belaia Rus',” Voprosy istorii 1947, no. 7: 24-38.

28 See Plokhy, The Cossacks and Religion, 326.

29 See Khmelnytsky’s petition of 17 (27) February 1654 to the tsar in Doku- menty Bohdana Khmel'nyts'koho, 323.

30 See Khmelnytsky’s letter of 19 (29) July 1654 to the tsar in Dokumenty Bohdana Khmel'nyts'koho, 373.

31 See the description of the disagreement over the oath in Buturlin’s am­bassadorial report (Vossoedinenie Ukrainy s Rossiei, 3: 464-66).

32 Andreas Kappeler, The Russian Empire: A Multiethnic History (Harlow, 2001), 52.

33 Quoted in Oparina, Ivan Nasedka, 342.

Hadiach 1658: The Origins of a Myth

This essay draws on two of my earlier articles: “Hadjac 1658: The Origins of a Myth,” in Nel mondo degli Slavi. Incontri e dialoghi tra culture: Studi in onore di Giovanna Brogi Bercoff, ed. Maria Giovanna Di Salvo, Giovanna Moracci, and Giovanna Siedina (Florence, 2008), 449-58, and “Reconstructive Forgery: The Hadiach Agreement (1658) in the History of the Rus',” Journal of Ukrainian Studies, nos. 35-36 (2010-2011) [2013]: 37-49.

³ On the Union of Hadiach, see Vasyl' Herasymchuk, “Vyhovshchyna

1 hadiats'kyi traktat,” Zapysky Naukovoho tovarystva im. Shevchenka 87 (1909): 5-36; 88 (1909): 23-50; 89 (1909): 46-91; Mykola Stadnyk, “Hadiats'ka uniia,” Zapysky Ukra'ins'koho naukovoho tovarystva u Kyievi 7 (1910): 65-85; 8 (1911): 5-39; Waclaw Lipinski (Viacheslav Lypyns'kyi), Z dziejow Ukrainy (Kyiv and Krakow, 1912), 588-617; Mykhailo Hrushevs'kyi, Istoriia Ukrainy-Rusy (New York, 1958), 10: 288-359; Wladyslaw Tomkiewicz, “Ugoda hadziacka,” Sprawy narodowosciowe 11, nos. 1-2 (1937): 14-21; Stanislaw Kot,Jerzy Niemirycz, w 300--lecie Ugody Hadziackiej (Paris, 1960); Andrzej Kaminski, “The Cossack Experiment in Szlachta Democracy in the Polish-Lithuanian Common­wealth: The Hadiach (Hadziacz) Union,” Harvard Ukrainian Studies 1, no. 2 (June 1977): 178-97, here 195-97; Janusz Kaczmarczyk, “Hadziacz 1658: Kolejna ugoda czy nowa unia,” Warszawskie Zeszyty Ukrainistyczne 2 (1994): 35-42;

A. Mironowicz, Prawostawie i unia zapanowania Jana Kazimierza (Bialystok, 1997), 149-89; Tetiana Iakovleva, Hefmanshchyna v druhiipolovyni50-kh rokiv XVIIstolittia: Prychyny tapochatok Rutny (Kyiv, 1998), 305-23.

2 On the negative aspects of the Hadiach Agreement, see Stefania Ochmann- Staniszewska and Zdzislaw Staniszewski, Sejm Rzeczypospolitej za panowania Jana Kazimierza Wazy:prawo, doktryna,praktyka (Wroclaw, 2000), 1: 315-18. Cf. Serhii Plokhy, The Cossacks and Religion in Early Modern Ukraine (Oxford, 2001), 62-64.

3 See Lipinski, Z dziejow Ukrainy, 595-98; Hrushevs'kyi, Istoriia Ukrainy- Rusy, 10: 352-57.

4 Ivan Franko, “Poza mezhamy mozhlyvoho,” http://franko.lviv.ua/facnlty/ Phil/Franko/Poza_mezhamy.pdf.

5 See Andrzej Kaminski, Historia Rzeczypospolitej Wielu Narodow, 1505-1795 (Lublin, 2000), 134-35. For a survey of the ideas that informed traditional Pol­ish historiography, see Hrushevs'kyi, Istoriia Ukrainy-Rusy, 10: 354-55. On the approaches dominant in modern Polish historiography, see A. B. Pernal, “The Union of Hadiach (1658) in the Light of Modern Polish Historiography,” in Millennium of Christianity in Ukraine, 988-1988 (Winnipeg, 1989), 177-92.

6 Nataliia Iakovenko, Narys istorii Ukrainy z naidavnishykh chasiv do kintsia XVIIIStolittia (Kyiv, 1997), 212. Cf. Iakovenko, Narys istorilseredn'ovichnoita rann'omodernol Ukrainy (Kyiv, 2005), 373-74.

7 Direct references to the Hadiach articles are to be found, for example, in the instructions of Hetman Petro Doroshenko to his representatives at the Ostrih Commission (1670), as well as in the instructions to Polish delegates to the commission. See Tysiacha rokiv ukrains'koi suspil'no-politychnoi dumky u dev’iaty tomakh, vol. 3, bk. 2 (Kyiv, 2001), 56, 63, 67.

8 See Litopys samovydtsia, ed. Iaroslav Dzyra (Kyiv, 1971), 81. Cf. the two distinct versions of the Hadiach Agreement in Hrushevs'kyi, Istoriia Ukrainy-Rusy, 10: 334-43. Although the final text of the agreement contains no reference to the Diet, such a provision appears in Wespazjan Kochowskis account of it. See Iakovleva, Hedmanshchyna v druhiipolovyni 50--kh rokiv XVIIstolittia, 433.

9 See Litopys samovydtsia, 76.

10 Samuel Twardowski, Wojna Domowa z Kozaki i Tatary, Moskwq, potem Szwedami i z Wgry Przez lat Dwanascie (Kalisz, 1681).

¿¿ Ibid., 262-65.

12 See Samiila Velychka Skazaniie o voini kozatskoi zpoliakamy (Kyiv, 1926), 166,184-86.

13 On the time of writing of the chronicle, its author and his sources, see Yuri Lutsenko’s introduction to Hryhorij Hrabjanka’s “The Great War of Bohdan Xmel'nyc'kyj” (Cambridge, Mass., 1990), xv-xliv. Cf. Serhii Plokhy, The Origins of the Slavic Nations: Premodern Identities in Russia, Ukraine and Belarus (Cambridge, 2006), 343-45.

14 See Hryhorij Hrabjanka’s “The Great War of Bohdan Xmel'nyc'kyj, ” 378.

15 Ibid., 379-81.

16 See [Wespazjan Kochowski], Annalium Poloniae ab obitu Vladislai IV: Climacter primus (Krakow, 1683). For a nineteenth-century Polish translation of Kochowski’s work, see HistoriapanowaniaJana Kazimierza z Klimakterow, 3 vols. (Poznan, 1859), 1: 363-65.

17 See Hryhorij Hrabjanka’s “The Great War of Bohdan Xmel'nyc'kyj, ” 379-80.

18 See Litopys samovydtsia, 80-81; Twardowski, Wojna Domowa, 262-63.

19 See Serhii Plokhy, Tsars and Cossacks: A Study in Iconography (Cambridge, Mass., 2002), 45-54; cf Plokhy, The Origins of the Slavic Nations, 348-50.

20 See Hryhorij Hrabjanka’s “The Great War of Bohdan Xmel'nyc'kyj, ” 378-81.

21 On the popularity of Hrabianka’s chronicle and the Brief Description of Little Russia, see Elena Apanovich, Rukopisnaia svetskaia kniga XVIII veka na Ukraine: istoricheskie sborniki (Kyiv, 1983), 137-201; Andrii Bovhyria, “‘Korotkyi opys MalorosiT (1340-1734) u rukopysnykh spyskakh XVIII st.,” Istoriohrafich- ni doslidzhennia v Ukraini, vyp. 14 (Kyiv, 2004), 340-63.

The Return of Ivan Mazepa

This essay draws on two of my earlier articles, “Reconstructive Forgery: The Hadiach Agreement (1658) in the History of the Rus'," Journal of Ukrainian Studies, nos. 35-36 (2010-2011) [2013]: 37-49, and “Forbidden Love: Ivan Ma­zepa and the Author of the History of the Rudp in Poltava 1709: The Battle and the Myth, ed. Serhii Plokhy (Cambridge, Mass., 2012), 553-68.

1 I refer here to the broad definition of myth employed by George Schopf- lin in his article “The Functions of Myth and a Taxonomy of Myths,” in Myths and Nationhood, ed. Geoffrey Hosking and George Schopflin (London, ^l997)> ¹9^-35.

2 On the anathematization of Mazepa, see Nadieszda Kizenko, “The Battle of Poltava in Imperial Liturgy,” in Poltava 1709: The Battle and the Myth, 227-70.

3 A. I. Martos, “Zapiski inzhenernogo ofitsera Martosa o Turetskoi voine v tsarstvovanie Aleksandra Pavlovicha,” Russkii arkhiv, no. 7 (1893): 345.

On Oleksii Martos, see Volodymyr Kravchenko, Narysy z istorii ukrains'koi istoriohrafiiepokhy natsional'noho Vidrodzhennia (druhapolovyna XVIII-sere- dyna XIXst.) (Kharkiv, 1996), 91-98. On Ivan Martos, see I. M. Gofman, Ivan Petrovich Martos (Leningrad, 1970).

4 Diary of Mikhail Pogodin, Russian State Library, Manuscript Division, fond 231, vol. 1, fols. 188v-189r. Cf. Nikolai Barsukov, Zhizn' i trudy M. P Pogo­dina, vol. 1 (Sankt-Peterburg, 1888), 153.

5 Diary of Mikhail Pogodin, vol. 1, fols. 188v-189r. Cf. Barsukov, Zhizn'

i trudy, 1: 153; Oleksander Ohloblyn, Liudy staroi Ukrainy (Munich, 1959), 155-57; “Pamiatnoe delo,” Osnova (July 1861): 41-74, here 52-53.

6 Istoriia Rusov ili Maloi Rossii: Sochinenie Georgiia Koniskogo, arkhiepisko- pa Belorusskogo (Moskva, 1846); Volodymyr Sverbyhuz, Starosvits'kepanstvo (Warsaw, 1999), 122-24; I. F∙ Pavlovskii, Poltavtsy: ierarkhi, gosudarstvennye

i obshchestvennye deiateli i blagotvoriteli (Poltava, 1914), 38-45.

7 See Mykhailo Vozniak, Psevdo-Konys'kyi ipsevdo-Poletyka (“Istoriia Rusov" u literaturi i nautsi) (L'viv; Kyiv, 1939), 5-7; O. P. Ohloblyn, Dopytannia pro avtora “IstoriiRusiv" (Kyiv, 1998); Kravchenko, Narysy, 87, 101-57; Serhii Plokhy, Ukraine and Russia: Representations of the Past (Toronto, 2008), 49-65.

8 Istoriia Rusov, 200.

9 Voltaire, History of Charles the Twelfth, King of Sweden (New York, 1858), 127-28; Istoriia Rusov, 200.

10 Istoriia Rusov, 209.

¿¿ Ibid., 203-5.

12 Persha konstytutsiia Ukrainy het'mana Pylypa Orlyka, 1710 rik (Kyiv, 1994), iii-vii; see Orlyks letter to Metropolitan Iavorsky in Osnova, no. 10 (October 1862): 1-28; Orest Subtelny, The Mazepists: Ukrainian Separatism in the Early Eighteenth Century (Boulder, Colo., 1981), 190.

13 “Kratkoe istoricheskoe opisanie o Maloi Rossii do 1765,” Chteniia v Ob- shchestve istorii i drevnostei rossiiskikh, no. 6 (1848): 37.

14 Istoriia Rusov, 209-10.

15 Ibid., 210.

16 Kravchenko, Narysy, 151, 154.

17 Istoriia Rusov, 214.

18 Ibid., 206-7.

19 Semen Divovych, “Razgovor Velikorossii s Malorossieiu,” in Ukrains'ka literaturaXVIIIstolittia (Kyiv, 1983), 398.

20 Istoriia Rusov, 208-9.

21 Ibid., 212-13.

22 Ibid., 215.

23 Kravchenko, Narysy, 97.

24 Istoriia Rusov, 211-12.

How Russian Was the Russian Revolution?

This essay first appeared as a discussion piece in a forum entitled “The Geopolitical Legacy of the Russian Revolution,” Geopolitics 22, no. 3 (2017): 665-92.

1 Nicholas P. Vakar, Belorussia: The Making of a Nation. A Case Study (Cam­bridge, Mass., 1956), 103.

2 V. I. Lenin, Polnoe sobranie sochinenii (Moskva, 1969), 39: 335.

3 V. I. Lenin, Polnoe sobranie sochinenii (Moskva, 1969), 45: 361.

Killing by Hunger

This is the original version of an article published with some revisions as “Killing by Hunger,” a review of Anne Applebaum, Red Famine: Sta­lin’s War on Ukraine (New York, 2017), in the New York Review of Books 65, no. 13 (16 August 2018), https://www.nybooks.com/articles/2018/08/16/ stalin-ukraine-killing-by-hunger/. All quotations in this review are cited from the book.

Mapping the Great Famine

First published under the same title in The Future of the Past: New Perspectives on Ukrainian History (=Harvard Ukrainian Studies 43, nos. 1-4 (2015-2016): 385-43°).

1 “Z shchodennyka vchytel'ky O. Radchenko,” in Holodomor 1932-1933 rokiv v Ukralni: Dokumenty i materialy, ed. Ruslan Pyrih (Kyiv, 2007), 1012-25.

2 For the variety of approaches to the study of the Holodomor, see S. Mak­sudov, “Losses Suffered by the Population of the USSR, 1918-1958,” in The Samizdat Register II, ed. R. Medvedev (London and New York, 1981); Robert Conquest, The Harvest of Sorrow: Soviet Collectivization and the Terror­Famine (New York and Edmonton, 1986); Mark B. Tauger, “The 1932 Harvest and the Famine of 1933,” Slavic Review 50, no. 1 (1991): 70-89; Andrea Grazi- osi, The Great Soviet Peasant War: Bolsheviks and Peasants, 1918-1934 (Cam­bridge, Mass., 1996); Terry Martin, The Affirmative Action Empire: Nations and Nationalism in the Soviet Union, 1923-1939 (Ithaca, N.Y., 2001); Koman- dyry velykoho holodu: Polzdky V. Molotova i L. Kahanovycha v Ukrainu ta na Pivnichnyi Kavkaz, 1932-1933 rr., ed. Valerii Vasyl'iev and Iurii Shapoval (Kyiv, 2001); J. Vallin, F. Mesle, S. Adamets, and S. Pyrozhkov, “A New Estimate of Ukrainian Population Losses during the Crisis of the 1930s and 1940s,” Population Studies 56, no. 3 (November 2002); Mark Tauger, Natural Disasters and Human Actions in the Soviet Famine of 1931-1933, The Carl Beck Papers in Russian & East European Studies (Pittsburgh, 2001); Stanislav Kul'chyts'kyi, Demohrafichni naslidky Holodomoru 1933 r. v Ukraini (Kyiv, 2003); Stephen Wheatcroft, “Towards Explaining the Soviet Famine of 1931-3: Political and Natural Factors in Perspective,” Food and Foodways 12, nos. 2-3 (2004): 107-36; R. W. Davies and Stephen G. Wheatcroft, The Years of Hunger: Soviet Agriculture, 1931-33 (Basingstoke, 2004); Michael Ellman, “The Role of Leadership Perceptions and of Intent in the Soviet Famine of 1931­1934,” Europe-Asia Studies 57, no. 6 (September 2005): 823-41; Roman Serbyn, “The Ukrainian Famine of 1932-33 as Genocide in the Light of the UN Convention of 1948,” Ukrainian Quarterly 62, no. 2 (2006): 181-94; Hunger by Design: The Great Ukrainian Famine and Its Soviet Context, ed. Halyna Hryn (Cambridge, Mass., 2008); Hiroaki Kuromiya, “The Soviet Famine of 1932-33 Reconsidered,” Europe-Asia Studies 60, no. 4 (2008): 663-75; V. V. Kon- drashin, Golod 1932-33 godov: Tragediia rossiiskoi derevni (Moskva, 2008);

N. A. Ivnitskii, Golod 1932-33 godov v SSSR: Ukraina, Kazakhstan, PovolzThe, Tsentral'no- Chernozemnaia oblast', Zapadnaia Sibir', Ural (Moskva, 2009); Timothy Snyder, Bloodlands: Europe between Hitler and Stalin (New York, 2010); Norman Naimark, Stalin’s Genocides (Princeton, N.J., 2010); Stanislav Kul'chitskii [Stanyslav Kul'chyts'kyi], “Ukrainskii Golodomor kak genotsid,” in Sovremennaia rossiisko-ukrainskaia Thtoriografiia goloda 1932-33 gg v SSSR, ed. V. V. Kondrashin (Moskva, 2011), 217-316. For a historiographic overview of recent discussions on the Holodomor, see Liudmyla Grynevych [Hry- nevych], “The Present State of Ukrainian Historiography on the Holodomor and Prospects for Its Development,” The Harriman Review 16, no. 2 (2008): 10-20; Heorhii Kas'ianov, Danse Macabre: Holod 1932-33 rokiv upolitytsi, masovii svidomosti ta Thtoriohrafii (1980-ti-pochatok 2000-kh) (Kyiv, 2010).

3 On the Digital Atlas of the Holodomor as a collaborative project, see Hennadii Boriak and Rostyslav Sossa, “GIS-Atlas Holodomoru v Ukraini 1932-33 rr.,” in Natsional'ne kartohrafuvannia: stan,problemy taperspektyvy rozvytku, vyp. 5 (Kyiv, 2012), 30-34. Joseph Livesey (University of New York) collected and systematized data on government policies; Heorhii Papakin (Institute of History, Kyiv) collected and systematized data on blacklisted communities; Hennadii Iefimenko (Institute of History, Kyiv) collected and systematized data on collectivization in Ukraine; and Tetiana Boriak (Nation­al Academy of Cadres in Culture and Arts, Kyiv) systematized data based on the testimonies of famine survivors. The map of the 1928 famine is based on data collected by Liudmyla Hrynevych (Institute of History, Kyiv). Hennadii Boriak (Institute of History, Kyiv) provided intellectual leadership for the research projects conducted in Ukraine in conjunction with the Digital Atlas of Ukraine project, and Alexander Babyonyshev (Sergei Maksudov), an asso­ciate of the Davis Center at Harvard, provided consultations for our project on more than one occasion. Research on the project has been supported by the Ukrainian Research Institute at Harvard University and the Ukrainian Studies Fund.

4 Holodomor 1932-1933 rokiv v Ukraini: Dokumenty i materialy, ed. Ruslan Pyrih [Cited henceforth as Holodomor].

5 On the steppe areas of Ukraine, see V. Dokuchaev, Nashi stepiprezhde

i teper' (Sankt-Peterburg, 1892); A. Izmail'skii, Kak vysokhla nasha step' (Pol­tava, 1893); V. Pashchenko, “Stepnaia zona,” in Priroda Ukrainskoi SSR: Land- shafty (Kyiv, 1985); Priroda Ukrainskoi SSR: Landshafty i fizikogeograficheskoe raionirovanie, ed. A. M. Marinich, V. M. Pashchenko, and P. G. Shishchenko (Kyiv, 1985).

6 The maps discussed here are available online at the HURI Mapa website: Map 1: Famines of the 1920s, Map 2, https://gis.huri.harvard.edu/media-gal- lery/detail/1382387/1085949.

Map 2: Famines of the 1920s, Map 3, https://gis.huri.harvard.edu/media-gal- lery/detail/1382387/1085950.

Map 3: Demography, Population Losses, Map 1, https://gis.huri.harvard.edu/ media-gallery/detail/1381000/1082125.

Map 4: Demography, Population Losses, Map 2, https://gis.huri.harvard.edu/ media-gallery/detail/1381000/1082128.

Map 5: Demography, Population Losses, Map 3, https://gis.huri.harvard.edu/ media-gallery/detail/1381000/1082131.

Map 6: Demography, Population Losses, Map 4, https://gis.huri.harvard.edu/ media-gallery/detail/1381000/1082132.

Map 7: Government Policy, Collectivization, Map 1, https://gis.huri.harvard. edu/media-gallery/detail/1383000/1084434.

Map 8: Ecology and Agriculture, Map 1, https://gis.huri.harvard.edu/me- dia-gallery/detail/1381978/1083803. The source for the map is Volodymyr Kubiiovych, Atlias Ukrainy i sumizhnykh kra'iv (Lviv, 1937), no. 4, xii.

Map 9: Ecology and Agriculture, Map 2, https://gis.huri.harvard.edu/me- dia-gallery/detail/1381978/1083804.

Map 10: Ecology and Agriculture, Map 3, https://gis.huri.harvard.edu/me- dia-gallery/detail/1381978/1083806.

Map 11: Government Policy, Blacklisted Localities, Map 1, https://gis.huri. harvard.edu/media-gallery/detail/1382384/1085780.

Map 12: Government Policy, Procurement and Grain Loans, Map 3, https:// gis.huri.harvard.edu/media-gallery/detail/1382386/1088169.

7 On famines in Ukraine in the twentieth century, see O. M. Veselova et al., Holodomory v Ukraini 1921-23,1932-33,1946-47: Zlochynyproty naro-

du (Kyiv and New York, 2002); Liudmyla Hrynevych, Khronika kolektyvizatsii ta Holodomoru v Ukraini, vol. 1, bk. 2: Pochatok nadzvychainykh zakhodiv: Holod 1928-1929 rokiv (Kyiv, 2012).

8 O. Rudnytsky, N. Levchuk, O. Wolowyna, and P. Shevchuk, “1932­

33 Famine Losses in Ukraine within the Context of the Soviet Union,” in Famines in European Economic History: The Last Great European Famines Reconsidered, ed. D. Curran, L. Luciuk, and A. Newby (Abingdon, 2015).

9 See Steven Uitkroft [Stephen G. Wheatcroft], “Pokazateli demografi- cheskogo krizisa v period goloda v SSSR,” 89-90, online at http://rusarchives. ru/publication/wheatcroft-pokazateli-demografy-crizis-golod-sssr/; cf.

FamineWeb—Comparative History of Famines, Map Gallery, http://www. famine.unimelb.edu.au/ussr33bd/ukraine33d.php.

10 “Iz informatsionnoi svodki no. 52 Kolkhoztsentra o khode kollektiv- izatsii v zernovykh raionakh v kontse sentiabria-nachale oktiabria 1930 g.

18 oktiabria 1930 g.” in Tragediia sovetskoi derevni: Kollektivizatsiia i rasku- Iachivanie: Dokumenty i materialy, vol. 2, Noiabr' 1929-dekabr' 1930 (Moskva, 2000), 670-76; “Povidomlennia informatsiinoi hrupy Narkomzemu USRR pro khid sutsil'noi kolektyvizatsii i stavlennia do riznykh verstv selianstva, 17 bereznia 1931 r.,” in Kolektyvizatsiia i holod na Ukralni: 1929-1933: Zbirnyk do- kumentiv i materialiv, comp. H. M. Mykhailychenko and Ie. P. Shatalina (Kyiv, 1992), no. 139. Between 1925 and 1930 the division of Ukraine into zones was changed more than once, but steppe areas were always treated as a separate zone or set of zones.

¿¿ “O tempe kollektivizatsii i merakh pomoshchi gosudarstva kolkhoznomu stroitel'stvu, Postanovlenie TsK VKP(b), 5 ianvaria 1930 g.,” in KPSS v rezoliut- siiakh i resheniiakh s"ezdov, konferentsii iplenumov TsKy (Moskva, 1984), 72-75; “Direktivy Politbiuro TsK VKP(b) po kontrol'nym tsifram na 1930/31 g. o programme rekonstruktsii sel'skogo khoziaistva, 25 iiulia 1930 g.,” in Tragediia sovetskoi derevni, 2: 548.

12 “Postanova TsK VKP(b) pro traktory dlia Ukrainy,” in Holodomor, 95; “Lyst sekretaria TsK KP(b)U S. Kosiora do sekretaria TsK VKP(b) I. Stalina,” 26 April 1932, in Holodomor, 127-30.

13 “Lyst sekretaria TsK KP(b)U S. Kosiora do sekretaria TsK VKP(b) I. Sta­lina,” 26 April 1932, in Holodomor, 127-30.

14 “Lyst V. Chubaria do V. Molotova ta I. Stalina,” 10 April 1932, in Ho­lodomor, 201.

15 “Lyst sekretaria Kyivs'koho obkomu partii M. Demchenka do S. Kosi- ora,” 6 April 1932, in Holodomor, 115; “Zi shchodennyka partiinoho slidchoho Kyivs'koi kontrol'noi komisii D. Zavoloky,” in Holodomor, 1005.

16 “Lyst upovnovazhenoho TsK KP(b)U A. Richyts'koho do S. Kosiora,”

20 May 1932, in Holodomor, 166-67; “Lyst V. Chubaria do V. Molotova ta

I. Stalina,” 10 June 1932, in Holodomor, 201.

17 “Postanova Politbiuro TsK KP(b)U,” 17 May 1932, in Holodomor, 161; “Lyst H. Petrovs'koho do V. Molotova ta I. Stalina,” 10 June 1932, in Holodomor, 198; “Dopovidna zapyska Kharkivs'koho obkomu partii TsK KP(b)U,” June 1932, in Holodomor, 221-24.

18 “Postanova TsK KP(b)U pro dodatkovu prodovol'chu dopomohu,”

21 June 1932, in Holodomor, 213-14.

19 “Vytiah iz lysta I. Stalina do L. Kahanovycha,” 15 June 1932, in Holodomor, 206.

20 “Vytiah iz lysta L. Kahanovycha do I. Stalina,” 16 June 1932, in Holodomor, 207-8. On the policies and politics of famine relief, which often came in the form of loans to be repaid with interest the following year, see Tetiana Boriak, “Prodovol'cha dopomoha Kremlia iak instrument Holodomoru v Ukraini,” in Zlochyny totalitarnykh rezhymiv v Ukralni: naukovyi ta osvitniipohliad (Kyiv, 2012), 1-33.

21 “Lyst sekretaria Kyivs'koho obkomu partii M. Demchenka do S. Kosi- ora,” 6 April 1932, in Holodomor, 115; “Zi shchodennyka partiinoho slidchoho Kyivs'koi kontrol'noi komisii D. Zavoloky,” in Holodomor, 1005.

22 “Zi shchodennyka partiinoho slidchoho Kyivs'koi kontrol'noi komisii

D. Zavoloky,” in Holodomor, 1006-8.

23 “Postanova Politbiuro TsK KP(b)U,” 5 May 1932, in Holodomor, 149; “Lyst V. Kuibysheva do V. Chubaria,” 10 May 1932, in Holodomor, 154-55; “Telehrama sekretaria TsK VKP(b) I. Stalina do sekretaria TsK KP(b)U

S. Kosiora i holovy RNK USRR V. Chubaria,” 29 May 1932, in Holodomor, 191.

24 “Postanova RNK SRSR i TsK VKP(b) ‘Pro plan khlibozahotivel' z urozhaiu 1932 roku...,’” 6 May 1932, in Holodomor, 150.

25 “Lyst V. Molotova i L. Kahanovycha do I. Stalina,” 6 July 1932, in Ho­lodomor, 231; “Postanova TsK VKP(b) pro orhanizatsiiu khlibozahotivel' u 1932 rotsi,” in Holodomor, 236; “Lyst TsK KP(b)U i RNK USRR do TsK VKP(b)

iz prokhanniam perehlianuty rozbyvku khlibozahotivel' po sektorakh dlia Ukrainy,” in Holodomor, 255-56.

26 “Postanova Politbiuro TsK VKP(b) pro plan khlibozahotivel' v Ukraini z urozhaiu 1932 roku,” in Holodomor, 260.

27 “Lyst L. Kahanovycha ta V. Kuibysheva do I. Stalina ta V. Molotova,”

24 August 1932, in Holodomor, 298; “Postanova Politbiuro TsK VKP(b) pro plan khlibozahotivel' v USRR,” 28 August 1932, in Holodomor, 303-4.

28 “Plan khlibozahotivel' po USRR na 1932 rik,” in Holodomor, 242; “Posta­nova Politbiuro TsK KP(b)U,” 30 October 1932, in Holodomor, 356.

29 “Telehrama M. Khataievycha do S. Kosiora, V. Molotova, V. Chubaria,”

4 November 1932, in Holodomor, 367.

30 “Dyrektyva TsK VKP(b) obkomam, kraikomam ta TsK kompartii soiu- znykh respublik,” 2 January 1933, in Holodomor, 571-72.

31 “Postanova TsK KP(b)U pro zmenshennia obsiahiv khlibozdachi,” in Ho­lodomor, 601-2.

32 “Z shchodennyka vchytel'ky O. Radchenko,” in Holodomor, 1018-19.

33 “Analiz tsyfrovykh danykh pro operatyvnu robotu orhaniv DPU USRR,” 8 December 1932, in Holodomor, 465; “Vytiah iz zvitu DPU USRR pro borot'- bu z teroryzmom,” January 1933, in Holodomor, 631.

34 “Z shchodennyka vchytel'ky O. Radchenko,” in Holodomor, 1022, 1024-35.

35 “Postanova Politbiuro TsK VKP(b) pro vidpusk zerna Dnipropetro- vs'kii oblasti,” 7 February 1933, in Holodomor, 663; “Postanova Politbiuro TsK VKP(b) pro vidpusk zerna Odes'kii oblasti,” 7 February 1933, in Holodomor, 663; “Postanova TsK KP(b)U pro stan khlibopostachannia Donbasu,” 17 Feb­ruary 1933, in Holodomor, 689-90.

36 “Dovidka DPU USRR,” 12 March 1933, in Holodomor, 756; “ Vidomosti TsK KP(b)U pro vydilennia prodovol'choi dopomohy,” on or after 27 March 1933, in Holodomor, 795.

37 “Zapyska Narkomzemu USRR TsK KP(b)U,” 14 March 1933, in Ho­lodomor, 765.

38 “Postanova Politbiuro TsK KP(b)U pro zakhody, spriamovani na podolannia holodu v Kyivs'kii oblasti,” 17 March 1933, in Holodomor, 775-78; Oleh Wolowyna, “Seasonal Distribution of 1932-34 Famine Loss­es in Ukraine” (paper presented at the international conference “Holod

v Ukraini u pershii polovyni XX stolittia: prychyny i naslidky,” Kyiv, 20-21 November 2013).

39 In early 1933, the rural population of Ukraine was 23.9 million. Of that number, Kyiv Oblast accounted for 4.95 million; Kharkiv, 4.76; Vinnytsia, 4.10; Dnipropetrovsk, 2.82; Chernihiv, 2.54; Odesa, 2.29; Donetsk, 1.98; and the Moldavian Autonomous Republic, 0.52 million people.

40 “Lyst S. Kosiora i V. Chubaria do I. Stalina,” 29 May 1933, in Holodomor, 852; “Postanova Politbiuro TsK VKP(b) pro prodovol'chu pozyku Ukraini,” 30 May 1933, in Holodomor, 857-58; Wolowyna, “Seasonal Distribution.”

41 “Svodnaia vedomost' ob otpravlenii eshelonov s pereselentsami na Ukrainu,” 28 December 1933, in Holodomor, 993.

42 See Andrey Shlyakhters chapter “Borderness and Famine: Why Did Fewer People Starve to Death in Soviet Ukraine’s Western Border Districts during the Holodomor, 1932-33?” in his forthcoming University of Chicago dissertation, “Smugglers and Soviets: Contraband Trade, the Soviet Strug­gle against It, and the Making of the Soviet Border Strip, 1917-1939.” On Ukrainian peasants fleeing across the border to Poland in 1930, see Timothy Snyder, Sketchesfrom a Secret War: A Polish Artist’s Mission to Liberate Soviet Ukraine (New Haven and London, 2005), 92-95.

43 Wolowyna, “Seasonal Distribution.”

44 Uitkroft, “Pokazateli demograficheskogo krizisa,” 89-90.

45 “Vytiah iz dopovidnoi zapysky V innyts'koho obkomu partii TsK KP(b) U,” 18 March 1933, in Holodomor, 779-83.

46 “Dovidka Narkomzemu USRR,” 2 December 1932, in Holodomor, 439.

The Call of Blood

First published as “The Call of Blood: Government Propaganda and Public Response to the Soviet Entry into World War II” in LUnion sovietique et la Seconde Guerre mondiale / The Soviet Union and World War II, ed. Alain Blum, Catherine Gousseff, and Andrea Graziosi (=Cahiers du monde russe. Russie, Empire russe, URSS, Etats independants 53, nos. 2-3 (2012)).

1 Naprieme u Stalina. Tetradi (zhurnaly) zapisei litspriniatykh I. V. Stalinym (1924-1953 gg.), ed. A. A. Chernobaev (Moskva, 2008), 272-73; Dokumenty vneshneipolitiki SSSR, vol. 22, bk. 2 (Moskva, 1992), 25-28; Mykola Lytvyn and Kim Naumenko, Stalin i Zakhidna Ukralna, 1939-41 (Kyiv, 2010), 10-12; The Diary of Georgi Dimitrov, ed. Ivo Banac (New Haven, Conn., 2003), 115-16.

2 Schulenburg to the German Foreign Office, 10 September 1939, in Nazi- Soviet Relations, 1939-1941: Documents from the Archives of the German Foreign Office, ed. Raymond James Sontag and James Stuart Beddie (Washington, D.C., 1948), 91.

3 Schulenburg to the German Foreign Office, 14 September 1939, in Nazi-Soviet Relations, 92-93; Wrzesien 1939 na kresach w relacjach, ed. Czeslaw Grzelak (Warszawa, 1999), 41-42; Natalija Liebediewa, “Wrzesien 1939 r.: Polska Iiiiedzy Niemcami a Zwiazkiem Sowieckim,” in Kryzys 1939 roku w Interpretacjachpolskich i rosyjskich historykow, ed. Slawomir Debski and Michail Narinski (Warszawa, 2009), 437-75, here 447-48.

4 “O vnutrennikh prichinakh porazheniia Pol'shi,” Pravda, 14 September 1939, 1; Ribbentrop to Schulenburg, 15 September 1939, in Nazi-Soviet Rela­tions, 94.

5 Schulenburg to the German Foreign Office, 16 September 1939, in Nazi- Soviet Relations, 95.

6 “Rech' po radio predsedatelia Soveta narodnykh komissarov SSSR tov. V. M. Molotova 17 sentiabria 1939 g.,” Pravda, 18 September 1939, 1;

“Nota pravitel'stva SSSR, vruchennaia pol'skomu poslu v Moskve utrom 17 sentiabria 1939 goda,” ibid., 1; Schulenburg to the German Foreign Office, 17 September 1939, in Nazi-Soviet Relations, 96.

7 V. Kovaliuk, “Novi arkhivni dokumenty pro Narodni zbory Zakhidnoi Ukrainy (zhovten' 1939 r.),”Arkhivy Ukrainy, 1991, no. 5-6: 88; Radians'ki orhany derzhavno'ibezpeky u 1939-chervni 1941 r. Dokumenty HAD SBU Ukrainy, comp. Vasyl' Danylenko and Serhii Kokin (Kyiv, 2009), 46-49, here 48.

8 Schulenburg to the German Foreign Office, 20 September 1939, in Nazi- Soviet Relations, 101; Ribbentrop to Schulenburg, 23 September 1939, ibid., 102; Schulenburg to the German Foreign Office, 25 September 1939, ibid., 102-3.

9 On the German interest in Galicia, see Michael Jabara Carley, 1939: The Alliance That Never Was and the Coming of World War II (Chicago, 1999), 192-93.

10 A New York Times correspondent reported from Paris on 17 September: “Some people here think that Russia intends to take that part of Poland that was offered to her in the plan for settlement of Marquess Curzon of Kedleston. This went to a considerable distance west of the Soviet’s present legal border. Then, it is presumed, the Russians would declare that they had a logical basis to claim this territory on the ground that even so extreme an opponent of the Bolsheviki as Lord Curzon had been willing to concede the Soviet’s right to it.” See Harold Denny, “Paris Sees Stalin in Betrayer Role,” New York Times, 18 September 1939, 6. The London Times published a map of Poland including the Curzon Line and the new Soviet-German boundary in its issue for 18 September 1939. On the origins of the Curzon Line, see Jerzy Borzecki, The Soviet-Polish Peace of1921 and the Creation of Interwar Europe (New Haven, Conn., 2008), 79-104. On the significance of Stalin’s speech

at the Eighteenth Congress of the Communist Party, see Donald Cameron Watt, How War Came: The Immediate Origins of the Second World War (New York, 1989), 110-11.

¿¿ See Ingeborg Fleischhauer, “The Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact: The German Version,” International Affairs (Moscow) 37, no. 8 (August 1991): 114-29. For the texts of the documents signed by Ribbentrop and Molotov in the early hours of 29 September (but dated the previous day), see Nazi-Soviet Relations, ¹⁰5^-9.

12 For Stalin’s remark to Ribbentrop, see Simon Sebag Montefiore, Stalin: The Court of the Red Tsar (New York, 2003), 311. On negative reaction to the pact among the Nazi anti-Bolshevik core, see Ian Kershaw, Hitler, 1936-45: Nemesis (London, 2000), 205-6.

13 Khrushchev Remembers, introduction, commentary and notes by Edward Crankshaw; trans. and ed. Strobe Talbott (New York, 1971), 133; Viacheslav Molotov, Soviet Peace Policy: Four Speeches (London, 1941), 16. For NKVD reports on public reaction to the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact and Molotov’s speech at a session of the USSR Supreme Soviet explaining the reasons for signing, see Radians'ki orhany derzhavno'ibezpeky, 968-85.

14 “O vnutrennikh prichinakh porazheniia Pol'shi.” Cf. E. Sosnin, “Germa- no-pol'skaia voina (Obzor voennykh deistvii),” Pravda, 11 September 1939, 4.

15 “O vnutrennikh prichinakh porazheniia Pol'shi.”

16 “Russia: Dizziness from Success,” Time, 25 September 1939.

17 “Rech' po radio predsedatelia Soveta narodnykh komissarov SSSR tov.

V. M. Molotova.”

18 See Terry Martin, The Affirmative Action Empire: Nations and Nationalism in the Soviet Union, 1923-1939 (Ithaca and London, 2001), 8-9, 225-27, 292-93, 312-19, 351-52.

19 See Joseph Stalin to Lazar Kaganovich, 11 August 1932, in Stalin

i Kaganovich: Perepiska, 1931-1936, comp. Oleg Khlevniuk et al. (Moskva, 2001), no. 248; “Iz otchetnogo doklada pervogo sekretaria TsK KP(b)U N. S. Khrushcheva XIV s'ezdu KP(b)U,” in Politicheskoe rukovodstvo Ukrainy 1938-1989, comp. V. Iu. Vasil'ev, R. Iu. Podkur, Kh. Kuromiia, Iu. I. Shapoval, and A. Vainer (Moskva, 2006), 35-47.

20 “Akt vsemirno istoricheskogo znacheniia,” Pravda, 18 September 1939, 2.

21 “Krasnaia armiia neset schast'e narodu,” Pravda, 18 September 1939, 3.

22 “Red Army in Polish territory. Molotoff excuses Soviet action. Protection of ‘blood-relations.’ A stab in the back,” The Times, 18 September 1939, 6; G.

E. R. Gedye, “Soviet ‘Neutrality’ Stressed in Move. Moscow Assures Other States on Invasion—Molotoff Gives Talk to Bewildered People,” New York Times, 18 September 1939, 1.

23 Carley, 1939: The Alliance That Never Was, 216-26. On the relation between ideology and realpolitik in Stalin’s foreign policy of the period, see Amir Weiner, “Saving Private Ivan: From What, Why, and How?” Kritika 1, no. 2 (Spring 2000): 305-36, here 309-13. For research on public opinion during World War II, see Sarah Davies, Soviet Public Opinion in Stalin’s Russia: Terror, Propaganda and Dissent (Cambridge, 1997); Steven Casey, Cautious Crusade: Franklin D. Roosevelt, American Public Opinion, and the War against Nazi Germany (New York, 2001); Daniel Hucker, Public Opinion and the End of Appeasement in Britain and France (Farnham, UK, 2011).

24 On the peculiarities of Soviet secret-police reports as a historical source concerning the state of public opinion, see Davies, Soviet Public Opinion in Stalin’s Russia, 9-14.

25 See Jochen Hellbeck’s exchange with Sarah Davies in a reprint of the Kritika polemics: The Resistance Debate in Russian and Soviet History, ed. Mi­chael David-Fox (Bloomington, Ind., 2003). For a continuation of the debate, see Hiroaki Kuromiya, “How Do We Know What the People Thought under

Stalin?” in Sovetskaia vlast'—narodnaia vlast'? ed. Timo Vihavainen (Sankt- Peterburg, 2003), 1-16.

26 Radians'ki orhany derzhavno'ibezpeky, nos. 431-56, 998-1073.

27 Radians'ki orhany derzhavno'ibezpeky, 49.

28 Radians'ki orhany derzhavno'ibezpeky, 998, 1001.

29 Radians'ki orhany derzhavno'ibezpeky, 995, 1001, 1054.

30 Radians'ki orhany derzhavno'ibezpeky, 1009-11, 1015, 1049; Harvard Uni­versity, Widener Library, 'The Harvard Project on the Soviet Social System, Schedule B, vol. 6, case 193, 4.

31 Radians'ki orhany derzhavno'ibezpeky, 999.

32 See Davies, Soviet Public Opinion in Stalin’s Russia, 97-99.

33 Radians'ki orhany derzhavno'ibezpeky, 1055; Vladyslav Hrynevych and Oleksandr Lysenko, “Ukraina na pochatkovomu etapi Druhoi Svitovoi viiny,” in Ukraina:politychna istoriia, XX-pochatok XXI stolittia (Kyiv, 2007), 675.

34 Radians'ki orhany derzhavno'ibezpeky, 1012, 1018, 1021, 1032.

35 Like many others interviewed by the Harvard Project, this particular in­terviewee did not trust the Soviet media. She stated in that regard: “I read the newspapers very rarely because I knew that in the newspapers there was only Soviet propaganda.” See Harvard University, Widener Library, The Harvard Project on the Soviet Social System, Schedule A, vol. 34, case 148∕(NY) 1398, 30.

36 Radians'ki orhany derzhavno'ibezpeky, 1001, 1011, 1047, 1060.

37 G. E. R. Gedye, “Moscow Outlines Polish Partition,” New York Times,

19 September 1939, 1, 5; V. I. Vernadskii, Dnevniki, 1935-1941, ed. V.P Volkov, 2 vols. (Moskva, 2006), 2: 56, 67. On the revival of Russian national themes on the official and popular levels in the years leading up to World War II, see David Brandenberger, National Bolshevism: Stalinist Mass Culture and the Formation of Modern Russian National Identity, 1931-1956 (Cambridge, Mass., 2002), 43-114.

38 Vernadskii, Dnevniki, 1935-1941, 2: 68.

39 Radians'ki orhany derzhavno'ibezpeky, 1030.

40 Radians'ki orhany derzhavno'ibezpeky, 998-99, 1021-22.

41 Martin, Affirmative Action Empire, 9; Serhy Yekelchyk, Stalin’s Empire of Memory: Russian-Ukrainian Relations in the Soviet Historical Imagination (To­ronto, 2004), 13-62; Vladyslav Hrynevych, “Viina z HitlerivsThoiu Nimech- chynoiu (1941-1945),” in Ukraina:politychna istoriia, 736-56.

42 Jan Tomasz Gross, Revolutionfrom Abroad: The Soviet Conquest of Poland’s Western Ukraine and Western Belorussia (Princeton, N.J., 2002), 71-114, 125-43; Serhii Plokhy, Yalta: The Price of Peace (New York, 2010), 166-82; Viktor

Koval', “Borot'ba za mizhnarodne vyznannia ukrams'koho vidtynku novoho Zakhidnoho kordonu SRSR (1941-45),” in Ukraina: politychna istoriia, 814-48.

The Battlefor Eastern Europe

First published as “Stalin and Roosevelt,” Diplomatic History 42, no. 4 (Sep­tember 2018): 525-27.

³ “Foundations of Leninism” in Joseph Stalin, Works (Moscow, 1953), 6: 196.

The American Dream

This essay has not been previously published.

1 “Postanovlenie Politbiuro TsK VKP(b) “O vospreshchenii brakov mezh- du grazhdanami SSSR i inostrantsami,” 15 February 1947, Fond Aleksandra Iakovleva, http://www.alexanderyakovlev.org/fond/issues-doc/69332; “V SSSR zapreshcheny braki mezhdu sovetskimi grazhdanami i inostrantsami,” Calend. ru http://www.calend.ru/event/6932/.

2 M. M. Wolff, “Some Aspects of Marriage and Divorce Laws in Soviet Russia,” Modern Law Review 12, no. 3 (July 1949): 290-96; Mie Nakachi, “N. S. Khrushchev and the 1944 Soviet Family Law: Politics, Reproduction, and Language,” East European Politics and Societies 20, no. 1 (2006): 40-68; Norman M. Naimark, The Russians in Germany: A History of the Soviet Zone of Occupation, 1945-1949 (Cambridge, Mass., 1995); Rachel Applebaum, Empire of Friends: Soviet Power and Socialist Internationalism in Cold War Czechoslova­kia (Ithaca, N.Y., 2019), 59-63.

3 Serhii Plokhy, Forgotten Bastards of the Eastern Front: An Untold Story of World War II(London, 2019), 104-21, 176-85, 261-69.

4 “John Bazan in the 1940 Census,” http://www.archives.com/1940-census/ john-bazan-ny-58629820; “Catherine Bazan in the 1940 Census,” http://www. archives.com/1940-census/catherine-bazan-ny-58629819; “John J. Bazan— WWII Enlistment Record, Bronx County, New York,” http://wwii-army. mooseroots.com/l/3148004/John-J-Bazan; Photos ofJohn Bazan, Arkhiv Sluzhby bezpeky Ukrainy (henceforth SBU Archives), fond 13, no. 1200, after f. 288.

5 Head of Zhovkva MGB department, Major Kudriashov, to head, 2nd de­partment, Lviv MGB, Colonel Fokin, “Dokladnaia zapiska po delu-fomuliar no. 7236 na Tkachenko Zinaidu Danilovnu, podozrevaemuiu v prinalezhnosti k agenture amerikanskoi razvedki,” SBU Archives, fond 13, no. 1200, fols.

325-26; Lieutenant Colonel Reshetnikov (Poltava) to Colonel Fokin (Lviv),

25 March 1948, SBU Archives, fond 13, no. 1200, f. 321.

6 See correspondence between the Zhovkva district MGB office and MGB headquarters in Lviv and Kyiv between May 1947 and April 1948, SBU Archives, fond 13, no. 1200, fols. 308-24.

7 Major Kudriashov (Zhovkva) to Colonel Fokin (Lviv), “Dokladnaia zapiska,” after 25 June 1948, SBU Archives, fond 13, no. 1200, fols. 325-26; Colonel Fokin and head of 1st section, 2nd department, Lviv MGB director­ate, Senior Lieutenant Gorbunov, to deputy chief, 2nd department, Ministry of State Security of Ukraine, Lieutenant Colonel Kovalev, 24 November 1948, ibid., f. 335; idem to Kudriashov, 24 November 1948, ibid., f. 336.

8 “Spravka po delu-formuliar no. 897 na [Tkachenko] Zinaidu Danilovnu,” December 1952, SBU Archives, fond 13, no. 1200, fols. 296-98.

9 “Spravka po delu-formuliar no. 897 na [Tkachenko] Zinaidu Danilovnu,” December 1952; Senior operative plenipotentiary, 1st section, 2nd department, Poltava MGB directorate Lieutenant Panfilov; Chief, 1st section, 2nd depart­ment, Poltava MGB directorate Lieutenant Colonel Meshcheriakov; and Head, 2nd department, same directorate, Colonel Reshetnikov, “Spravka po delu-formuliar no. 897” to head, Poltava MGB directorate Colonel Alekseev,

3 March 1953, SBU Archives, fond 13, no. 1200, fols. 281-84.

10 “Spravka po delu-formuliar no. 897 na [Tkachenko] Zinaidu Danilovnu,” 3 March 1953; “Spravka po delu-formuliar no. 897 na [Tkachenko] Zinaidu Danilovnu,” December 1952; Senior operative plenipotentiary, 1st section, 1st department, Poltava MGB directorate Lieutenant Kal'nitskii; Chief, 1st sec­tion Lieutenant Colonel Meshecheriakov, and Head, 2nd department Colonel Reshetnikov, “Zadanie agentu 1-go upravleniia MVD USSR ‘Kareninoi,’” July 1953, SBU Archives, fond 13, no. 1200, fols. 290-91.

¿¿ “Spravka po delu-formuliar no. 897 na [Tkachenko] Zinaidu Danilovnu,” 3 March 1953; “Spravka po delu-formuliar no. 897 na [Tkachenko] Zinaidu Danilovnu,” December 1952; Lieutenant Colonel Meshcheriakov and Colonel Reshetnikov, approved by Colonel Alekseev, October 1952, “Plan vvoda v razrabotku Tkachenko Zinaidy Danilovny agenta ‘Nikolaeva,’” SBU Archives, fond 13, no. 1200, fols. 302-3; Meshcheriakov, Reshetnikov and Alekseev, “Za- danie Nikolaevu,” October 1952, ibid., f. 304; “Zadanie Nikolaevu,” October 4, 1952, ibid., f. 306.

12 Joshua Rubenstein, The Last Days of Stalin (New Haven and London, 2016).

13 “Spravka po delu-formuliar no. 897 na [Tkachenko] Zinaidu Danilovnu,” 3 March 1953, SBU Archives, fond 13, no. 1200, fols. 281-84.

14 Panfilov, Meshcheriakov, and Reshetnikov, “Plan verbovki Tkachenko Zinaidy Danilovny,” approved by Colonel Akopov, head, Poltava MGB direc­torate, on 3 March 1953, SBU Archives, fond 13, no. 1200, f. 285; “Plan doprosa Tkachenko Zinaidy Danilovny,” 3 March 1953, ibid., fols. 286-88.

15 Montefiore, Stalin, 651.

16 “Zadanie agentu 1-go upravleniia MVD USSR ‘Kareninoi,’” July 1953, SBU Archives, fond 13, no. 1200, fols. 290-91.

17 Senior plenipotentiary, 1st section, 2nd department, Poltava KGB directorate Lieutenant Kal'nitskii; Head, 1st section, Lieutenant Colonel Lukinykh; Head, 2nd department, Colonel Kolikov, “Zakliuchenie o sdache dela-formuliara v arkhiv,” 22 September 1954, approved on 23 September 1954 by Major Klochko, head, Poltava directorate, KGB of the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic, SBU Archives, fond 13, no. 1200, fols. 342-44.

18 “Ukaz Prezidiuma VS SSSR ot 26.11.1953 ‘Ob otmene Ukaza Prezidiuma Verkhovnogo Soveta SSSR ot 15 fevralia 1947 goda ‘O vospreshchenii brakov mezhdu grazhdanami SSSR i inostrantsami’,” http://bestpravo.com/sssr/ eh-dokumenty∕j3n.htm; John Bazan f70 (1911-1981), https://www.sysoon. com/deceased/john-bazan-35.

The Soviet Collapse

First published as “The Soviet Union Is Still Collapsing,” For­

eign Policy, 22 December 2016, https://foreignpolicy.com/2016/12/22/ the-unlearned-lessons-from-the-collapse-of-the-soviet-union/.

Chornobyl

Originally published in Spanish in the March/April 2016 issue of Politica Exterior, under the title “La lapida del imperio temerario.”

Truth in Our Times

This essay is based on the Baillie Gifford Prize lecture delivered at the Edinburgh International Book Festival on 14 August 2019. It first appeared as a pamphlet published by the Edinburgh Book Festival, Chernobyl: Truth in Our Times (Edinburgh, 2019).

³ Serhii Plokhy, Chernobyl: The History of a Nuclear Catastrophe (New York, 2018). The British edition appeared under the title Chernobyl: History of a Tragedy (London, 2018).

The Empire Strikes Back

First published as “The Return of the Empire: The Ukraine Crisis in Histori­cal Perspective,” South Central Review 35, no. 1 (2018): 111-26.

1 Vladimir Putin, “Obrashchenie Prezidenta Rossiiskoi Federatsii,”

18 March 2014, http://kremlin.ru/news/20603; cf “Transcript: Putin says Rus­sia will protect the rights of Russians abroad,” Washington Post, 18 March 2015.

2 Peter Baker, “Pressure Rising as Obama Works to Rein In Russia,” New York Times, 2 March 2014; Douglas Ernst, “Bill Clinton: Putin Trying to “re-establish Russian greatness,” Washington Times, 14 May 2014; “latseniuk: Putin mriie vidrodyty SRSR,” BBC Ukraine, 20 April 2014, http://www.bbc.com/ukrainian/politics/2014/04/140420_yatsenyuk_putin_ok.

3 On the history of the disintegration of the Soviet Union, see Stephen Kotkin, Armageddon Averted: The Soviet Collapse, 1970-2000 (New York, 2008), and my The Last Empire: The Final Days of the Soviet Union (New York, 2014).

4 On Ukraine in the 1990s, see Alexander J. Motyl, Dilemmas of Inde­pendence: Ukraine after Totalitarianism (Washington, D.C., 1993); Bohdan Harasymiw, Post- Communist Ukraine (Edmonton and Toronto, 2002).

5 On the Orange Revolution, see Andrew Wilson, Ukraine’s Orange Rev­olution (New Haven and London, 2006); Democratic Revolution in Ukraine: From Kuchmagate to Orange Revolution, ed. Taras Kuzio (London and New York, 2013).

6 Oleksandr Zinchenko, “Shchodennyk Maidanu. Pro shcho my todi dumaly,” Istorychna pravda, 17 February 2015, http://www.istpravda.com.ua/ articles/2015/02/17/147354/. Unless otherwise indicated, all translations from the Russian and Ukrainian are mine.

7 For an overview of events on the Maidan, Kyiv's Independence Square, from November 2013 to February 2014, see Andrew Wilson, Ukraine Crisis: What It Meansfor the West (New Haven and London, 2014), chapters 4 and 5.

8 “Putin rasskazal, kak prinimalos' reshenie o vozvrashchenii Kryma,” NTV, http://www.ntv.ru/novosti/1356399/; Putin, “Obrashchenie Preziden- ta Rossiiskoi Federatsii,” 18 March 2014, http://kremlin.ru/news/20603. The Russian takeover of the Crimea is discussed in Wilson, Ukraine Crisis, chapter 6. On the prehistory of the Russian annexation of the peninsula, see Taras Kuzio, The Crimea: Europe’s Next Flashpoint? (Washington, D.C., 2011); Gwendolyn Sasse, The Crimea Question: Identity, Transition, and Conflict (Cambridge, Mass., 2014).

9 The Russian hybrid war in eastern Ukraine received extensive coverage in the rapidly growing literature on the Ukraine crisis. Apart from the book by Andrew Wilson cited above, monographic contributions to the field include Richard Sakwa, Frontline Ukraine: Crisis in the Borderlands (London, 2014), and Rajan Menon and Eugene B. Rumer, Conflict in Ukraine: 'The Unwinding of the Post- Cold War Order (Boston, 2015).

10 “Al'fred Kokh i Boris Nemtsov o realiiakh Rossii i Putina,” Krugozor, October 2014, http://www.krugozormagazine.com/show/article.237o.html. ¿¿ Philip Rucker, “Hillary Clinton says Putin’s actions are like ‘what Hitler did back in the ‘30s,’” Washington Post, 5 March 2014; Vera Mironova and Maria Snegovaya, “Putin is behaving in Ukraine like Milosevic did in Serbia. History repeats itself,” New Republic, 19 June 2014, http://www.newrepublic. com/article/118260/putin-behaving-ukraine-milosevic-did-serbia.

When Stalin Lost His Head

First published as “When Stalin Lost His Head: World War II and Memory Wars in Contemporary Ukraine,” in War and Memory in Russia, Ukraine and Belarus, ed. Julie Fedor, Markku Kangaspuro, Jussi Lassila, and Tatiana Zhur- zhenko (Cham, Switzerland, 2017), 171-88.

¿ “Komunisty khytristiu vstanovyly Stalina v Zaporizhzhi,” UkralnThka pravda, 5 May 2010, http://www.pravda.com.ua/news/2010/05/5/5010465/; “Obezholovlenyi skandal'nyi pam’iatnyk Stalinu?” UkrThThs'kapravda, 28 De­cember 2010, http://www.pravda.com.ua/news/2010/12/28/5727613/; “Vid- povidal'nist' za holovu Stalina vziala na sebe mobil'na hrupa,” Ukra'ins'ka pra­vda, 29 December 2010, http://www.pravda.com.ua/news/2010/12/29/5728631/; “U Zaporizhzhi idol Stalina znyshcheno,” http://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=RlmbIZfffNg&feature=related.

2 On the formation and history of the Stalin cult, see Adam Hochschild, The Unquiet Ghost: Was Stalinism Really Necessary? (New York, 1994); Jan Plamper, The Stalin Cult: A Study in the Alchemy of Power (New Haven and London, 2012). On the polling data, see Iurii Levada, Ot mnenii k poni- maniiu: sotsiologicheskie ocherki (Moskva, 2000), 453-59; Sarah Mendelson and Theodore Gerber, “Failing the Stalin Test,” Foreign Affairs 85, no. 1 (January- February 2006); Aleksei Levinson, “Zachem mertvyi Stalin nuzhen zhivym rossiianam,” Polit.ru, 25 March 2010, http://polit.ru/article/2010/03/25/stalin/; “Sotsiologi porassuzhdali nad zagadkoi Stalina v sviazi s godovshchinoi smer- ti—i ‘krovavyi tiran’ i ‘mudryi vozhd'’” News RU, 4 March 2013, http://www. newsru.com/russia/04mar2013/stalin.html.

3 “Petro I u reitynhu herolv Ukralny obiishov Banderu,” TSN, 28 Septem­ber 2010, http://tsn.ua/ukrayina/petro-i-stav-geroyem-ukrayini.html.

4 “U Zaporozhzhi pidirvaly pam’iatnyk Stalinu,” Ukra'ins'ka pravda,

1 January 2011, http://www.pravda.com.ua/news/2011/01/1/5740807/; “Stalin Monument Opens in Zaporizhzhia, Ukraine,” http://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=exKx46yy0NQ.

5 “Ivan Shekhovtsov. Advokat Stalina,” Vremia, 29 November 2004, http:// timeua.info/011204/shehovcov.html.

6 “Pamiatnik Stalina v Zaporozh'e. Rech' veterana VOV Shekhovtsova,” YouTube, http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_W9mfJQMOR8.

7 “Kniga otzyvov. Otkrytie pamiatnika I. V. Stalinu. Zaporozhskii obkom Kompartii Ukrainy,” 2, 4, 5, 11.

8 “U Zaporozhzhi pidirvaly pam’iatnyk Stalinu,” Ukra'ins'ka pravda, 1 Jan­uary 2011; “Pam’iatnyk Stalinu vidnovyly,” Ukra'ins'kapravda, 29 December 2010, http://www.pravda.com.ua/news/2010/12/29/5731032/.

9 “U Zaporozhzhi pidirvaly pam’iatnyk Stalinu,” Ukra'ins'ka pravda, 1 Jan­uary 2011.

10 “Vidpovidal'nist' za pidryv pam’iatnyka Stalinu vziala na sebe orhaniza- tsiia ‘Rukh Pershoho sichnia.’ Ofitsiina zaiava,” Politiko, 1 January 2011, http:// politiko.ua/blogpost50828.

¿¿ “U poshukakh terorystiv,” Halyts'kyi korespondent, http://www.gk-press. if.ua/node/4236.

12 “Petro I u reitynhu heroiv Ukrainy obiishov Banderu,” TSN, 28 Septem­ber 2010.

13 “Stepan Bandera—heroi Ukrainy,” Radio Svoboda, 23 January 2010, http:// www.radiosvoboda.org/content/article/1936818.html.

14 Iurii Lukanov, “Spasybi Banderi za pam’iatnyk Stalinu,” Livyi bereh, LB.ua, 10 May 2010, http://society.lb.ua/life/2010/05/10/43269_spasibi_ banderi_za_pamyatnik_sta.html.

15 “Cherez pidryv pam’iatnyka Stalinu KPU vymahaie zabraty heroia u Bandery,” Zaxid.net, 1 January 2011, http://zaxid.net/home/showSingleNews. do?cherez_pidriv_pamrzquoyatnika_stalinu_kpu_vimagaye_zabrati_ge- roya_u_banderi&objectId=1119893.

16 Clifford J. Levy, “Hero of Ukraine Prize to Wartime Partisan Revoked,” New York Times, 12 January 2011, A11; “EU to Ukraine’s New President: Please Reverse Honoring Nazi Collaborator,” RT, 25 February 2010, http:// rt.com/politics/eu-resolution-bandera/; “Kniga otzyvov. Otkrytie pamiatnika I. V. Stalinu. Zaporozhskii obkom Kompartii Ukrainy,” 2.

17 See articles by Kost' Bondarenko, Iaroslav Hrytsak, Mykola Riabchuk, Volodymyr Kulyk, and Andrii Portnov in Strasti za Banderoiu, comp. Tarik Syril Amar, Ihor Balyns'kyi, and Iaroslav Hrytsak (Kyiv, 2010), 321-40.

18 Iaroslav Hrytsak, “Shche raz pro Iushchenka, shche raz pro Banderu,” in Strasti za Banderoiu, 340-45; Hrytsak, “Klopoty z pam'iattiu,” ibid., 346-57.

19 See the articles by David Marples, Zenon Kohut, Timothy Snyder, Alex­ander Motyl, Per Anders Rudling, John-Paul Himka, and Moisei Fishbein in Strasti za Banderoiu, 129-309.

20 “V Zaporozh'e s drakami i skandalom otkryli novyi pamiatnik Stali-

nu,” MIG.news.com.ua, 7 November 2011, http://mignews.com.ua/ru/arti- cles∕92033.html.

21 “V Zaporozh'e Gitler voproshaet gorozhan, chem on khuzhe Stalina,

i trebuet sebe pamiatnik,” Bagnet, 6 December 2011, http://www.bagnet.org/ news/society/168114.

22 “V Zaporozh'e prodolzhaetsia bor'ba s pamiatnikom Stalinu,” Novosti,

12 January 2012, http://abzac.org/?p=12383.

23 “‘Nasha Ukraina' prizvala dobit' stalinizm i spasti ‘trizubovtsev,'” Gazeta. ua, 23 November 2011, http://gazeta.ua/ru/articles/politics/_nasha-ukraina- prizvala-ukraincev-dobit-stalinizm-i-spasti-trizubovcev/410984.

24 “Sprava Stalina zhyve, abo derzhavnyi teroryzm v Ukraini

21 stolittia,” Pohliad, 27 June 2012, http://poglyad.te.ua/podii/ sprava-stalina-zhyve-abo-derzhavnyj-teroryzm-v-ukrajini-21-stolittya/.

Goodbye Lenin!

This essay was first published online under the title “Goodbye Lenin! A Memory Shift in Revolutionary Ukraine” as part of the MAPA: Digital Atlas of Ukraine project, https://gis.huri.harvard.edu/leninfall. It appears here for the first time in print.

1 Reuters Timeline: Political crisis in Ukraine and Russia's occupation of Crimea, http://www.reuters.com/article/us-ukraine-crisis-timeline- idUSBREA270PO20140308; BBC Ukraine Crisis: Timeline, http://www.bbc. com/news/world-middle-east-26248275; Andrew Wilson, Ukraine Crisis: What It Meansfor the West (New Haven and London, 2014), 66-85.

2 “Istoriia pam'iatnyka Leninu v Kyievi,” Istorychna pravda, 9 December 2013, http://www.istpravda.com.ua/articles/2013/12/9/140323/.

3 “Na Lenini lytsia nemaie! Ukrains'ka presa u seredu,” BBC Ukraine, 1 July 2009, http://www.bbc.com/ukrainian/pressreview/story/2009/07/090701_ua_ press_1_06.shtml; “Sud otlozhil na neopredelennoe vremia srok rassmotreniia dela o razrushenii pamiatnika Leninu v Kieve,” Korrespondent, 9 April 2013.

4 “MVS povidomliaie pro 8 hospitalizovanykh militsioneriv pislia sutychky bilia pam’iatnyka Leninu,” Tyzhden.ua, 1 December 2013, http://tyzhden.ua/ News/95462.

5 Oleksandr Aronets', “Povalennia pam’iatnyka Leninu v Kyievi,” YouTube, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HVgjjvoWcX8#t=5i6; “Svobodivtsi vzialy na sebe vidpovidal'nist' za povalennia Lenina,” IPress, 8 December 2013, http://ipress.ua/news/svobodivtsi_vzyaly_na_sebe_vidpovidalnist_za_ povalenogo_lenina_35123.html; “Povalennia pam’iatnyka Leninu v Kyievi,” Wikipedia, uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ïîâàëåííÿ ïàì’ÿòíèêà Ëåí³íó â Êèºâ³.

6 “V Kieve vozveli barrikady i snesli pamiatnik Leninu,” BBC Russia,

9 December 2013, http://www.bbc.com/russian/international/2013/12/131208_ ukraine_kiev_lenin; Mariia Semenchenko, “Valentyn Syl'vestrov: chytaite Shevchenka poky ne pizno,” Den', 29 December 2013.

7 “Khronolohiia Leninopadu (2013-2014),” https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/ Õðîíîëîã³ÿ_Ëåí³íîïàäó_(2013-2014); Oleksandra Haidai, Kamianyi hist': Lenin u tsentral'nii Ukraini (Kyiv, 2016), 172-89.

8 “Khronolohiia Leninopadu (2013-2014),” https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/ Õðîíîëîã³ÿ_Ëåí³íîïàäó_(2013-2014).

9 Vitalii Chervonenko, “Rada ukhvalyla ‘dekomunizatsiinyi paket,’” BBC Ukraine, 9 April 2015, http://www.bbc.com/ukrainian/politics/2015/04/150409_ communizm_upa_vc; “Poroshenko signs laws on denouncing Communist, Nazi regimes,” Interfax-Ukraine, 16 May 2015, http://en.interfax.com.ua/ news/general/265988.html; “Khronolohiia Leninopadu (2013-2014),” https:// uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Õðîíîëîã³ÿ_Ëåí³íîïàäó_(201ç-2014); “Khro­nolohiia Leninopadu (2015),” https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Õðîíîëîã³ÿ_ Ëåí³íîïàäó_(2015); “Khronolohiia Leninopadu (2016),” https://uk.wikipedia. org/wiki/Õðîíîëîã³ÿ_Ëåí³íîïàäó_(2016); “Khronolohiia Leninopadu (2017),” https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Õðîíîëîã³ÿ_Ëåí³íîïàäó_(2017).

10 “History and Identity,” MAPA: Digital Atlas of Ukraine, http://harvard-cga.maps.arcgis.com/apps/webappviewer/index. htmUid=5c2c743e132f4b048293d3e3adc075fc.

¿¿ On Ukraine’s memory wars, see Oxana Shevel, “Memory of the Past and Visions of the Future: Remembering the Soviet Era and Its End in Ukraine,” in Twenty Years After Communism, ed. Michael Bernhard and Jan Kubik (Oxford, 2014), 146-69; Shevel, “The Politics of Memory in a Divided Society: A Comparison of Post-Franco Spain and Post-Soviet Ukraine,” Slavic Review 70, no. 1 (Spring 2011): 137-64.

12 Dominique Arel, “Language and the Politics of Ethnicity: The Case of Ukraine,” University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 1993, http:// www.ideals.illinois.edu/handle/2142/23297; Lowell W. Barrington and Erik S. Herron, “One Ukraine or Many? Regionalism in Ukraine and Its Political Consequences,” Nationalities Papers 32, no. 1 (2004): 53-86; Mykola Riab- chuk, “Ukraine: One State, Two Countries,” Transit Online 23 (2002), http:// www.eurozine.com/pdf/2002-09-16-riabchuk-en.pdf.; Gwendolyn Sasse, “The ‘New’ Ukraine: A State of Regions,” Regional & Federal Studies 11, no. 3 (2010): 69-100.

13 “Ikonohrafika. Padinnia vozhdia. Liutyi 2014,” http://incognita.day.kiev. ua/infohraphics/padinnya-vozhdya.html.

14 Haidai, Kamianyi hist', 102-32.

15 Pavlo Podobied, “Vid Leninizmu do Leninopadu,” Radio Svoboda,

30 December 2014, https://wwwradiosvoboda.org/a/26770232.html.

16 “Yanukovych: Famine of 1930s was not genocide against Ukrainians,” Kyiv Post, 27 April 2014, https://web.archive.org/web/20140724173055/http:// www.kyivpost.com/content/ukraine/yanukovych-famine-of-1930s-was-not- genocide-agains.html.

17 The decommunization laws provoked debate among Ukraine-watchers and produced a significant literature, including the following: Volodymyr Viatrovych, “Dekomunizatsiia i akademichna dyskusiia,” Krytyka, May 2015, https://krytyka.com/ua/solutions/opinions/dekomunizatsiya-i-akademichna- dyskusiya; David Marples, “Decommunisation in Ukraine: Implementation, Pros and Cons,” New Eastern Europe, 16 September 2016, http://neweaster- neurope.eu/articles-and-commentary/2126-decommunisation-in-ukraine; Oxana Shevel, “Decommunization in Post-Euromaidan Ukraine: Law and Practice,” PONARS Eurasia, January 2016, http://www.ponarseurasia.org/ memo/decommunization-post-euromaidan-ukraine-law-and-practice.

18 For lists of deputies who voted for and against the Law of Ukraine on the Condemnation of the Communist and Nazi Regimes, see the records of the Ukrainian parliament at http://w1.c1.rada.gov.ua/pls/radan_gs09/ ns_golos?g_id=1427.

19 “Prykarpattia uviishlo u knyhu rekordiv Ukrainy za kil'kistiu pam’iatny- kiv Shevchenku,” Radio Svoboda, 30 December 2014, https://www.radiosvo- boda.org/a/26769910.html; “Pam’iatnyky Stepanovi Banderi,” https://uk.wiki- pedia.org/wiki/naM%274THHKH_CTenaHOBi_BaHgepi; “P’iat' pam’iatnykiv Stepanovi Banderi, shcho naibil'she nahaduit' skul'ptury Lenina,” Gazeta.

ua, 8 December 2009, https://gazeta.ua/articles/people-and-things-journal/_ pyat-pamyatnikiv-stepanovi-banderi-scho-najbilshe-nagaduyut-skulpturi- lenina/318953.

20 “Stalo izvestno, skol'ko pamiatnikov Bandere v Ukraine,” Apostrof, 15 Oc­tober 2016, https://apostrophe.ua/news/society/2o16-1o-15/stalo-izvestno- skolko-pamyatnikov-bandere-v-ukraine-opublikovana-infografika∕742o9.

21 "Banderyzatsii nemaie—Viatrovych krytykam dekomunizatsii,” Gazeta. ua, 25 January 2017, https://gazeta.ua/articles/life/_banderizaciyi-nemaye- vyatrovich-kritikam-dekomunizaciyi/748417; “Pro ‘banderyzatsiiu’ til'ky fakty,” Volodymyr Viatrovych, Facebook post, 16 January 2017, https://www.facebook. com/volodymyr.viatrovych/posts/10208193515895091.

22 Interviews with Kyivans, 2 February 2014, University of St. Gallen University Project “Region, Nation, and Beyond: An Interdisciplinary and Transcultural Reconsideration of Ukraine.”

23 Author’s observations from his visit to the monument site on 16 Septem­ber 2017.

24 Data on the use of pedestals was collected by Viktoriya Sereda.

The Russian (Question

First published in Cossacks in Jamaica, Ukraine at the Antipodes: Essays in Honor of Marko Pavlyshyn, ed. Alessandro Achilli, Serhy Yekelchyk, and Dmytro Yesypenko (Brookline, Mass., 2020).

1 Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn, Kak nam obustroit'Rossiiu? (Paris, 1990); Solzhe­nitsyn, “Russkii vopros v kontse XX veka,” Novyi mir, 1994, no. 7; Solzheni­tsyn, Rossiia v obvale (Moskva, 1998).

2 Solzhenitsyn, Rossiia v obvale, 79.

3 “Putin Hints at Splitting Up Ukraine,” Moscow Times, 8 April 2008, www.themoscowtimes.com/news/article/putin-hints-at-splitting-up- ukraine/361701.html.

4 For an in-depth treatment of these questions, see my Lost Kingdom:

A History of Russian Nationalismfrom Ivan the Great to Vladimir Putin (Lon­don, 2017).

5 On the appropriation of the Kyivan heritage in early modern Muscovy, see “Novaia imperskaia istoriia Severnoi Evrazii,” chapter 5, ed. I. Gerasi­mov, S. Glebov, A. Kaplunovskii, M. Mogilner, and A. Semenov, Ab Imperio 2014, no. 3: 363-407; V.T Pashuto, B. N. Floria, and A. L. Khoroshkevich, Drevnerusskoe nasledie i istoricheskie sud'by vostochnogo slavianstva (Moskva, 1982); Jaroslaw Pelenski, The Contestfor the Legacy of Kievan Rus' (Boulder, Colo., 1998); Serhii Plokhy, The Origins of the Slavic Nations: Premodern Identi­ties in Russia, Ukraine and Belarus (Cambridge, 2006).

6 On the “grand strategy” of the Russian Empire, see John P. LeDonne, The Russian Empire and the World, 1700-1917: The Geopolitics of Expansion and Con­tainment (Oxford, 1997); John P. LeDonne, The Grand Strategy of the Russian Empire, 1650-1831 (Oxford, 2003).

7 On the role of Orthodoxy in Russian political culture and East European history, see Donald Ostrowski, Muscovy and the Mongols: Cross-Cultural In­fluences on the Steppe Frontier, 1304-1589 (Cambridge, 2002); Tatiana Tairova- Yakovleva, “The Role of the Religious Factor and Patriarch Nikon in the Unification of Ukraine and Muscovy,”Acta PoloniaeHistorica 110 (2014): 5-22; Barbara Skinner, The Western Front of the Eastern Church: Uniate and Orthodox Conflict in Eighteenth- Century Poland, Ukraine, Belarus, and Russia (DeKalb, Ill., 2009); Mikhail Dolbilov, Russkii krai, chuzhaia vera: EtnokonfessionaLnaia politika imperii v Litve i Belorussii pri Aleksandre II (Moskva, 2010); Nathaniel Davies, A Long Road to Church: A Contemporary History of Russian Orthodoxy, 2nd ed. (Boulder, Colo., 2003).

8 On the Synopsis and its place in Russian and Ukrainian historiography, see articles by Zenon Kohut in his Making Ukraine: Studies on Political Cul­ture, Historical Narrative, and Identity (Edmonton and Toronto, 2011).

9 On the rise of state nationalism in imperial Russia, see Hans Rogger, National Consciousness in Eighteenth-Century Russia (Cambridge, Mass., 1960); Liah Greenfeld, Nationalism: Five Roads to Modernity (Cambridge, Mass., 1992); Vera Tolz, Russia: Inventing the Nation (London and New York, 2001).

10 On the ethnic “fragmentation” of Eastern Europe in the first half of the nineteenth century, see Serhiy Bilenky, Romantic Nationalism in Eastern Europe: Russian, Polish, and Ukrainian Political Imaginations (Stanford, Calif., 2012); Vytautas Petronis, Constructing Lithuania: Ethnic Mapping in Tsarist Russia, ca. 1800-1914 (Stockholm, 2007); Steven Seegel, Mapping Europe’s Borderlands: Russian Cartography in the Age of Empire (Chicago and London, 2012); Darius Staliunas, Making Russians: Meaning and Practice of Russifica­tion in Lithuania and Belarus after 1863 (Amsterdam and New York, 2007);

P. V. Tereshkovich, Etnicheskaia istoriia Belarusi XIX-nachala XX vv v kontek- ste TsentraLno-Vostochnoi Evropy (Minsk, 2004).

¿¿ On the rise of Ukrainian political activism, see Alexei Miller, The

Ukrainian Question: The Russian Empire and Nationalism in the Nineteenth Century (Budapest and New York, 2003); Orest Pelech, “The History of the St. Cyril and Methodius Brotherhood Reexamined,” in Synopsis: A Collection of Essays in Honour of Zenon E. Kohut, ed. Serhii Plokhy and Frank Sysyn (Edmonton and Toronto, 2005), 335-44; Johannes Remy, “The Valuev Circular and Censorship of Ukrainian Publications in the Russian Empire (1863-1876): Intention and Practice,” Canadian Slavonic Papers 49, nos. 1-2 (2007): 87-110; David Saunders, “Mikhail Katkov and Mykola Kostomarov: A Note on Petr A. Valuev's Anti-Ukrainian Edict of 1863,” Harvard Ukrainian Studies 17, nos. 3-4 (1993): 365-83; Saunders, “Pan-Slavism in the Ukrainian National Movement from the 1840s to the 1870s,”Journal of Ukrainian Studies 30, no. 2 (Winter 2005): 27-50; Saunders, “Russia and Ukraine under Alexander II: Thie Valuev Edict of 1863,” International History Review 17, no. 1 (1995): 23-50.

12 On imperial policies and the rise of modern nationalism in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, see Theodore R. Weeks, Nation and State in Late Imperial Russia: Nationalism and Russification on the Western Frontier, 1863-1914 (DeKalb, Ill., 1996); Faith Hillis, Children of Rus': Right­Bank Ukraine and the Invention of a Russian Nation (Ithaca and London, 2013); D. A. Kotsiubinskii, Russkii natsionalizm v nachaleXXstoletiia: Rozhdenie

igibel' ideologii Vserossiiskogo natsional'nogo soiuza (Moskva, 2001).

13 On the nationality question in the Russian Revolution and the formation of the Soviet Union, see Richard Pipes, The Formation of the Soviet Union: Communism and Nationalism, 1917-1923, rev. ed. (Cambridge, Mass., 1997); Anna Procyk, Russian Nationalism and Ukraine: The Nationality Policy of the Volunteer Army during the Civil War (Edmonton and Toronto, 1995); Stephen Velychenko, Painting Imperialism and Nationalism Red: The Ukrainian Marxist Critique of Russian Communist Rule in Ukraine, 1918-1925 (Toronto, 2015).

14 On national communism, korenizatsiia and their impact on the develop­ment of Ukrainian and Belarusian culture, see Terry Martin, The Affirmative Action Empire: Nations and Nationalism in the Soviet Union, 1923-1939 (Ithaca and London, 2001); Terry Martin, “An Affirmative Action Empire: The Soviet Union as the Highest Form of Imperialism,” in A State of Nations: Empire and Nation-Making in the Age of Lenin and Stalin, ed. Ronald Grigor Sunny and Terry Martin (Oxford, 2001), 67-92; George Y. Shevelov, The Ukrainian Lan­guage in the First Half of the Twentieth Century (1900-1941): Its State and Status (Cambridge, Mass., 1989); Per Anders Rudling, The Rise and Fall ofBelarusian Nationalism, 1906-1931 (Pittsburgh, 2015).

15 On the “Russian Question” in the USSR, see Aleksandr Vdovin, Russkie vXXveke: fakty, sobytiia, liudi (Moskva, 2004); Francine Hirsch, Empire of Nations: Ethnographic Knowledge and the Making of the Soviet Union (Ithaca and London, 2005); Geoffrey A. Hosking, Rulers and Victims: The Russians in the Soviet Union (Cambridge, Mass., 2006).

16 Concerning the impact of World War II on Russian and Ukrainian nationalism, see David Brandenberger, National Bolshevism: Stalinist Mass Culture and the Formation of Modern Russian National Identity, 1931-1956 (Cambridge, Mass., 2002); Serhy Yekelchyk, Stalins Empire of Memory: Russian-Ukrainian Relations in the Soviet Historical Imagination (Toronto, 2014); Serhii Plokhy, “The Call of Blood: Government Propaganda and Public Response to the Soviet Entry into World War II,” Cahiers du monde russe 52, nos. 2-3 (2011): 293-320.

17 On Russian nationalism after World War II, see Yitzhak M. Brudny, Reinventing Russia: Russian Nationalism and the Soviet State, 1953-1991 (Cam­bridge, Mass., 2000); Simon Cosgrove, Russian Nationalism and the Politics of Soviet Literature: The Case of Nash Sovremennik 1981-91 (New York, 2004); John Dunlop, The Faces of Contemporary Russian Nationalism (Princeton, N.J., 1983); Nikolai Mitrokhin, Russkaiapartiia: Dvizhenie russkikh natsionalistov

v SSSR, 1953-1985 (Moskva, 2003); Roman Szporluk, Russia, Ukraine, and the Breakup of the Soviet Union (Stanford, Calif., 2001).

18 On nationalist mobilization and the fall of the USSR, see Mark

R. Beissinger, Nationalist Mobilization and the Collapse of the Soviet State (Cambridge, UK, 2002); George W. Breslauer and Catherine Dale, “Boris Yeltsin and the Invention of a Russian Nation-State,” Post-Soviet Affairs 13, no. 4 (1997): 303-32; Timothy Colton, Yeltsin: A Life (New York, 2008); David D. Laitin, Identity in Formation: The Russian-Speaking Populations in the New Abroad (Ithaca, N.Y., 1998); Serhii Plokhy, The Last Empire: The Final Days of the Soviet Union (New York, 2014).

19 On Russian nationalism and foreign policy after the Soviet collapse, see Russian Nationalism and the National Reassertion of Russia, ed. Marlene Laruelle (London and New York, 2009); Marlene Laruelle, In the Name of the Nation: Nationalism and Politics in Contemporary Russia (New York, 2009); Igor Torbakov, “Emulating Global Big Brother: The Ideology of American Empire and Its Influence on Russia's Framing of Its Policies in Post-Soviet Eurasia,” Turkish Review of Eurasian Studies 2003, no. 3: 41-72; Igor Torbakov, “A Parting of Ways? The Kremlin Leadership and Russia's New-Generation National Thinkers,” Demokratizatsiya: The Journal of Post-Soviet Democratiza­tion 23, no. 4 (Fall 2015): 427-57; Igor Torbakov, “Ukraine and Russia: Entan­gled Histories, Contested Identities, and a War of Narratives,” in Revolution and War in Contemporary Ukraine: The Challenge of Change, ed. Olga Bertelsen (Stuttgart, 2016), 89-120; Andrei P. Tsygankov, Russia’s Foreign Policy: Change and Continuity in National Identity (Lanham, Md., 2006); Andreas Umland, “Eurasian Union vs. Fascist Eurasia,” New Eastern Europe, 19 November 2015; Andrew Wilson, Ukraine Crisis: What It Meansfor the West (New Haven, Conn., 2014), 118-43.

20 On the Russo-Ukrainian War, see Andrew Wilson, Ukraine Crisis: What It Meansfor the West (New Haven, Conn., 2014); Serhy Yekelchyk, The Conflict in Ukraine: What Everyone Needs to Know (New York, 2015).

The Questfor Europe

The first version of this essay appeared as a brochure entitled Ukraine’s Quest for Europe: Borders, Cultures, Identities (Saskatoon, 2007).

1 “Comment of Roman Shpek, Representative of Ukraine to the EU, re­garding the statement of B. Ferrero-Waldner, EU Commissioner (Ukrainian Service “BBC”),” http://ukraine-eu.mfa.gov.ua/eu/en/publication/con- tent∕2094.htm.

2 See Ahto Lobjakas, “EU: Updated ‘Action Plan' for Ukraine Wards Off Talk of Membership,” Brussels, 24 January 2005, RFE/RL, http://www.rferl. org/featuresarticle/2005/0i/86C89707-i759-4DAE-8774-7FF75DAC07i0.html.

3 George Parker, “Our Rotten, Defensive Attitude to Change,” Financial Times, 15 November 2006.

4 “Stat'i o narodnoi poezii” in Vissarion Belinskii, Sobranie sochinenii, 9 vols. (Moskva, 1976-82), 4: 163-64.

5 Mykhailo Drahomanov, “The Lost Epoch: Ukrainians under the Mus­covite Tsardom, 1654-1876,” in Towards an Intellectual History of Ukraine: An Anthology of Ukrainian Thoughtfrom 1710 to 1995, ed. Ralph Lindheim and George S. N. Luckyj (Toronto, 1996), 157.

6 Ibid., 160.

7 “Novi perspektyvy” (1918) in Mykhailo Hrushevs'kyi, Naporozi novol Ukrainy: Statti i dzherel'ni materialy, ed. Lubomyr R. Wynar (Kyiv, 1992), 21-22.

8 See Mykola Khvylovy, “Pamphlets (Excerpts),” in Towards an Intellectual History of Ukraine, 276-77.

9 Quoted in Serhii Plokhy, Unmaking Imperial Russia: Mykhailo Hrushevsky and the Writing of Ukrainian History (Toronto, 2005), 244.

10 Wall Street Journal, 26 September 2005.

11 The Action Ukraine Report (Washington, D.C.), no. 575, article 13, 3 Octo­ber 2005.

12 Iurii Andrukhovych, “Evropa, moi nevrozy,” Krytyka 10, no. 5 (May 2006): 29-30.

13 See Mykola Riabchuk, “Zbii prohramy,” Krytyka 11, nos. 1-2 (January- February 2007): 2-4.

14 Viktor Yanukovych, “Ukraine's Choice: Toward Europe,” Washington Post, 5 October 2006, A33.

15 See Alexander J. Motyl, “Institutional Legacies and Systemic Transfor­mation in Eastern Europe: Ukraine, Russia and the EU.” Ukrainian version in Krytyka 9, nos. 7-8 (July-August 2005): 17.

The New Eastern Europe

First published as “The ‘New Eastern Europe': What to Do with the Histo­ries of Ukraine, Belarus, and Moldova?” East European Politics and Societies 25, no. 4 (November 2011): 763-69.

³ Tony Judt, Postwar: A History of Europe since 1945 (New York, 2006), 752-53.

Reimagining the Continent

The first version of this essay appeared under the title “The EuroRevolution: Ukraine and the New Map of Europe,” in Ukraine and Europe: Cultural En­counters and Negotiations, ed. Giovanna Brogi Bercoff, Marko Pavlyshyn, and Serhii Plokhy (Toronto, 2017), 433-48.

1 Andrew Wilson, Ukraine Crisis: What It Meansfor the West (New Haven, Conn., 2014).

2 “Romantic weekend in the heart of Europe!” http://www.klubkiev.com/ index.php/romantic-weekend; “The Center of Europe,” http://www.tripfilms. com/Travel_Video-v64305-Kiev-The_Center_of_Europe-Video-Embed.html; Kiev Studio, http://crytek.com/career/studios/overview/kiev; “Kiev Apart­ments,” http://www.facebook.com/Kiev.Apartments.Rent.

3 “Romantic weekend in the heart of Europe!” http://www.klubkiev.com/ index.php/romantic-weekend; “The Center of Europe,” http://www.tripfilms. com/Travel_Video-v64305-Kiev-The_Center_of_Europe-Video-Embed.html; Kiev Studio, http://crytek.com/career/studios/overview/kiev; “Kiev Apart­ments,” http://www.facebook.com/Kiev.Apartments.Rent.

4 Oscar Halecki, The Limits and Divisions ofEuropean History (New York, 1950); Milan Kundera, “The Tragedy of Central Europe,” New York Review of Books 31, no. 7 (26 April 1984): 33-38.

5 Friedrich Naumann, Mitteleuropa (Berlin, 1915); Peter Bugge, “The Na­tion Supreme: The Idea of Europe, 1914-45” in Pim den Boer et al., The History of the Idea of Europe (London, 1993), 60-70; Bo Strath, “Mitteleuropa from List to Naumann,” European Journal of Social Theory 11 (May 2008): 171-83.

6 See the official portal of the Visegrad group at http://www.visegradgroup. eu/main.php. On the origins of civilizational bias in Western treatment of Eastern Europe, see Larry Wolff, Inventing Eastern Europe: The Map of Civili­zation on the Mind of the Enlightenment (Stanford, Calif., 1994).

7 On the treaty of Brest-Litovsk, which brought German and Austro- Hungarian troops to Ukraine, see John Wheeler-Bennett, Brest-Litovsk : The Forgotten Peace, March 1918 (London, 1938; repr. New York, 1971). On the German and Austro-Hungarian visions of Ukrainian statehood, see Mark von Hagen, War in a European Borderland: Occupations and Occupation Plans in Galicia and Ukraine, 1914-1918 (Seattle, 2007); Timothy Snyder, The Red Prince: The Secret Lives of a Habsburg Archduke (New York, 2008), 99-120.

8 On the “Russian revolution” in European cartography, see Vera Tolz, Russia: Inventing the Nation (New York, 2001), 155-61.

9 N. Gardner, “Pivotal Points: Defining Europe's Centre,” Hidden Europe 5 (November 2005): 20-21; “Dilove. The Center of Europe,” http://www.castles. com.ua/dilove.html.

10 Fragments d’Europe—Atlas de lEurope mediane et orientale, ed. Michel Foucher (Paris, 1998), 55, 60.

¿¿ Samuel P. Huntington, The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of World Order (New York, 1996), 157. On the establishment of the Uniate (Greek Catholic) Church, see Borys Gudziak, Crisis and Reform: The Kyivan Metro­politanate, the Patriarchate of Constantinople and the Genesis of the Union ofBrest (Cambridge, Mass., 2001).

12 On the liquidation of the Greek Catholic Church, see Bohdan R. Bo- ciurkiw, The Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church and the Soviet State, 1939-1950 (Edmonton, 1996).

13 See articles on the website of the EU-sponsored program “Rights of Refugees and Migrants in Ukraine,” http://www.migration.org.ua/english/ index.html.

14 Cynthia Kroet, “EU approves visa-free travel for Ukrainians,” Politico,

11 May 2017, http://www.politico.eu/article/eu-approves-visa-free-travel-

for-ukrainians/; “V ES khotiat 53% ukraintsev, v Tamozhennyi Soiz—28%,” 24kanal, 5 April 2014, http://24tv.ua/news/showNews.do/v_es_hotyat_53_ ukraintsev_v_tamozhenniy_ soyuz 28&objectId=429597&lang=ru;

Katie Simmons, Bruce Stokes, and Jacob Poushter, “Ukrainian Public Opinion: Dissatisfied with Current Conditions, Looking for an End to the Crisis,” Pew Research Center, 10 June 2015, http://www.pewglobal. org/2015/06/10/3-ukrainian-public-opinion-dissatisfied-with-current- conditionslooking- for-an-end-to-the-crisis/.

15 Anastasiia Zanuda, “Shcho dumaiut' ievropeitsi pro Ukrainu ta ¿¿ vstup v leS,” BBC Ukraine, 24 June 2015, http://www.bbc.com/ukrainian/ politics/20i5/o6/i5o624_europeans_ukraine_az.